Utilization of Cold Energy in Intermediate Fluid-type

Vaporizer (IFV) for LNG Receiving Terminals

Tomohiro SUZUKI＊1・Shinji EGASHIRA＊1・Yuji SUMIDA＊2
*1
Static Equipment Department, Industrial Machinery Division, Machinery Business
*2
Industrial Machinery Plant, Industrial Machinery Division, Machinery Business

Abstract 1. Trends of primary LNG-receiving terminals

Intermediate fluid-type vaporizers (IFVs), a type 1.1 Diversification of areas

of LNG vaporizers, have been used as vaporizers that
enable the utilization of the cold energy of LNG in, for LNG was formerly received by onshore LNG
example, cryogenic power generation. Recently, there receiving terminals in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan,
is an increasing number of cold energy utilization former Western European countries, and China.
projects using chilled water from an IFV for, e.g., the LNG recipient countries, however, have diversified
intake air cooling of gas turbines. This paper introduces with increasing demand, as a result of the recent
the latest trends in LNG receiving terminals including shale gas revolution in the United States and global
offshore receiving terminals, the features of IFVs as LNG efforts toward CO2 reduction to prevent global
vaporizers for cold energy utilization, and examples of warming, which has increased gas thermal power
cold energy utilization using IFV including gas-turbine- generation. In recent years the LNG receiving areas
intake air cooling. have the following characteristics.
・ An increase in the construction of LNG
Introduction receiving terminals in countries that had
not previously received LNG, including the
The demand for natural gas, a clean fuel, Middle East and Latin America areas.
is increasing globally. Since many natural gas ・ An increase in construction plans for LNG
consumption areas, including Japan, are located receiving terminals in Southeast Asian
far from gas producing areas, natural gas is once countries such as the Philippines and
transported as liquefied natural gas (hereinafter Myanmar, which used to produce and
referred to as LNG) in the cryogenic state consume natural gas domestically.
(approximately -160 ℃). In consumption areas, LNG
is reheated to the ambient temperature and gasified 1.2 Diversification in form of LNG receiving terminals
to be used as power generation fuel and city gas.
As a leading manufacturer, Kobe Steel has Conventionally, LNG receiving terminals were
delivered many LNG vaporizers in Japan and other constructed onshore in coastal areas, and seawater
countries. In recent years, there are increasing was mainly used as a heat source for vaporizing
inquiries from regions other than the ones for LNG and raising it to the ambient temperature. In
which the company has delivery records, as well addition, the heat of combustion has been used
as inquiries for projects aiming at the effective in cold areas and seasons when the seawater
utilization of LNG cold energy. temperature is low. Meanwhile, in countries
LNG is transported by sea from gas producing other than traditional LNG importing countries
areas on large LNG carriers and is unloaded from such as Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, offshore
LNG receiving terminals in each consumption area. receiving terminals have started to be built in place
The LNG receiving terminals are classified into of the conventional onshore receiving terminals
primary receiving terminals and secondary receiving for the purpose of the prompt introduction of LNG
terminals (satellite terminals). Primary receiving receiving terminals and reduction of construction
terminals are the first facilities to receive the marine- cost. In addition, the number of offshore terminals
transported LNG. Secondary receiving terminals are is gradually increasing in countries that have newly
facilities that regasify the LNG land-transported by started receiving LNG.
lorries and the like. These offshore LNG receiving terminals take the
This paper outlines the latest trends of primary following two forms.
receiving terminals and the effective utilization of (1) A Floating Storage Re-gasification Unit
LNG cold energy using intermediate fluid-type (hereinafter referred to as "FSRU")
vaporizers (hereinafter referred to as "IFVs") adopted (2) A Floating Storage Unit + Re-gasification Unit
in these primary receiving terminals. (hereinafter referred to as "FSU +Re-gas")

