Chapter 1

Computer System

1.1 Introduction to Computer System “A computer would deserve

A computer is an electronic device that can be to be called intelligent if it
programmed to accept data (input), process it and could deceive a human into
generate result (output). A computer along with believing that it was human.”
additional hardware and software together is called a –Alan Turing
computer system.
A computer system primarily comprises a central
processing unit (CPU), memory, input/output devices
and storage devices. All these components function
together as a single unit to deliver the desired output.
A computer system comes in various forms and sizes.
It can vary from a high-end server to personal desktop,
laptop, tablet computer, or a smartphone.
Figure 1.1 shows the block diagram of a computer
system. The directed lines represent the flow of data
and signal between the components.

Secondary
Storage Devices

Primary
Memory
In this chapter
Input Control Unit Output »» Introduction to
Device (CU) Device Computer System
»» Evolution of
Arithmetic Logic Computer
Unit (ALU)
»» Computer Memory
Central Processing
Unit (CPU) »» Data Transfer
Figure 1.1: Components of a computer system between Memory
and CPU
1.1.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU) »» Data and
It is the electronic circuitry of a computer that carries Information
out the actual processing and usually referred as the »» Microprocessors
brain of the computer. It is commonly called processor »» Software
also. Physically, a CPU can be placed on one or more
»» Operating System
microchips called integrated circuits (IC). The ICs
comprise semiconductor materials.

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The CPU is given instructions and data through

programs. The CPU then fetches the program and data
from the memory and performs arithmetic and logic
Keyboard operations as per the given instructions and stores the
result back to memory.
While processing, the CPU stores the data as well
as instructions in its local memory called registers.
Mouse
Registers are part of the CPU chip and they are limited
in size and number. Different registers are used for
storing data, instructions or intermediate results.
Other than the registers, the CPU has two main
Scanner
components — Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control
Unit (CU). ALU performs all the arithmetic and logic
operations that need to be done as per the instruction in a
program. CU controls sequential instruction execution,
Touch Screen interprets instructions and guides data flow through the
computer’s memory, ALU and input or output devices.
Figure 1.2: Input devices CPU is also popularly known as microprocessor. We will
study more about it in section 1.5.
1.1.2 Input Devices
The devices through which control signals are sent
to a computer are termed as input devices. These
devices convert the input data into a digital form that is
acceptable by the computer system. Some examples of
input devices include keyboard, mouse, scanner, touch
screen, etc., as shown in Figure 1.2. Specially designed
braille keyboards are also available to help the visually
impaired for entering data into a computer. Besides, we
Display monitor can now enter data through voice, for example, we can
use Google voice search to search the web where we can
input the search string through our voice.
Data entered through input device is temporarily
Speaker stored in the main memory (also called RAM) of the
computer system. For permanent storage and future use,
the data as well as instructions are stored permanently
in additional storage locations called secondary memory.
Printer
1.1.3 Output Devices
The device that receives data from a computer system
for display, physical production, etc., is called output
3D printer device. It converts digital information into human-
understandable form. For example, monitor, projector,
Figure 1.3: Output devices headphone, speaker, printer, etc. Some output devices

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 Computer System 3

are shown in Figure 1.3. A braille display monitor is

useful for a visually challenged person to understand
the textual output generated by computers.
A printer is the most commonly used device to get
output in physical (hardcopy) form. Three types of
commonly used printers are inkjet, laserjet and dot
matrix. Now-a-days, there is a new type of printer
called 3D-printer, which is used to build physical A punched card is a
piece of stiff paper that
replica of a digital 3D design. These printers are being
stores digital data in
used in manufacturing industries to create prototypes the form of holes at
of products. Their usage is also being explored in the predefined positions.
medical field, particularly for developing body organs.

1.2 Evolution of Computer

From the simple calculator to a modern day powerful
data processor, computing devices have evolved in a
relatively short span of time. The evolution of computing
devices in shown through a timeline in Figure 1.4
EDVAC/ENIAC
Pascaline John Von Neumann introduced
Blaize Pascal invented a mechanical the concept of stored program
calculator known as Pascal calculator computer which was capable of
or Pascaline to do addition and storing data as well as program
subtraction of two numbers directly in the memory. The EDVAC and
and multiplication and division through then the ENIAC computers were
repeated addition and subtraction. developed based on this concept.

Tabulating Machine Integrated Circuit

Herman Hollerith designed An Integrated Circuit (IC) is
1642 a tabulating machine for 1945 a silicon chip which contains
summarising the data stored entire electronic circuit on a
on the punched card. It is very small area. The size of
computer drastically reduced
step towards programming. because of ICs.

1890 1970

1834 1947

Analytic Engine Transistor

Charles Babbage invented Vacuum tubes were
analytical engine, a replaced by transistors
developed at Bell Labs,
500 BC mechanical computing device 1937
for inputting, processing, using semiconductor
storing and displaying the materials.
output, which is considered
to form the basis of modern
computers.
Abacus Turing Machine
Computing is attributed to The Turing machine concept was a
the invention of ABACUS general purpose programmable
almost 3000 years ago. It machine that was capable of solving
was a mechanical device any problem by executing the
capable of doing simple program stored on the punched cards.
arithmetic calculations only.
Figure 1.4: Timeline showing key inventions in computing technology

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The Von Neumann architecture is shown in Figure

1.5. It consists of a Central Processing Unit (CPU)
for processing arithmetic and logical instructions, a
memory to store data and programs, input and output
devices and communication
channels to send or receive the
output data. Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Computer (ENIAC)
is the first binary programmable
Figure 1.5: Von Neumann architecture for computer based on Von Neumann
the computer architecture.
During the 1970s, Large Scale Integration (LSI) of
electronic circuits allowed integration of complete
CPU on a single chip, called microprocessor. Moore’s
Law predicted exponential growth in the number
In 1965, Intel co-
of transistors that could be assembled in a single
founder Gordon Moore microchip. In 1980s, the processing power of computers
introduced Moore’s increased exponentially by integrating around 3 million
Law which predicted components on a small-sized chip termed as Very
that the number of
transistors on a chip Large Scale Integration (VLSI). Further advancement in
would double every two technology has made it feasible to fabricate high density
years while the costs of transistors and other components (approx 106
would be halved.
components) on a single IC called Super Large Scale
Integration (SLSI) as shown in Figure 1.6.
IBM introduced its first personal computer (PC) for
the home user in 1981 and Apple introduced Macintosh

10,000,000,000
Number of Transistors
per Integrated Circuit

1,000,000,000 Core 2 DUO Core i7

100,000,000 Intel Microprocessors Pentium IV
Pentium II Pentium III
10,000,000 Pentium
1,000,000 486
486
100,000 Invention of the 386
Transistor 286
10,000 8086
1,000 4004
100 Doubles every 2 years
10
1
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Figure 1.6: Exponential increase in number of transistors used in ICs over time

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machines in 1984. The popularity of the PC surged

by the introduction of Graphical User Interface (GUI)
based operating systems by Microsoft and others in
place of computers with only command line interface,
like UNIX or DOS. Around 1990s, the growth of World
Wide Web (WWW) further accelerated mass usage of
computers and thereafter computers have become an
indispensable part of everyday life.
Further, with the introduction of laptops, personal
computing was made portable to a great extent. This
was followed by smartphones, tablets and other
personal digital assistants. These devices have leveraged
the technological advancements in processor
miniaturisation, faster memory, high speed data and
connectivity mechanisms.
The next wave of computing devices includes
the wearable gadgets, such as smart watch, lenses,
headbands, headphones, etc. Further, smart appliances
are becoming a part of the Internet of Things (IoT), by
leveraging the power of Artificial Intelligence (AI).

