Selected Title s i n Thi s Serie s

7 Dmitr i Fomin, Sergey Genkin, and Ilia Itenberg, Mathematica l circle s (Russia n experience) ,
1996
6 Davi d W . Farme r an d Theodor e B . Stanford , Knot s an d surfaces : A guid e t o discoverin g
mathematics, 1 99 6
5 Davi d W . Farmer , Group s an d symmetry : A guid e t o discoverin g mathematics , 1 99 6
4 V . V . Prasolov , Intuitiv e topology , 1 99 5
3 L . E. Sadovski ï an d A. L . Sadovskiï, Mathematic s an d sports , 1 99 3
2 Yu . A . Shashkin , Fixe d points , 1 99 1
1 V . M . Tikhomirov , Storie s abou t maxim a an d minima , 1 99 0
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 http://dx.doi.org/10.1090/mawrld/007

Mathematical World • Volume 7

Mathematical Circles
(Russian Experience)
 C. A . T E H K H H , H . B . H T E H B E P r , ü . B . # O M H H

MATEMATH^ECKMH KPY>KO K
C A H K T - n E T E P B y p r 1 992 , 1 99 3

T r a n s l a t e d fro m t h e Russia n b y M a r k Sau l

2000 Mathematics Subject Classification. Primar y 00A08 ; Secondar y 00A07 .

ABSTRACT. Thi s boo k i s intende d fo r student s an d teacher s wh o lov e mathematic s an d wan t t o

study it s various branches beyon d th e limit s of school curriculum . I t i s also a book of mathematica l
recreations, an d a t th e sam e tim e a boo k containin g vas t theoretica l an d proble m materia l i n som e
areas o f wha t author s conside r t o b e "extracurricula r mathematics" . Th e boo k i s base d o n a n
experience gaine d b y severa l generation s o f Russia n educator s an d scholars .

Library o f Congres s Cataloging-in-Publicatio n D a t a

Genkin, S . A . (Serge ï Aleksandrovich )
[Matematicheskiï kruzhok . English ]
Mathematical circle s : (Russia n experience ) / Dmitr i Fomin , Serge y Genkin , Ili a Itenberg ;
translated fro m th e Russia n b y Mar k Saul .
p. cm . — (Mathematica l world , ISS N 1 055-9426 ; v . 7 )
On Russia n ed. , Genkin' s nam e appear s first o n t.p .
Includes bibliographica l reference s (p . - ) .
ISBN 0-821 8-0430- 8 (alk . paper )
1. Mathematica l recreations . I . Fomin , D . V . (Dmitri ï Vladimirovich ) II . Itenberg , I . V .
(Il'ia Vladimirovich ) III . Title . IV . Series .
QA95.G38131 99 6
510'.76—<lc20 96- 768 3
CIP

C o p y i n g a n d r e p r i n t i n g . Individua l reader s o f thi s publication , an d nonprofi t librarie s actin g

for them , ar e permitte d t o mak e fai r us e o f th e material , suc h a s t o cop y a chapte r fo r us e
in teachin g o r research . Permissio n i s grante d t o quot e brie f passage s fro m thi s publicatio n i n
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Republication, systemati c copying , o r multipl e reproductio n o f any materia l i n thi s publicatio n
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Requests fo r suc h permissio n shoul d b e addresse d t o th e Assistan t t o th e Publisher , America n
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© Copyrigh t 1 99 6 b y th e America n Mathematica l Society .

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The America n Mathematica l Societ y retain s ai i right s
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10 9 8 7 1
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 Contents

Foreword vi i
Preface t o th e Russia n Editio n i x
Part I . Th e Firs t Yea r o f Educatio n
Chapter 0 . Chapte r Zer o
Chapter 1 . Parit y 5
1
Chapter 2 . Combinatorics- 1 1
Chapter1
3 . Divisibilit y an d Remainder s 9
Chapter 4 . Th e Pigeo n Hol e Principl e 3 1
Chapter 5 . Graphs- 1 3 9

Chapter 6 . Th e Triangl e Inequalit y 5 1

Chapter 7 . Game s 5 7
Chapter 8 . Problem s fo r th e Firs t Yea r 6 5
Part II . Th e Secon d Yea r o f Educatio n
Chapter 9 . Inductio n (b y I . S . Rubanov ) 7 7
Chapter 1 0 . Divisibility-2 : Congruenc e an d Diophantin e Equation s 9 5