KOBELCO TECHNOLOGY REVIEW NO. 39 NOV. 2021 6

 Many LNG receiving terminals in the above the construction period and to reduce the
forms have been introduced in developing countries, construction cost.
and as of 2019, twenty-seven FSRU terminals ・ Since the terminal itself is a ship, it can be
are already in operation. This indicates that moved by ship and used in other places in the
FSRUs account for approximately 10% of the gas future.
vaporization capacity, including that of the onshore ・ An offshore terminal restricts the utilization
LNG receiving terminals. As for FSU + Re-gas, three of LNG cold energy to shipboard. There is,
terminals are in operation, and one terminal is to however, no utilization application on board
begin operation shortly.1) so far, and no LNG cold energy has been
utilized effectively.
1.2.1 FSRU The main LNG vaporization processes in current
FSRUs occurs in shell-and-tube type vaporizers.
An FSRU is a form of terminal in which an LNG This type of vaporizer uses ethylene glycol water
carrier equipped with vaporization equipment is warmed by the heat of seawater to exchange heat
moored offshore and is used as an LNG receiving with LNG, and many terminals employ this type of
terminal. One terminal that has adopted IFV as LNG vaporizer.
its LNG vaporizer, there is an FSRU that is run
by OLT (Offshore LNG Toscana) off the coast of 1.2.2 FSU + Re-gas
Livorno, Tuscany, Italy. Fig. 1 shows the appearance
of the FSRU and the appearance of three IFV units An FSU + Re-gas is a form of terminal in which
mounted as LNG vaporizers. FSRUs have the the regasification equipment in FSRU is built
following three features. onshore or on a fixed platform to be used as an LNG
・ In addition to the fact that, unlike onshore receiving terminal. One terminal in the form of FSU
terminals, no civil engineering work is + Re-gas whose IFV is adapted as an LNG vaporizer
necessary, there is no need for the onshore is a gas turbine combined cycle (hereinafter referred
construction of an LNG tank, since a carrier to as "GTCC") run by ElectroGas Malta (EGM) in the
equipped with an LNG tank is built at the Republic of Malta. The appearance of the FSU + Re-
shipyard. This makes it possible to shorten gas and GTCC is shown in Fig. 2. The features of an

Fig. 1 FSRU and LNG carrier (left), and IFVs on FSRU (right) by OLT of Italy (photo courtesy of Offshore LNG Toscana)

Fig. 2 FSU and power plant (left), and IFVs on re-gas unit (right) by EGM of Malta (photo courtesy of ElectroGas Malta Ltd.)

7 KOBELCO TECHNOLOGY REVIEW NO. 39 NOV. 2021

FSU + Re-gas terminal are as follows. combustion exhaust gas.2)
・ Similar to FSRUs, the construction of Among these LNG vaporizers, IFVs have many
LNG tanks, which account for most of the introduction records for LNG cold energy utilization.
construction period/time and cost of onshore
terminals, is no longer required, which can 2.2 IFV
shorten construction periods.
・ The regasification equipment is built onshore 2.2.1 Overview of IFV configuration and
instead of onboard, allowing the use of a vaporization process
secondhand LNG carrier, which is a normal
practice for FSUs. This expands the choices An IFV is a vaporizer that utilizes heat sources
for shipping companies placing orders, in such as seawater to vaporize LNG through a heating
comparison with FSRU. fluid such as propane. It was developed by Osaka
・ Unlike FSRUs, many of which are based on Gas Co., Ltd. in the 1970s under the name of TRI-
fixed-term lease contracts, regasification EX and consists of three components; namely,
equipment can be owned by a group or by a intermediate fluid evaporator (hereinafter referred
local government as infrastructure. to as E-1), an LNG vaporizer (hereinafter referred to
・ The onshore construction of regasification as E-2), and an NG heater (hereinafter referred to as
equipment facilitates the effective utilization E-3).
of LNG cold energy, as in the case of onshore Fig. 3 shows the schematic diagram of an IFV.
primary receiving terminals. The LNG supplied into the heat-transfer tube of
E-2 undergoes heat exchange with the intermediate
2. Construction and features of LNG vaporizers for fluid gas in the upper part of the E-1 shell. Almost
primary receiving terminals all the LNG is vaporized and then transferred to
the E-3 shell side through a connecting piping. At
2.1 Overview of LNG vaporizers E-3, the natural gas is heated by heat-exchange with
seawater flowing in the heat transfer tube and is
LNG vaporizers commonly used in onshore sent out as gas at the ambient temperature. On the
LNG receiving terminals include open rack other hand, the intermediate fluid, condensed by
vaporizers (hereinafter referred to as ORVs), IFVs, heat-exchange with LNG on the outer surface of the
and submerged combustion vaporizers (hereinafter heat transfer tube, E-2, drops to the bottom in the
referred to as SCVs). ORVs and IFVs are LNG E-1 shell to exchange heat with the seawater flowing
vaporizers using seawater as their heat source. An in the heat transfer tube and then is vaporized as
SCV is a backup vaporizer that is used only when intermediate fluid gas to vaporize LNG in the E-2
and where the seawater temperature is too low to be tube again.
used as the heat source. It is configured to vaporize Propane is mainly used for the intermediate
LNG by the heat of the combustion of fuel with fluid. As an option for customers who have
an underwater burner and requires consideration concerns about using propane, a flammable gas, as
of environmental regulations and the like for the the intermediate fluid in limited spaces, as is the case

Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of intermediate fluid vaporizer (IFV)

KOBELCO TECHNOLOGY REVIEW NO. 39 NOV. 2021 8

 in an FSRU, it is suggested to use a non-flammable
heat medium as an alternative.3)
Titanium alloy is used for the heat transfer tubes
(transfer tubes E-1 and E-3 heat) through which
seawater flows to assure extremely high seawater
corrosion resistance.

2.2.2 Characteristics of IFV

The characteristics of an IFV as an LNG vaporizer Fig. 4 Appearance of LNG cryogenic power generation
are as follows: plant in Osaka Gas Co., Ltd.
(1) The running cost is low since the heat source
is mainly seawater.
(2) The heat exchange is performed between LNG
and heat source fluid via an intermediate
fluid with a low freezing point, which avoids
problems such as channel blockage due to
freezing of the heat source fluid.
(3) The use of titanium alloy as the material of the
heat transfer tube prevents the occurrence of
erosion and corrosion even if seawater of poor
quality is used as the heat source.
Fig. 5 Schematic diagram of process flow for LNG cryogenic
(4) The intermediate fluid and cooled heat-source power generation system (Rankine cycle)
fluid after heat exchange can be applied to
cold energy utilization.
One embodiment of the application to cold of in seawater after heat exchange without being
energy utilization in (4) above is the LNG cryogenic effectively utilized. Hence, the owners of LNG
power generation system that utilizes propane as receiving terminals have been working on the
the intermediate fluid. This was developed for effective utilization of LNG cold energy from the
the purpose of saving energy in an LNG receiving economic aspect of terminal operation and from the
terminal and has been actively introduced mainly aspect of CO2 reduction.
in the LNG receiving terminals of gas companies The following applications are considered for
at various locations in Japan since the 1970s. The the cold energy utilization of LNG in LNG receiving
appearance and process outline of the cryogenic terminals:
power generation plant are shown in Fig. 4 and (1) LNG cold energy power generation systems.
Fig. 5, respectively. These cryogenic power (2) Utilization in dry-ice production, freezer
generation plants are still in operation, including the warehouses, etc.
one operated by Osaka Gas Co., Ltd. (3) Cooling systems for gas turbine intake air.
A decision was made in the late 2010s to (4) The supply of cold energy to cooling
introduce cryogenic power generation systems using equipment used in plant factories and data
Kobe Steel's IFVs in an update project for a terminal centers.
in Japan and an LNG terminal in Shanghai, China. Applications (1) and (2) above have long been
adapted to LNG receiving terminals, mainly by gas
3. Utilization of LNG cold energy by IFVs companies in Japan. The following sections outline
(3) and (4), which are increasingly being introduced
As described in Section 2.2, an increasing number in the LNG receiving terminals in subtropical areas
of projects are considering IFVs as LNG vaporizers such as Southeast Asia.
to utilize the cold energy of LNG. This section
describes LNG cold energy utilization using IFVs 3.2 Utilization of LNG cold energy for cooling gas-
that are already running at LNG receiving terminals. turbine intake air

3.1 Overview of LNG cold energy utilization In an IFV, a heat source fluid such as seawater
flows through its pipes. Therefore, it is possible to
LNG is a cryogenic fluid of approximately reciprocally circulate the heat source with one heat-
-160 ℃, and its cold energy has been disposed source circulation pump between an LNG vaporizer