1.3 Computer Memory

A computer system needs memory to store the data and
instructions for processing. Whenever we talk about the
‘memory’ of a computer system, we usually talk about the
main or primary memory. The secondary memory (also
called storage device) is used to store data, instructions
and results permanently for future use.
1.3.1 Units of Memory
A computer system uses binary numbers to store and
process data. The binary digits 0 and 1, which are the
basic units of memory, are called bits. Further, these
bits are grouped together to form words. A 4-bit word
is called a Nibble. Examples of nibble are 1001, 1010,
0010, etc. A two nibble word, i.e., 8-bit word is called a
byte, for example, 01000110, 01111100, 10000001, etc.
Like any other standard unit, bytes are grouped
together to make bigger chunks or units of memory.
Table 1.1 shows different measurement units for digital
data stored in storage devices.

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Table 1.1 Measurement units for digital data

Unit Description Unit Description
KB (Kilobyte) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes PB (Petabyte) 1 PB = 1024 TB
MB (Megabyte) 1 MB = 1024 KB EB (Exabyte) 1 EB = 1024 PB
GB (Gigabyte) 1 GB = 1024 MB ZB (Zettabyte) 1 ZB = 1024 EB
TB (Terabyte) 1 TB = 1024 GB YB (Yottabyte) 1 YB = 1024 ZB

1.3.2 Types of Memory

Human beings memorise many things over a lifetime, and
recall from memory to make a decision or some action.
However, we do not rely on our memory completely, and
we make notes and store important data and information
using other media, such as notebook, manual, journal,
document, etc. Similarly, computers have two types of
memory   — primary and secondary.
(A) Primary Memory
Primary memory is an essential component of a
computer system. Program and data are loaded into the
primary memory before processing. The CPU interacts
directly with the primary memory to perform read or
write operation. It is of two types viz. (i) Random Access
Memory (RAM) and (ii) Read Only Memory (ROM).
RAM is volatile, i.e., as long as the power is supplied
to the computer, it retains the data in it. But as soon
as the power supply is turned off, all the contents of
RAM are wiped out. It is used to store data temporarily
while the computer is working. Whenever the computer
is started or a software application is launched, the
required program and data are loaded into RAM
for processing. RAM is usually referred to as main
memory and it is faster than the secondary memory or
storage devices.
On the other hand, ROM is non-volatile, which
means its contents are not lost even when the power is
turned off. It is used as a small but faster permanent
storage for the contents which are rarely changed. For
Think and Reflect example, the startup program (boot loader) that loads
the operating system into primary memory, is stored
Suppose there is a
computer with RAM
in ROM.
but no secondary (B) Cache Memory
storage. Can we install RAM is faster than secondary storage, but not as fast
a software on that
computer? as a computer processor. So, because of RAM, a CPU

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may have to slow down. To speed up the operations of

the CPU, a very high speed memory is placed between
the CPU and the primary memory known as cache. It
stores the copies of the data from frequently accessed
primary memory locations, thus, reducing the average
time required to access data from primary memory.
When the CPU needs some data, it first examines the
cache. In case the requirement is met, it is read from
the cache, otherwise the primary memory is accessed.
(C) Secondary Memory
Primary memory has limited storage capacity and Pen
is either volatile (RAM) or read-only (ROM). Thus, a Drive

computer system needs auxiliary or secondary memory

to permanently store the data or instructions for
future use. The secondary memory is non-volatile and
has larger storage capacity than primary memory. It
is slower and cheaper than the main memory. But, it CD/DVD
cannot be accessed directly by the CPU. Contents of
secondary storage need to be first brought into the main
memory for the CPU to access. Examples of secondary
memory devices include Hard Disk Drive (HDD), CD/
DVD, Memory Card, etc., as shown in Figure 1.7.
However, these days, there are secondary storage
devices like SSD which support very fast data transfer
speed as compared to earlier HDDs. Also, data transfer
between computers have become easier and simple due
to the availability of small-sized and portable flash or
pen drives.

1.4 Data Transfer between Memory and CPU

Figure 1.7: Storage devices
Data need to be transferred between the CPU and
primary memory as well as between the primary and
secondary memory.
Data are transferred between different components of
a computer system using physical wires called bus. For
example, bus is used for data transfer between a USB
port and hard disk or between a hard disk and main
memory. Bus is of three types — (i) Data bus to transfer
data between different components, (ii) Address bus to
transfer addresses between CPU and main memory.
The address of the memory location that the CPU wants
to read or write from is specified in the address bus,

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and (iii) Control bus to communicate

control signals between different
components of a computer. All these
three buses collectively make the
system bus, as shown in Figure 1.8.
As the CPU interacts directly with
main memory, any data entered from
input device or the data to be accessed
from hard disk needs to be placed in the
main memory for further processing.
Figure 1.8: Data transfer between components through The data is then transferred between
system bus CPU and main memory using bus.
The CPU places on the address bus, the address of
the main memory location from which it wants to read
data or to write data. While executing the instructions,
the CPU specifies the read or write control signal through
the control bus.
As the CPU may require to read data from main
memory or write data to main memory, a data bus is
bidirectional. But the control bus and address bus are
unidirectional. To write data into memory, the CPU
places the data on the data bus, which is then written
to the specific address provided through the address
bus. In case of read operation, the CPU specifies the
address, and the data is placed on the data bus by a
dedicated hardware, called memory controller. The
memory controller manages the flow of data into and
out of the computer's main memory.

1.5 Microprocessors
In earlier days, a computer's CPU used to occupy a large
room or multiple cabinets. However, with advancement
in technology, the physical size of CPU has reduced and
it is now possible to place a CPU on a single microchip
only. A processor (CPU) which is implemented on a
single microchip is called microprocessor. Nowadays,
almost all the CPUs are microprocessors. Hence, the
terms are used synonymously for practical purpose.
Microprocessor is a small-sized electronic component
inside a computer that carries out various tasks involved
in data processing as well as arithmetic and logical
operations. These days, a microprocessor is built over
an integrated circuit comprising millions of small
components like resistors, transistors and diodes.