1
Chapter 1 1 . Combinatorics- 2 0 7

Chapter 1 2 . Invariant s 2 3
Chapter 1 3 . Graphs- 2 3 5
Chapter 1 4 . Geometr y 5 3
1
Chapter 1 5 . Numbe r Base s 6 7
Chapter 1 6 . Inequalitie s 7 5
Chapter 1 7 . Problem
1 s fo r th e Secon d Yea r 8 7
 CONTENTS

Appendix A . Mathematica l Contest s 20 1

Appendix
1 B . Answers , Hints , Solution s 2 1
Appendix C . Reference s 26 9
 Foreword

This i s not a textbook . I t i s not a contes t booklet . I t i s not a se t o f lessons fo r

classroom instruction . I t doe s no t giv e a serie s of project s fo r students , no r doe s i t
offer a developmen t o f part s o f mathematic s fo r self-instruction .
So wha t kin d o f boo k i s this ? I t i s a boo k produce d b y a remarkabl e cul -
tural eireumstanee , whic h fostere d th e creatio n o f groups o f students, teachers , an d
mathematicians, calle d mathematical circles , in the former Sovie t Union. I t i s pred-
icated o n the ide a that studyin g mathematic s ca n generat e th e sam e enthusias m a s
playing a tea m sport , withou t necessaril y bein g competitive .
Thus i t i s more like a boo k of mathematical recreations—excep t tha t i t i s more
serious. Writte n b y research mathematician s holdin g universit y appointments , i t i s
the resul t o f thes e sam e mathematicians ' year s o f experienc e wit h group s o f hig h
school students . Th e sequence s o f problem s ar e structure d s o tha t virtuall y an y
student ca n tackle the first fe w examples. Ye t the same principles of problem solving
developed i n th e earl y stage s mak e possibl e th e solutio n o f extremel y challengin g
problems late r on . I n between , ther e ar e problem s fo r ever y leve l o f interes t o r
ability.
The mathematical circle s of the former Sovie t Union , an d particularl y o f Lenin-
grad (no w St. Petersburg , wher e these problems were developed) ar e quite differen t
from mos t mat h club s i n the Unite d States . Typically , the y wer e run no t b y teach -
ers, bu t b y graduat e student s o r facult y member s a t a university , wh o considere d
it par t o f thei r professiona l dut y t o sho w younge r student s th e joy s o f mathemat -
ics. Student s ofte n me t fa r int o th e night , an d wen t o n weeken d trip s o r summe r
retreats together , achievin g a closeness an d mutua l suppor t usuall y reserve d i n ou r
country fo r member s o f athleti c teams .
We are fortunate t o be living in a time when Russians an d American s can easily
communicate an d shar e thei r cultures . Th e developmen t o f mathematics educatio n
is a n aspec t o f Russia n cultur e fro m whic h w e hav e muc h t o learn . I t i s stil l ver y
rare to find research mathematician s i n America willing to devote time, energy, an d
thought t o th e developmen t o f material s fo r hig h schoo l students .
So we must borro w fro m ou r Russia n colleagues . Th e present boo k i s the resul t
of such borrowings. Som e chapters, such as the one on the triangle inequality, can be
used directl y i n America n classrooms , t o supplemen t th e developmen t i n th e usua l
textbooks. Others , suc h a s th e discussio n o f grap h theory , stretc h th e curriculu m
with gem s of mathematics whic h ar e not usuall y touche d o n i n th e classroom . Stil l
others, such as the chapter o n games, offer a rich source of extra-curricular material s
with mor e structur e an d meanin g tha n many .
Each chapte r give s example s o f mathematica l method s i n som e o f thei r bares t
forms. A game o f nim , whic h ca n b e enjoye d an d eve n analyze d b y a thir d grader ,

vii
viii F O R E W O R D

turns ou t t o b e th e sam e a s a gam e playe d wit h a singl e paw n o n a chessboard .