9 KOBELCO TECHNOLOGY REVIEW NO. 39 NOV. 2021

and the destination of cold energy utilization. In an the intake air with chilled water. In other words, it
ORV, on the other hand, seawater flows down on the is a type in which chilled water is supplied to the
outer surface of a heat transfer tube from the upper intake air cooling coil incorporated in the intake
part of the heat exchanger body, open to the ambient air filter chamber, such that direct heat exchange is
air, to perform heat exchange. For this reason, performed with the intake air to lower the intake
two heat-source circulation pumps are required air temperature to 15 ℃ or below. Fig. 6 shows a
for the supply to the ORV and for delivery to the schematic diagram of the process flow of intake
destination of cold energy utilization. In addition, air cooling in a gas turbine using an IFV. One of
since the ambient air is encountered during the the embodiments of gas-turbine intake-air cooling
flow-down on the heat transfer tubes, it is necessary is found in GTCCs in Southeast Asia, to give one
to control foreign matter and water quality. In this example. At these power plants, chilled water is
sense, an IFV is regarded as more effective for the supplied from a turbo chiller using electric power
cold energy utilization of the heat source circulation to perform the intake air cooling of gas turbines to
type. improve power generation efficiency.4)
In the LNG receiving terminals that have recently
3.2.1 Intake air cooling of gas turbines been constructed in Southeast Asia, and other such
areas, there are an increasing number of projects
A gas turbine mixes compressed intake air with called "Gas-to-Power," in which an LNG receiving
fuel in its combustor and burns the mixture to utilize terminal and GTCC are constructed together. These
the pressure of the combustion gas for rotating the projects are suitable for the intake air cooling of gas
generator to generate electricity. The temperature of turbines utilizing LNG cold energy for the following
the air taken in by a compressor is specified to be 15 reasons:
℃ by the ISO standard, and the rated output is also ・ They are mostly in high temperature areas
designed at the atmospheric temperature of 15 ℃. where the temperature exceeds 15 ℃
In hot and humid subtropical areas, there are throughout the year.
many places where the temperature becomes higher ・ The distance between the LNG receiving
than 15 ℃ throughout the year. In those areas, the terminal and GTCC is short, facilitating the
mass of air sent to the combustor of a gas turbine transfer of the heating fluid.
decreases due to the decrease in air density. As ・ Because the business entity of the LNG
a result, the power generated by the gas turbine receiving terminal and the business entity
becomes lower and the power generation decreases. of the gas thermal power plant are often
If air at 35 ℃ is cooled down to 15 ℃, for example, the same, it is easy to make investment
the air density increases by 10%, and the power decisions because there is no conflict between
generation increases by 10%. For these reasons, the operational aspect and the interests of
there is a significant economic benefit in working economic benefit.
on the cooling of gas turbine intake air in hot and
humid subtropical areas. 3.2.2 Advantages of IFV in intake air cooling system
There are several types of intake air cooling.
Among them, the most efficient type directly cools Two types of LNG vaporizers have been installed

Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of process flow for cooling intake air of gas turbine using IFV