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Microprocessors have evolved over time in terms

of their increased processing capability, decreasing
physical size and reduced cost. Currently available
microprocessors are capable of processing millions of
instructions per millisecond. Table 1.2 lists different
types of microprocessors along with their generation,
time period, and underlying technology since their
inception in early 1970s.
Table 1.2 Generations of Microprocessor
Generation Era Chip Word Maximum Clock Cores Example*
type size memory size speed
First 1971-73 LSI 4 / 8 1 KB 108 KHz- Single Intel 8080
bit 200 KHz
Second 1974-78 LSI 8 bit 1 MB Upto 2 MHz Single Motorola 6800
Intel 8085
Third 1979-80 VLSI 16 bit 16 MB 4 MHz - 6 Single Intel 8086
MHz
Fourth 1981-95 VLSI 32 bit 4 GB Upto 133 Single Intel 80386
MHz Motorola 68030
Fifth 1995 till SLSI 64 bit 64 GB 533 MHz - Multicore Pentium,
date 34 GHz Celeron, Xeon
*few prominent examples are included.

1.5.1 Microprocessor Specifications

Microprocessors are classified on the basis of different
features which include chip type, word size, memory
size, clock speed, etc. These features are briefly
explained below:
(A) Word Size
Word size is the maximum number of bits that a
microprocessor can process at a time. Earlier, a word
was of 8 bits, as it was the maximum limit at that
time. At present, the minimum word size is 16 bits and
maximum word size is 64 bits.
(B) Memory Size
Depending upon the word size, the size of RAM varies.
Activity 1.1
Initially, RAM was very small (4MB) due to 4/8 bits word
size. As word size increased to 64 bits, it has become The maximum memory
feasible to use RAM of size upto 16 Exabytes (EB). size of microprocessors
of different generations
(C) Clock Speed are given at Table 1.2.
Computers have an internal clock that generates pulses Represent each of the
memory size in terms
(signals) at regular intervals of time. Clock speed simply
of power of 2.
means the number of pulses generated per second by the

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Activity 1.2 clock inside a computer. The clock speed indicates the
speed at which the computer can execute instructions.
Find out the clock speed
of the microprocessor
Earlier, it was measured in Hertz (Hz) and Kilohertz
of your computer and (kHz). But with advancement in technology and chip
compare with that of density, it is now measured in Gigahertz (GHz), i.e.,
your peers? billions of pulses per second.
(D) Cores
Core is a basic computation unit of the CPU. Earlier
processors had only one computation unit, thereby
capable of performing only one task at a time. With the
advent of multicore processor, it has become possible
for the computer to execute multiple tasks, thereby
increasing the system’s performance. CPU with two,
four, and eight cores is called dual-core, quad-core and
octa-core processor, respectively.
1.5.2 Microcontrollers
The microcontroller is a small computing device which
has a CPU, a fixed amount of RAM, ROM and other
peripherals all embedded on a single chip as compared
to microprocessor that has only a CPU on the chip. The
structure of a microcontroller is shown in Figure 1.9.
Keyboard, mouse, washing machine, digital camera,
pendrive, remote controller, microwave are few examples
of microcontrollers. As these are designed for specific
tasks only, hence their size as well as cost is reduced.
Because of the very small size of the
microcontroller, it is embedded in another device
or system to perform a specific functionality. For
Clock CPU Memory
example, the microcontroller in a fully automatic
washing machine is used to control the washing cycle
Bus System without any human intervention. The cycle starts
with the filling of water, after which the clothes are
Input Output soaked and washed; thereafter the water is drained
I/O-ports
and the clothes are spin dry. The simple use of
microcontroller has permitted repetitive execution
Figure 1.9: Structure of of tedious tasks automatically without any human
microcontroller intervention, thereby saving precious time.

1.6 Data and Information

A computer is primarily for processing data. A computer
system considers everything as data, be it instructions,
pictures, songs, videos, documents, etc. Data can also be

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raw and unorganised facts that are processed to get

meaningful information.
So understanding the concept of data along with
its different types is crucial to understand the overall
functioning of a computer. Sometimes people use the
terms data, information and knowledge interchangeably,
which is incorrect.
1.6.1 Data and Its Types
A computer system has many input devices, which
provide it with raw data in the form of facts, concepts,
instructions, etc., Internally everything is stored in
binary form (0 and 1), but externally, data can be input
to a computer in the text form consisting of English
alphabets A–Z, a–z, numerals 0 – 9, and special symbols
like @, #, etc. Data can be input in other languages too
or it can be read from the files. The input data may
be from different sources, hence it may be in different
formats. For example, an image is a collection of Red,
Green, Blue (RGB) pixels, a video is made up of frames,
and a fee receipt is made of numeric and non-numeric
characters. Primarily, there are three types of data.
(A) Structured Data
Data which follows a strict record structure and is easy
to comprehend is called structured data. Such data with
pre-specified tabular format may be stored in a data file
to access in the future. Table 1.3 shows structured data
related to monthly attendance of students maintained
by the school.

Table 1.3 Structured data: Monthly attendance records of students

Roll No Name Month Attendance (in %)
R1 Mohan May 95
R2 Sohan May 75
R3 Sheen May 92
R4 Geet May 82
R5 Anita May 97
R1 Mohan July 98
R2 Sohan July 65
R3 Sheen July 85
R4 Geet July 94
R5 Anita July 85

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It is clear that such data is organised in row/column

Think and Reflect
format and is easily understandable. Structured data
Can you give some may be sorted in ascending or descending order. In the
more examples of
unstructured data?
example, attendance data is sorted in increasing order
on the column ‘month’. Other examples of structured
data include sales transactions, online railway ticket
bookings, ATM transactions, etc.
(B) Unstructured Data
Data which are not organised in a pre-defined record
format is called unstructured data. Examples include
audio and video files, graphics, text documents, social
media posts, satellite images, etc. Figure 1.10 shows a
report card with monthly attendance record details sent
to parents. Such data are unstructured as they consist
of textual contents as well as graphics, which do not
follow a specific format.

Attendance record for the month of July

School Logo

Attended:

Guardian’s Signature Principal’s Signature

Figure 1.10: Unstructured data: Monthly attendance record

(C) Semi-structured Data

Data which have no well-defined structure but
maintains internal tags or markings to separate data
elements are called semi-structured data. Examples
include email document, HTML page, comma separated
values (csv file), etc. Figure 1.11 shows an example of
semi-structured data containing student’s month-wise
attendance details. In this example, there is no specific
format for each attendance
Name: Mohan Month: July Class: XI Attendance: 98
Name: Sohan Month: July Class: XI Attendance: 65 record. Here, each data value
Name: Sheen Month: July Class: XI Attendance: 85 is preceded by a tag (Name,
Name: Geet Month: May Class: XI Attendance: 82
Name: Geet Month: July Class: XI Attendance: 94 Month, Class, Attendance) for
Figure 1.11: Semi-structured data: Month-wise total the interpretation of the data
attendance record maintained by the school value while processing.