This become s a lesso n fo r sevent h grader s i n restatin g problems , the n offer s a n
introduction t o th e natur e o f isomorphism fo r th e hig h schoo l student . Th e Pigeo n
Hole Principle , amon g th e simples t ye t mos t profoun d mathematic s ha s t o offer ,
becomes a too i fo r proo f i n numbe r theor y an d geometry .
Yet th e ton e o f the wor k remain s light . Th e chapte r o n combinatoric s doe s no t
require a n understandin g o f generatin g function s o r mathematica l induction . Th e
problems i n grap h theory , too , remai n o n th e surfac e o f thi s importan t branc h o f
mathematics. Th e approac h t o eac h topi c lend s itsel f t o min d play , no t weight y
reflection. An d ye t th e wor k manage s t o strik e som e dee p notes .
It i s thi s qualit y o f th e wor k whic h th e mathematician s o f th e forme r Sovie t
Union develope d t o a hig h art . Th e expositio n o f mathematics , an d no t jus t it s
development, becam e a par t o f th e Russia n mathematician' s work . Thi s boo k i s
thus par t o f a literar y genr e whic h remain s largel y undevelope d i n th e Englis h
language.
Mark Saul , Ph.D .
Bronxville School s
Bronxville, Ne w Yor k
 Preface t o th e Russia n Editio n

§1. Introductio n
This boo k wa s originall y writte n t o hel p peopl e i n th e forme r Sovie t Unio n
who dealt wit h extracurricula r mathematica l education : schoo l teachers, universit y
professors participatin g i n mathematica l educatio n programs , variou s enthusiast s
running mathematica l circles , o r peopl e wh o just wante d t o rea d somethin g bot h
mathematical an d recreational . And , certainly , student s ca n als o us e thi s boo k
independently.
Another reaso n fo r writin g thi s boo k wa s tha t w e considere d i t necessar y t o
record th e rol e playe d b y th e tradition s o f mathematica l educatio n i n Leningra d
(now St. Petersburg) ove r the last 6 0 years. Thoug h ou r city was, indeed, th e cradl e
of th e olympia d movemen t i n th e USS R (havin g see n th e ver y firs t mathematica l
seminars fo r student s i n 1 931 -32 , an d th e first cit y olympia d i n 1 934) , an d stil l
remains on e o f th e leader s i n thi s particula r area , it s hug e educationa l experienc e
has no t bee n adequatel y recorde d fo r th e intereste d readers .
* * *

In spit e o f th e stylisti c variet y o f thi s book' s material , i t i s methodologicall y

homogeneous. Her e we have, we believe, all the basic topics for session s of a mathe -
matical circle for the first tw o years of extracurricular educatio n (approximately , fo r
students o f age 1 2-1 4) . Ou r mai n objectiv e wa s to make the preparatio n o f sessions
and th e gatherin g o f problem s easie r fo r th e teache r (o r an y enthusias t willin g t o
spend tim e wit h children , teachin g the m non-standar d mathematics) . W e wante d
to talk abou t mathematica l idea s which ar e important fo r students , an d abou t ho w
to dra w th e students ' atten t ion t o thes e ideas .
We mus t emphasiz e tha t th e wor k o f preparin g an d leadin g a sessio n i s itsel f
a creativ e process . Therefore , i t woul d b e unwis e t o follo w ou r recommendation s
blindly. However , w e hop e tha t you r wor k wit h thi s boo k wil l provid e yo u wit h
material fo r mos t o f you r sessions . Th e followin g us e o f thi s boo k seem s t o b e
natural: whil e workin g on a specifi c topi c th e teache r read s an d analyze s a chapte r
from th e book, an d afte r tha t begin s to construc t a sketch of the session . Certainly ,
some adjustment s will hav e t o b e mad e becaus e o f th e leve l o f a give n grou p o f
students. A s supplementar y source s o f problem s w e recommen d [1 3 , 1 6 , 24 , 3 1 ,
33], an d [40] .
* * *

We woul d lik e t o mentio n tw o significan t point s o f th e Leningra d traditio n o f

extracurricular mathematica l educationa l activity :
ix
x PREFAC E T O T H E RUSSIA N E D I T I O N

(1) Session s featur e vivid , spontaneou s communicatio n betwee n student s an d