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 in gas turbine intake air cooling systems utilizing kW (refrigerator power, cooling tower fan
LNG cold energy, namely, shell-and-tube LNG power and water circulation pump power) of
vaporizers (hereinafter referred to as "STVs") using energy and, thus, a greater economic effect
ethylene glycol as the circulating heat source,5) and is achieved by LNG cold energy utilization
IFVs using industrial water as the circulating heat using an IFV.
source.2) STVs have been introduced to several The total power generation at the terminal in the
systems in Caribbean countries, and IFVs have been Republic of Malta, shown in Fig. 2, is 150 MW. The
introduced to systems in the Republic of Malta and output recovery effect of the gas turbine in summer
the Kingdom of Thailand, in addition to Japan. The is 6%, and an effect of 9 MW has been confirmed to
advantages of the system using IFV are as follows: be obtained by cold energy utilization of an LNG. In
・ The temperature of the heat source required this terminal, cooling water sent to the compressor
for the intake of an air-cooling system for boil-off gas is supplied from an IFV in addition to
is approximately 5 ℃, which is within the the gas turbine intake air cooling.6)
temperature range where even the industrial In the case of a gas-to-power terminal, the
water used by an IFV as its circulating heat amount of LNG for generating the chilled water
source does not freeze. This keeps the required for the intake air cooling of the gas turbine
systems running. is approximately 3 times the amount of gas (natural
・ In an STV, direct heat exchange occurs gas vaporized from LNG) sent from the LNG
between LNG and the circulating heat source. vaporizer (assuming an inlet air temperature of 35 ℃
Therefore, industrial water at 5 ℃ is likely to and an outlet temperature of approximately 15 ℃).
freeze, making the STV's adoption difficult. This means that there are cases where the output
An IFV, on the other hand, uses intermediate recovery by intake air cooling may not be sufficient
fluid for the LNG vaporization process and when the entire amount of gas vaporized by the
can be operated without concern about LNG vaporizer is consumed by the gas turbine. As a
freezing even if industrial water of 5 ℃ is result, the gas may often be sent, not only to the gas
used as the circulating heat source. turbine, but also to the gas conduit and other parts.
・ The circulating heat source of an IFV can be When the above utilization environment is in
industrial water, which is less expensive to place and the cold energy of LNG is utilized for the
prepare than glycol water. The circulating intake air cooling of the gas turbine, the maximum
heat source is often utilized simultaneously by amount of energy that can be obtained from 1
applications other than the gas turbine intake tonne of LNG is 180 kWh. This offers a significant
air cooling. In these applications, if a storage advantage in utilization efficiency over the 23 kWh/
tank for temperature adjustment is required, tonne for the cryogenic power generation system
the difference in filling cost between water (propane Rankine cycle type) described in Section
and glycol water will be even greater. 2.2.
・ Glycol water, which is corrosive to the pipes,
requires water quality management, but 3.3 Other types of LNG cold energy utilization
industrial water basically requires no water using IFVs
quality management.
Thanks to the advantages of IFVs as described Other than gas turbine intake air cooling
above, there are an increasing number of LNG systems, IFVs have been utilized for chilled water
vaporizer projects adapting IFVs that use industrial supply to large cooling systems such as those for
water as their circulating heat source. plant-cultivation factories. The methods used for
From the viewpoint of energy saving, the supplying chilled water from IFVs include the
following effects can be expected for intake air following:
cooling using IFVs: (1) Cases where chilled water is directly supplied
・ If an IFV has an LNG flow rate capacity of as a circulating heat source to the utilizer as in
100 tonnes/hour, it has a cooling capacity the case of gas turbine intake air cooling.
of approximately 20,000 kW, and the An LNG receiving terminal in the Kingdom
consumption energy (or the power of of Thailand utilizes the chilled water directly
water circulation pump) required to supply supplied from IFV to the cooling of a
cold energy to the IFV is approximately cultivation factory for plants such as tulips,
700 kW. On the other hand, a turbo together with the intake air cooling of the
refrigeration system with the same cooling gas turbine installed in the LNG receiving
capacity consumes approximately 4,200 terminal.

11 KOBELCO TECHNOLOGY REVIEW NO. 39 NOV. 2021

 Fig. 7 Process flow of IFV for supplying cold energy to air conditioning apparatus

light-type plant factory has high operational costs,

for utilities, as an example; however, the utilization
of LNG cold energy is reported to reduce the cost by
approximately 40%.

Conclusions

This paper has outlined the latest trends of

primary LNG-receiving terminals, the characteristics
of IFVs, and LNG cold energy utilization using IFVs.
Fig. 8 Appearance of IFV for supplying cold energy to air Kobe Steel has been developing and proposing
conditioning apparatus in Kagoshima Terminal of LNG vaporizer systems optimal for developing LNG
NIPPON GAS Co., Ltd. vaporizers in accordance with diversification in the
forms of LNG receiving terminals and for improving
(2) Cases where propane (liquid) cooled by cold the efficiency of cold energy utilization in the LNG
energy of LNG in E-1 of an IFV is extracted by receiving terminals. We will continue to develop
a circulation pump, and the propane liquid is this technology and maintain our position as the
heat-exchanged with circulating water to be world's top manufacturer of LNG vaporizers.
indirectly supplied to the destination where
the cold energy is utilized. References
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