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1.6.2 Data Capturing, Storage and Retrieval Activity 1.3

To process data, we need to first input or capture
Visit some of the places
the data. This is followed by its storage in a file or a like bank, automobile
database so that it can be used in the future. Whenever showroom, shopping
data is to be processed, it is first retrieved from the mall, tehsil office, etc.,
file or database so that we can perform further actions and find out 2 – 3 names
of tools or instruments
on it. used to capture data in
(A) Data Capturing digital format.
It involves the process of gathering data from different
sources in the digital form. This capturing may vary
from simple instruments like keyboard, barcode readers
used at shopping outlets (Figure 1.12), comments or
posts over social media, remote sensors on an earth
orbiting satellite, etc. Sometimes, heterogeneity among
data sources makes data capturing a complex task. Figure 1.12: Capturing
(B) Data Storage data using barcode reader
It is the process of storing the captured data for
processing later. Now-a-days data is being produced at
a very high rate, and therefore data storage has become
a challenging task. However, the decrease in the cost
of digital storage devices has helped in simplifying
this task. There are numerous digital storage devices
available in the market like as shown in Figure 1.7.
Data keeps on increasing with time. Hence, the
storage devices also require to be upgraded periodically.
In large organisations, computers with larger and
faster storage called data servers are deployed to store
vast amount of data. Such dedicated computers help
in processing data efficiently. However, the cost (both
hardware and software) of setting up a data server as
well as its maintenance is high, especially for small
organisations and startups.
(C) Data Retrieval
It involves fetching data from the storage devices, for its
processing as per the user requirement. As databases
grow, the challenges involved in search and retrieval of
the data in acceptable time, also increase. Minimising
data access time is crucial for faster data processing.
1.6.3 Data Deletion and Recovery
One of the biggest threats associated with digital data is
its deletion. The storage devices can malfunction or crash
down resulting in the deletion of data stored. Users can

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Activity 1.4 accidentally erase data from storage devices, or a hacker

or malware can delete the digital data intentionally.
Explore possible ways
of recovering deleted Deleting digitally stored data means changing the
data or data from a details of data at bit level, which can be very time-
corrupted device. consuming. Therefore, when any data is simply deleted,
its address entry is marked as free, and that much
space is shown as empty to the user, without actually
deleting the data.
In case data gets deleted accidentally or corrupted,
there arises a need to recover the data. Recovery of the
data is possible only if the contents or memory space
marked as deleted have not been overwritten by some
other data. Data recovery is a process of retrieving
deleted, corrupted and lost data from secondary
storage devices.
There are usually two security concerns associated
with data. One is its deletion by some unauthorised
person or software. These concerns can be avoided
by limiting access to the computer system and using
passwords for user accounts and files, wherever
possible. There is also an option of encrypting files to
protect them from unwanted modification.
The other concern is related to unwanted recovery of
Activity 1.5
data by unauthorised user or software. Many a times,
Create a test file and we discard our old, broken or malfunctioning storage
then delete it using
Shift+Delete from
devices without taking care to delete data. We assume
the keyboard. Now that the contents of deleted files are permanently
recover the file using removed. However, if these storage devices fall into the
the methods you have hands of mischief-mongers, they can easily recover
explored in Activity 1.4.
data from such devices; this poses a threat to data
confidentiality. This concern can be mitigated by using
proper tools to delete or shred data before disposing off
any old or faulty storage device.

1.7 Software
Till now, we have studied about the physical
components or the hardware of the computer system.
But the hardware is of no use on its own. Hardware
needs to be operated by a set of instructions. These
sets of instructions are referred to as software. It is that
component of a computer system, which we cannot

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touch or view physically. It comprises the instructions

and data to be processed using the computer hardware.
The computer software and hardware complete any
task together.
The software comprises a set of instructions which
on execution deliver the desired outcome. In other
words, each software is written for some computational
purpose. Some examples of software include operating
systems like Ubuntu or Windows 7/10, word processing
tool like LibreOffice or Microsoft Word, video player like
VLC Player, photo editors like GIMP and LibreOffice
draw. A document or image stored on the hard disk or
pen drive is referred to as a soft-copy. Once printed, the Hardware refers to the
physical components
document or an image is called a hard-copy. of the computer system
which can be seen and
1.7.1 Need of Software touched. For example,
The sole purpose of a software is to make the computer RAM, keyboard,
hardware useful and operational. A software knows how printer, monitor, CPU,
etc. On the other hand,
to make different hardware components of a computer software is a set of
work and communicate with each other as well as with instructions and data
the end-user. We cannot instruct the hardware of a that makes hardware
computer directly. Software acts as an interface between functional to complete
the desired task.
human users and the hardware.
Depending on the mode of interaction with hardware
and functions to be performed, the software can be broadly
classified into three categories viz. (i) System software,
(ii) Programming tools and (iii) Application software.
1.7.2 System Software
The software that provides the basic functionality
to operate a computer by interacting directly with its
constituent hardware is termed as system software. A
system software knows how to operate and use different
hardware components of a computer. It provides services
directly to the end user, or to some other software.
Examples of system software include operating systems,
system utilities, device drivers, etc.
(A) Operating System
As the name implies, the operating system is a system
software that operates the computer. An operating
system is the most basic system software, without
which other software cannot work. The operating system
manages other application programs and provides

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 16 Computer Science – Class xi

access and security to the users of the system. Some

of the popular operating systems are Windows, Linux,
Macintosh, Ubuntu, Fedora, Android, iOS, etc.
(B) System Utilities
Software used for maintenance and configuration of the
computer system is called system utility. Some system
utilities are shipped with the operating system for
example disk defragmentation tool, formatting utility,
system restore utility, etc. Another set of utilities are
those which are not shipped with the operating system
but are required to improve the performance of the
system, for example, anti-virus software, disk cleaner
tool, disk compression software, etc.
(C) Device Drivers
As the name signifies, the purpose of a device driver is to
Activity 1.6
ensure proper functioning of a particular device. When
Ask your teacher to
it comes to the overall working of a computer system,
help you locate any two
device drivers installed the operating system does the work. But everyday new
on your computer. devices and components are being added to a computer
system. It is not possible for the operating system alone
to operate all of the existing and new devices, where each
device has diverse characteristics. The responsibility
for overall control, operation and management of a
particular device at the hardware level is delegated to
its device driver.
The device driver acts as an interface between the
device and the operating system. It provides required
services by hiding the details
of operations performed at the
hardware level of the device. Just
like a language translator, a device
driver acts as a mediator between
the operating system and the
attached device. The categorisation
of software is shown in Figure 1.13.
1.7.3 Programming Tools
In order to get some work done
by the computer, we need to give
instructions which are applied on the
input data to get the desired outcome.
Computer languages are developed
Figure 1.13: Categorisation of software for writing these instructions.