teachers, i n whic h eac h studen t i s treated individually , i f possible .
(2) Th e proces s begin s a t a rather earl y age : usuall y durin g th e 6t h grad e (ag e
11-12), an d sometime s eve n earlier .
This boo k wa s written a s a guid e especiall y fo r secondar y schoo l student s an d
for thei r teachers . Th e ag e o f th e student s wil l undoubtedl y influenc e th e styl e o f
the sessions . Thus , a fe w suggestions :
A) W e consider i t wron g to hol d a long session for younge r student s devote d t o
only on e topic . W e believe tha t i t i s helpfu l t o chang e th e directio n o f th e activit y
even withi n on e session .
B) I t i s necessar y t o kee p goin g bac k t o materia l alread y covered . On e ca n
do thi s b y usin g problem s fro m olympiad s an d othe r mathematica l contest s (se e
Appendix A) .
C) I n discussin g a topic , tr y t o emphasiz e a fe w o f th e mos t basi c landmark s
and obtai n a complet e understandin g (no t jus t memorization! ) o f thes e fact s an d
ideas.
D) W e recommen d constan t us e o f non-standar d an d "gamelike " activitie s i n
the sessions , wit h complet e discussio n o f solution s an d proofs . I t i s important als o
to us e recreational problem s an d mathematica l jokes. Thes e ca n b e foun d i n [5—7,
16-18, 26-30] .
We must mentio n her e our predecessors—thos e wh o have tried earlie r t o creat e
a sor t o f antholog y fo r Leningra d mathematica l circles . Thei r book s [32 ] an d [43] ,
unfortunately, di d no t reac h a larg e numbe r o f reader s intereste d i n mathematic s
education i n secondar y school .
In 1 990-9 1 the original version of the first par t o f our book was published b y th e
Academy o f Pedagogical Science s of USSR a s a collection o f articles [21 ] written b y
a numbe r o f authors. W e would lik e to than k al l our colleague s whos e materials w e
used whe n workin g o n th e preparatio n o f th e presen t book : Deni s G . Benua , Igo r
B. Zhukov , Ole g A . Ivanov , Alexe y L . Kirichenko , Konstanti n P . Kokhas , Nikit a
Yu. Netsvetaev , an d Ann a G . Prolova .
We als o expres s ou r sincer e gratitud e t o Igo r S . Rubanov , whos e pape r o n in -
duction written especially for the second part o f the book [21 ] (bu t neve r published ,
unfortunately) i s included her e a s th e chapte r "Induction" .
Our specia l thank s g o t o Alexe y Kirichenk o whos e hel p i n th e earl y stage s o f
writing thi s boo k canno t b e overestimated . W e woul d als o lik e t o than k Ann a
Nikolaeva fo r drawin g th e figures.

§2. S t r u c t u r e o f t h e b o o k
The boo k consist s o f this preface , tw o main parts , Appendi x A "Mathematica l
Contests", Appendix B "Answers , Hints, Solutions", an d Appendi x C "References" .
The firs t par t ("Th e Firs t Yea r o f Education") begin s wit h Chapte r Zero , eon -
sisting o f tes t question s intende d mostl y fo r student s o f age s 1 0-1 1 . Th e problem s
of this chapte r hav e virtually n o mathematical content , an d thei r mai n objectiv e i s
to reveal the abilitie s o f the student s i n mathematics an d logic . Th e rest o f the first
part i s divide d int o 8 chapters . Th e first seve n o f thes e ar e devote d t o particula r
topics, an d th e eight h ("Problem s fo r th e first year" ) i s simpl y a compilatio n o f
problems o n a variet y o f themes .
 P R E F A C E T O T H E RUSSIA N E D I T I O N x i

The second par t ("Th e Secon d Year of Education") consist s of 9 chapters, som e
of whic h jus t continu e th e discussio n i n th e firs t par t (fo r example , th e chapter s
"Graphs-2" an d "Combinatorics-2") . Othe r chapter s ar e comprise d o f materia l
considered t o b e to o complicate d fo r th e firs t year : "Invariants" , "Induction" , "In -
equalities".
Appendix A tell s abou t five mai n type s o f mathematica l contest s popula r i n
the forme r Sovie t Union . Thes e contest s ca n b e hel d a t session s o f mathematica l
circles o r use d t o organiz e contest s betwee n differen t circle s o r eve n schools .
Advice t o th e teache r i s usuall y give n unde r th e remar k labelle d "Fo r teach -
ers" . Rar e occasion s o f "Methodologiea l remarks " contai n mostl y reeommen -
dations about th e methodology o f problem solving: the y draw attentio n t o the basi c
patterns o f proof s o r method s o f recognizin g an d classifyin g problems .

§3. Technicalitie s an d legen d

(1) Th e mos t difflcul t problem s ar e marke d wit h a n asteris k (*) .
(2) Almos t al l o f th e problem s ar e commente d o n i n Appendi x B : eithe r a
full solutio n o r a t leas t a hin t an d answer . I f a proble m i s computational , the n
we usuall y provid e onl y a n answer . W e d o no t giv e th e solution s t o problem s fo r
independent solutio n (this , i n particular , goe s fo r al l th e problem s fro m Chapter s
8 an d 1 7) .
(3) All the references ca n be found a t th e end of the book in the list of references .
The book s w e recommend mos t ar e marke d wit h a n asterisk .
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