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 Computer System 17

It is important to understand here that computers and Notes

humans understand completely different languages.
While humans are able to write programs in high-level
language, computers understand machine language.
There is a continuous need for conversion from high
level to machine level language, for which translators
are needed. Also, to write the instruction, code editors
(e.g., IDLE in Python) are needed. We will briefly describe
here the programming languages, language translators
and program development tools.
(A) Classification of Programming Languages
It is very difficult for a human being to write
instructions in the form of 1s and 0s. So different types
of computer programming languages are developed to
simplify the coding. Two major categories of computer
programming languages are low-level languages and
high-level languages.
Low-level languages are machine dependent languages
and include machine language and assembly language.
Machine language uses 1s and 0s to write instructions
which are directly understood and executed by the
computer. But writing a code in machine language is
difficult as one has to remember all operation codes
and machine addresses. Also finding errors in the code
written in machine language is difficult.
To simplify the writing of code, assembly language
was developed that allowed usage of English-like words
and symbols instead of 1s and 0s. But one major
drawback of writing a code in this language is that the
code is computer specific, i.e., the code written for one
type of CPU cannot be used for another type of CPU.
High level languages are machine independent and
are simpler to write code into. Instructions are using
English like sentences and each high level language
follows a set of rules, similar to natural languages.
However, these languages are not directly understood
by the computer. Hence, translators are needed to
translate high-level language codes into machine
language. Examples of high level language include C++,
Java, Python, etc.
(B) Language Translators
As the computer can understand only machine
language, a translator is needed to convert program
written in assembly or high level language to machine

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 18 Computer Science – Class xi

Code in high language. The program code written in assembly or

level language
high-level language is called source code. The source
(Source Code)
code is converted by a translator into the machine
understandable form called object (machine) code as
depicted in Figure 1.14.
Language
translater As we have different types of computer languages,
different translators are needed to convert the source
code to machine code. The three types of translators
used in computing systems are assembler, compiler
Code in machine
language and interpreter.
(Object Code) The translator used to convert the code written
Figure 1.14: Translator to in assembly language to machine language is called
convert source code into assembler. Each assembler can understand a specific
object code
microprocessor instruction set only and hence, the
machine code is not portable.
We also need translators to convert codes written
in high level language (source code) to machine
understandable form (machine code) for execution by
the computer. Compiler converts the source code into
machine code. If the code follows all syntactic rules of
the language, then it is executed by the computer. Once
translated, the compiler is not needed.
An interpreter translates one line at a time instead of
the whole program at one go. Interpreter takes one line,
converts it into executable code if the line is syntactically
correct, and then it repeats these steps for all lines in
the source code. Hence, interpreter is always needed
whenever a source code is to be executed.
(C) Program Development Tools
Whenever we decide to write a program, we need a text
editor. An editor is a software that allows us to create a
text file where we type instructions and store the file as
the source code. Then an appropriate translator is used
to get the object code for execution. In order to simplify
the program development, there are software called
Integrated Development Environment (IDE) consisting
of text editor, building tools and debugger. A program
can be typed, compiled and debugged from the IDE
directly. Besides Python IDLE, Netbeans, Eclipse, Atom,
Lazarus are few other examples of IDEs. Debugger, as
the name implies, is the software to detect and correct
errors in the source code.

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 Computer System 19

1.7.4 Application Software

Activity 1.7
The system software provides the core functionality of With the help of your
the computer system. However, different users need the teacher, install one
computer system for different purposes depending upon application software in
their requirements. Hence, a new category of software your computer.
is needed to cater to different requirements of the end-
users. This specific software that works on top of the
system software is termed as application software. There
are again two broad categories of application software —
general purpose and customised application software.
A computer system
(A) General Purpose Software can work without
The application software developed for generic application software,
applications, to cater to a bigger audience in general but it cannot work
are called general purpose software. Such ready-made without system
application software can be used by end users as per software. For example,
we can use a computer
their requirements. For example, spreadsheet tool Calc even if no word
of LibreOffice can be used by any computer user to do processing software
calculation or to create account sheet. Adobe Photoshop, is installed, but if no
GIMP, Mozilla web browser, iTunes, etc., fall in the operating system is
category of general purpose software. installed, we cannot
work on the computer.
(B) Customised Software In other words, the use
These are custom or tailor-made application software, of computer is possible
that are developed to meet the requirements of a specific in the absence of
application software.
organisation or an individual. They are better suited to
the needs of an individual or an organisation, considering
that they are designed as per special requirements. Some
examples of user-defined software include websites,
school management software, accounting software,
etc. It is similar to buying a piece of cloth and getting a
tailor-made garment with the fitting, colour, and fabric
of our choice.
1.7.5 Proprietary or Free and Open Source Software
The developers of some application software provide
Activity 1.8
their source code as well as the software freely to the
With the help of your
public, with an aim to develop and improve further with
teacher, install one
each other’s help. Such software is known as Free and free and open source
Open Source Software (FOSS). For example, the source application software on
code of operating system Ubuntu is freely accessible your computer.
for anyone with the required knowledge to improve or
add new functionality. More examples of FOSS include
Python, Libreoffice, Openoffice, Mozilla Firefox, etc.
Sometimes, software are freely available for use but

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 20 Computer Science – Class xi

Think and Reflect source code may not be available. Such software are
called freeware. Examples of freeware are Skype, Adobe
When a computer is
Reader, etc. When the software to be used has to be
turned on, who brings
the OS into RAM from purchased from the vendor who has the copyright of the
the secondary storage? software, then it is a proprietary software. Examples of
proprietary software include Microsoft Windows, Tally,
Quickheal, etc. A software can be freeware or open
source or proprietary software depending upon the
terms and conditions of the person or group who has
developed and released that software.

1.8 Operating System

An operating system (OS) can be considered to be a
resource manager which manages all the resources of a
computer, i.e., its hardware including CPU, RAM, Disk,
Network and other input-output devices. It also controls
Types of User various application software and device drivers, manages
Interface of
system security and handles access by different users.
Operating System
It is the most important system software. Examples of
popular OS are Windows, Linux, Android, Macintosh
and so on.
Command-based
Interface
The primary objectives of an operating system are
two-fold. The first is to provide services for building and
running application programs. When an application
program needs to be run, it is the operating system
Graphical User which loads that program into memory and allocates
Interface
it to the CPU for execution. When multiple application
programs need to be run, the operating system decides
the order of the execution.
Touch-based
The second objective of an operating system is to
Interface provide an interface to the user through which the user
can interact with the computer. A user interface is a
software component which is a part of the operating
system and whose job is to take commands or inputs
Voice-based from a user for the operating system to process.
Interface
1.8.1 OS User Interface
There are different types of user interfaces each of which
provides a different functionality. Some commonly used
Gesture-based
Interface interfaces are shown in Figure 1.15.
(A) Command-based Interface
Figure 1.15: Types of user Command-based interface requires a user to enter the
interface of OS commands to perform different tasks like creating,

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 Computer System 21

opening, editing or deleting a file, etc. The user has to Notes

remember the names of all such programs or specific
commands which the operating system supports.
The primary input device used by the user for
command based interface is the keyboard. Command
based interface is often less interactive and usually
allows a user to run a single program at a time.
Examples of operating systems with command-based
interface include MS-DOS and Unix.
(B) Graphical User Interface
Graphical User Interface (GUI) lets users run programs
or give instructions to the computer in the form of
icons, menus and other visual options. Icons usually
represent files and programs stored on the computer
and windows represent running programs that the user
has launched through the operating system.
The input devices used to interact with the GUI
commonly include the mouse and the keyboard.
Examples of operating systems with GUI interfaces
include Microsoft Windows, Ubuntu, Fedora and
Macintosh, among others.
(C) Touch-based Interface
Today smartphones, tablets and PCs allow users to
interact with the system simply using the touch input.
Using the touchscreen, a user provides inputs to the
operating system, which are interpreted by the OS as
commands like opening an app, closing an app, dialing
a number, scrolling across apps, etc.
Examples of popular operating systems with touch-
based interfaces are Android and iOS. Windows
8.1 and 10 also support touch-based interfaces on
touchscreen devices.
(D) Voice-based Interface
Modern computers have been designed to address the
needs of all types of users including people with special
needs and people who want to interact with computers
or smartphones while doing some other task. For users
who cannot use the input devices like the mouse,
keyboard, and touchscreens, modern operating systems
provide other means of human-computer interaction.
Users today can use voice-based commands to make
a computer work in the desired way. Some operating

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 22 Computer Science – Class xi

systems which provide voice-based control to users

include iOS (Siri), Android (Google Now or “OK Google”),
Microsoft Windows 10 (Cortana) and so on.
(E) Gesture-based Interface
Some smartphones based on Android and iOS as well
as laptops let users interact with the devices using
gestures like waving, tilting, eye motion and shaking.
This technology is evolving faster and it has promising
potential for application in gaming, medicine and
other areas.
1.8.2 Functions of Operating System
Now let us explore the important services and tasks
that an operating system provides for managing the
computer system.
(A) Process Management
While a computer system is operational, different tasks
are running simultaneously. A program is intended to
carry out various tasks. A task in execution is known
Operating system is called
resource manager as it as process. We can activate a system monitor program
manages different resources that provides information about the processes being
like main memory, CPU,
I/O devices, so that each executed on a computer. In some systems it can be
resource is used optimally activated using Ctrl+Alt+Delete. It is the responsibility
and system performance does
of operating system to manage these processes and get
not deteriorate.
multiple tasks completed in minimum time. As CPU is
the main resource of computer system, its allocation
among processes is the most important service of the
operating system. Hence process management concerns
the management of multiple processes, allocation
of required resources, and exchange of information
among processes.
(B) Memory Management
Primary or main memory of a computer system is
usually limited. The main task of memory management
is to give (allocate) and take (free) memory from running
processes. Since there are multiple processes running
at a time, there arises a need to dynamically (on-the-go)
allocate and free memory to the processes. Operating
system should do it without affecting other processes
that are already residing in the memory and once the
process is finished, it is again the responsibility of the
operating system to take the memory space back for re-

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 Computer System 23

utilisation. Hence, memory management concerns with Notes

management of main memory so that maximum memory
is occupied or utilised by large number of processes
while keeping track of each and every location within
the memory as free or occupied.
(C) File Management
Data and programs are stored as files in the secondary
storage of a computer system. File management involves
the creation, updation, deletion and protection of these
files in the secondary memory. Protection is a crucial
function of an operating system, as multiple users can
access and use a computer system. There must be a
mechanism in place that will stop users from accessing
files that belong to some other user and have not been
shared with them. File management system manages
secondary memory, while memory management system
handles the main memory of a computer system.
(D) Device Management
A computer system has many I/O devices and hardware
connected to it. Operating system manages these
heterogeneous devices that are interdependent. The
operating system interacts with the device driver and the
related software for a particular device. The operating
system must also provide the options for configuring
a particular device, so that it may be used by an end
user or some other device. Just like files, devices also
need security measures and their access to different
devices must be restricted by the operating system to
the authorised users, software and other hardware only.

Summary
• A computing device, also referred as computer,
processes the input data as per given instructions
to generate desired output.
• Computer system has four physical components
viz. (i) CPU, (ii) Primary Memory, (iii) Input Device
and (iv) Output Devices. They are referred to as
hardware of computer.
• Computer system has two types of primary
memories viz. (i) RAM, the volatile memory and
(ii) ROM, the non-volatile memory.

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 24 Computer Science – Class xi

Notes • System bus is used to transfer data, addresses

and control signals between components of the
computer system.
• A microprocessor is a small-sized electronic
component inside a computer that performs basic
arithmetic and logical operations on data.
• Microcontroller is a small computing device which
has a CPU, a fixed amount of RAM, ROM and other
peripherals embedded on a single chip.
• Software is a set of instructions written to achieve
the desired tasks and are mainly categorised
as system software, programming tools and
application software.
• Hardware of a computer cannot function on its own.
It needs software to be operational or functional.
• Operating system is an interface between the user
and the computer and supervises the working of
computer system, i.e., it monitors and controls the
hardware and software of the computer system.

Exercise
1. Name the software required to make a computer
functional. Write down its two primary services.
2. How does the computer understand a program
written in high level language?
3. Why is the execution time of the machine code less
than that of source code?
4. What is the need of RAM? How does it differ from
ROM?
5. What is the need for secondary memory?
6. How do different components of the computer
communicate with each other?
7. Draw the block diagram of a computer system. Briefly
write about the functionality of each component.
8. What is the primary role of system bus? Why is
data bus is bidirectional while address bus is
unidirectional?
9. Differentiate between proprietary software and
freeware software. Name two software for each type.

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 Computer System 25

10. Write the main difference between microcontroller Notes

and microprocessor. Why do smart home appliances
have a microcontroller instead of microprocessor
embedded in them?
11. Mention the different types of data that you deal
with while browsing the Internet.
12. Categorise the following data as structured, semi-
structured and unstructured:
• Newspaper
• Cricket Match Score
• HTML Page
• Patient records in a hospital
13. Name the input or output device used to do the
following:
a) To output audio
b) To enter textual data
c) To make hard copy of a text file
d) To display the data or information
e) To enter audio-based command
f) To build 3D models
g) To assist a visually-impaired individual in
entering data
14. Identify the category (system, application,
programming tool) of the following software:
a) Compiler
b) Assembler
c) Ubuntu
d) Text editor

Explore Yourself
1. Ask your teacher to help you locate any two device
drivers installed on your computer.
2. Write any two system software and two application
software installed on your computer.
3. Which microprocessor does your personal computer
have? Which generation does it belong to?
4. What is the clock speed of your microprocessor?
5. Name any two devices in your school or home that
have a microcontroller.

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 26 Computer Science – Class xi

Notes 6. Check the size of RAM and HDD of a computer in

your school. Make a table and write their size in
Bytes, Kilobytes, Megabytes and Gigabytes.
7. List all secondary storage devices available at your
school or home.
8. Which operating system is installed on your
computer at home or school?

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 1 Basic Electronics
and Computer
Funda mentals

Introduction
Computer is an electronic equipment that works on
electricity. Every component of a computer needs
electrical power to run and this power can come from a
wall outlet in the form of alternating current or from a
battery in the form of direct current. Internal components
of a computer receive the power from the internal power
supply known as SMPS (switched mode power supply).
A computer installation technician must understand the
basic principles of electrical and electronics, and also
be aware of the computer fundamentals, its internal
components, and working.
This Unit explains the basic concept of electricity and
energy foundation, electrical quantities  —  current, voltage, and
resistance; the electronic components  —  active and passive,
integrated circuits (IC), and semiconductor memory.
Further, the Unit also describes the basic components of
a computer system, hardware and software, functional
units of a computer, primary and secondary memory
of a computer, different types of computers along with
their capacity. Various input and output devices are used
to enter the data in the computer as well as to produce
output. The variety of input and output devices, their
functionality and connectivity to the computer system
are also discussed in this Unit.
 1
Chapter

Basic Electronics

Introduction
Electricity has an important place in modern society.
In the current age, most of the electronic devices work
on electricity. Computer is also an electronic device
which works mainly on electricity. The peripheral
devices attached to the computer also work on
electricity. It is necessary to provide proper and
continuous power to the electronics equipment to
work properly. For this purpose, the surge protector
and uninterrupted power supply (UPS) are used,
which also work on electricity. Hence, electricity has
an important place in the world of computing and
computer. In this Chapter, you will understand the
basic concept of electricity, electrical quantities, and
various electronic components.

Electricity
Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated
with the presence and flow of electric charge.
It has a wide range of well-known effects, such as
lightning, static electricity, electromagnetic induction,
and electrical current.

Energy Foundation
Electric charge is a fundamental physical property of
matter. The forms of matter are—solid, liquid, and gases
which are made up of atoms. Atoms are the fundamental
building blocks of all molecules. The centre of an atom
is called the nucleus. Atoms consist of three subatomic
particles — protons, electrons, and neutrons. Electrons
spin around the nucleus in shells, at a great distance
from the nucleus. Protons carry a positive (+) charge,
electrons carry a negative (-) charge, neutrons are neutral
and have no net charge. One coulomb of charge is equal
to 6×1018 (6,250,000,000,000,000,000) electrons.

Unit 1.indd 2 09-Oct-19 2:17:09 PM

 Protons are found in the center of the atom, with a
charge of +1 and a mass of 1 atomic mass unit, which
is approximately equal to 1.66×10. Electrons are found
in the periphery of the atom and have a charge of -1.
They are much smaller than protons and their mass is
1/1836 amu.
The steady flow of electrons is called current. Current
is what flows through electrical wires and powers
electronics items, from light bulbs to televisions.
The positively charged protons attract negatively
charged electrons, hence holding the atomic structure
as shown in Figure 1.1.
Neutron
Conductors and Insulators (No charge)
The materials can be categorised as insulators or
Protron
conductors based on its physical property known as (+ve charge)
resistivity. In an insulator, the electric charge does
Electron
not flow freely from one atom to another due to high (-ve charge)
resistivity. In a conductor, the electric charge flows
Fig. 1.1: Atomic structure
freely from one atom to another due to low resistivity.
This flow of charge is electric current.

–
– + + + – +
–
Fig. 1.2: Atoms in a wire, showing electrons travelling from one atom to
another atom

Conductors
The material in which the electrons are loosely held can
move very easily. These are called conductors. Metals
like copper, aluminium, and steel are good conductors
of electricity.

Insulators
The materials which hold their electrons very tightly do
not allow the movement of the electrons through them Fig. 1.3: Conductor and
very well. These are called insulators. Rubber, plastic, insulator in a wire
cloth, glass, and dry air are good insulators and have
very high resistance.

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Unit 1.indd 3 09-Oct-19 2:17:10 PM

 The conductors are used to carry electrical current
through wires. Insulators are commonly used as coating
for the wires as shown in Figure 1.3. This wire consists
of a core of copper (a conductor) and a coating of
polyethylene (an insulator). The copper allows current
to flow through the wire, while the polyethylene resists
the flow of the current.

Electrical Quantities
i
+ Current, voltage, and resistance are the three basic
V R building blocks of electrical and electronics. They are
– called electrical quantities.

Fig. 1.4: A simple electric Voltage

circuit made up of a voltage This is the potential difference between two points. It is
source and a resistor
also the amount of work required to move one coulomb
charge from one point to another point. Mathematically
Current = flow of charge
it can be written as V=W/Q where, ‘V’ is the voltage, ‘W’
is the work in joule, ‘Q’ is the charge in coulomb.
Value of voltage is measured in volt or joules per
coulomb. Symbolic representation of voltage is ‘V’ or ‘v’.

Electric Current
Fig. 1.5: Flow of charge
through a cross section ‘A’ This is the movement of electric charge through a
conductive medium. In equation form, electric current
‘I’ is defined to be I=ΔQ/ΔT where, ‘Q’ is the amount of
Current
charge passing through a given area in time ‘T’. The
Conductor
SI unit for current is the ampere (A), named after the
French physicist André‑Marie Ampère (1775  – 
1836).
Voltage V Since, I=ΔQ/ΔT, we see that an ampere is one coulomb
per second, 1 A=1 C/s.
V
The flow of electricity requires a conductive medium
Fig. 1.6: Flow of electrons in the
conductor for the flow of charge known as a conductor. The
material’s ability to conduct charge is called electrical
conductance. The SI unit for conductance is siemens (S).

Resistance
It resists the flow of electrons and hence electric current
in the circuit. Conceptually, the resistance controls
the flow of electric current. An object or medium that
has high electrical resistance is called a resistor. The

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Unit 1.indd 4 09-Oct-19 2:17:11 PM

 resistance is represented by the symbol ‘R’. The SI unit
of electrical resistance is ohm (Ω). Figure 1.7(a) and (b) (a)
show the resistor and its symbol.
To understand how to measure current and
voltage in a circuit, you must also have a general
understanding of how a circuit works and how its
electrical measurements are related.
An electrical circuit is a type of network that has (b)
a closed loop, which provides a return path for the
current. A simple circuit consists of a voltage source Fig. 1.7: (a) Resistor,
and a resistor. (b) Resistor symbol
According to Ohm’s law, the electrical current ‘I’, or
movement of charge, that flows through most substances
is directly proportional to the voltage ‘V’ applied to it.
The electric property that impedes current is called
resistance ‘R’. Collisions of moving charges with atoms
and molecules in a substance transfers the energy to
the substance and limits the current. Resistance is
inversely proportional to current. Ohm’s law can
therefore be written as follows: I=V/R where ‘I’ is the
current through the conductor in amperes, ‘V’ is the
potential difference measured across the conductor in
volts, and ‘R’ is the resistance of the conductor in ohms
(Ω). More specifically, Ohm’s law states that ‘R’ in this
relation is constant, independent of the current. Using
this equation, we can calculate the current, voltage, or
resistance in a given circuit.
For example, if we had a 1.5 V battery that was
connected in a closed circuit to a light bulb with a
resistance of 5 Ω, what is the current flowing through the
circuit? To solve this problem, we would just substitute
the given values into Ohm’s law: I = 1.5V/5Ω; I = 0.3
amperes. If we know the current and the resistance,
we can rearrange the Ohm’s law equation and solve for
voltage ‘V’ where V=IR

Components — Active and Passive

An electronic circuit is composed of various components. Fig. 1.8: Different types of
Electronic components usually have two or more leads, components used in electrical
and electronics
which can be fitted into the PCB to form a working electric

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Unit 1.indd 5 09-Oct-19 2:17:11 PM

 circuit. Electronic components are mainly classified into
two classes — active and passive components.

Active components
They produce energy in the form of voltage or current.
These components require an external source for
their operation. An active component has an analog
electronic filter with the ability to amplify a signal or
produce a power gain. Examples of active components
are — diode, transistors, as shown in Figure 1.9(a).
Passive components
These do not produce energy in the form of voltage or
Fig. 1.9: (a) Active components
current. They do not require external energy to operate.
They cannot generate energy of their own and depend
on the power provided from the AC circuit. Examples of
passive components are resistors, capacitors, inductors,
sensors, and transducers as shown in Figure 1.9(b).
Active components
Fig. 1.9: (b) Passive components
The basic material used to manufacture active
components is a semiconductor. Let us first understand
the basics of semiconductors.
Semiconductor
These are materials whose conductivity is between
that of conductors and insulators. Electronic
devices are made up of semiconductor material. In
semiconductor industry, silicon and germanium are
used. Semiconductors are of two types, which are as
follows:
Intrinsic (pure)
It is the pure form of semiconductor. The ‘pure’ word
here represents that this semiconductor does not
contain any other impurity atom.
Extrinsic (impure)
It is an impure form of semiconductor. When
impurity atoms are added in the pure (intrinsic) form of
semiconductor, then that semiconductor is known as
extrinsic semiconductor. The extrinsic semiconductors
are also known as impure semiconductors.

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 P‑type semiconductor: When pentavalent impurity atom
is added, an extrinsic semiconductor is formed which is
known as P-type semiconductor.
N-type semiconductor: When trivalent impurity atom is
added, an extrinsic semiconductor is formed which is
known as N-type semiconductor.

Diode
It is an electronic device which allows current to flow
easily in circuit. The most common form of diode is
P-N junction diode, which is formed when two
(a)
semiconductors, that is, P-type semiconductor and
N-type semiconductor are combined to form a new
component which is known as diode. The diode and P N
its symbol are shown in Figure 1.10 (a) and (b). The
silver ring in a diode represents the cathode. Anode Cathode

Diode passes current only in one direction, therefore

it is also known as unidirectional. The P-side is called
anode and the N-side is called cathode. When the anode
(b)
and cathode of a P-N junction diode are connected to
Fig. 1.10: (a) Diode (b) Diode
external voltage source, such that, the positive end of symbol
a battery is connected to the anode and negative end of
the battery is connected to the cathode, diode is said to
be forward biased or we can say that diode will act as
a close switch (it will be turned ‘on’). In a
forward biased condition, diode will pass
the current through it.
When the P-side of the diode is connected
to the negative terminal of the battery and
N-side of the diode is connected to the
(a)
positive terminal of the battery, diode is
said to be reverse biased or we can say that
diode will act as an open switch (it will be
turned ‘off’). In a reverse biased condition,
diode will not pass the current through it.
Diode can be connected in forward bias
(b)
and reverse bias as shown in Figure1.11(a)
and (b). Fig. 1.11: (a) Diode connected in forward bias,
(b) Diode connected in reverse bias
There are various types of diodes such
as avalanche diode, crystal diode, light emitting diode
(LED), photodiode, varactor diode, and zener diode.

Basic Electronics 7

Unit 1.indd 7 09-Oct-19 2:17:13 PM

 Transistor
It is an active semiconductor device that has two P-N
junctions which amplify electric current and voltage. It
is a three layer semiconducting device. These three
layers have three terminals — emitter, base, and collector
respectively. It has two junctions and where the two
layers touch each other is called a junction. Junction
where emitter and base layer touch each other is known
as an emitter base (EB) junction. Whereas junction
where collector and base layer touch each other is
known as a collector base (CB) junction.
To understand the
functioning of a transistor,
we can relate it with the water
supply system in our home.
Storage tank which is kept
at the roof of the building
is similar to an emitter in a
transistor which acts as a
source of charge carrier, that
is, electrons and holes in a
semiconductor. The tap at
the ground is similar to the
base of the transistor, this
tap controls the flow of the
water like base controls the
Fig. 1.12: Analogy showing a tap as the base of the transistor
flow of the charge carrier.
Like the bucket at the ground collects the water
coming from the storage tank, similarly the collector
of the transistor collects the charge carriers coming
from emitter.
Identifying BJT Terminals
Keep the transistor such that the flat surface faces you,
as shown in the below Figure 1.13(a).
The bipolar junction transistor has three terminals
namely —
1. Emitter (E)
2. Base (B)
3. Collector (C)

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Unit 1.indd 8 09-Oct-19 2:17:14 PM

 The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and its symbol
are shown in Figure 1.13(a) and (b).
Figure 1.14 shows the details junctions of BJT.
C E Emitter-base Collector-base
junction junction
B B

Terminal 1 Terminal 3
Emitter Base Collector
E C
NPN PNP
(a) (b) Terminal 2
Fig. 1.13: (a) Bipoloar Junction Fig. 1.14: EB and CB junction of bipolar junction transistor
Transistor (b) Symbol of BJT

Passive Components
Resistor
It is the basic component in an electronic circuit, which
is used to calculate voltage and current in the circuit. It
opposes movement of electrons or it controls the amount
of current flow in the circuit. This opposition is known
as resistance. Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω).
Colour bands on a resistor are used to represent
the resistance values. There are 4-band, 5-band, and
6-band resistors.
In a 4-band resistor as shown in Figure 1.15, the first
and the second band represent the numerical value of
the resistor, the third band is a multiplier to the power
of ten, and the fourth band is the tolerance level. In a Fig. 1.15: 4-band and 5-band
colour coded resistor
5-band resistor, first three bands represent significant
digit, fourth band represents multiplier, and fifth band
Table 1.1 Colour code
represents tolerance.
Each colour on the colour coded resistor has the specific Code Number
value as per the colour scheme shown in Table 1.1. Black 0
The tolerance gives an upper and lower value of Brown 1
resistor. Take the following example for a 100Ω resistor Red 2
as shown in Table 1.2. Orange 3
The resistance of the resistor in Table 1.2 is calculated Yellow 4
as: resistance of resistor is the value of the first band, Green 5
succeeded by value of the second band, succeeded Blue 6
by number of zeros as per the value of colour code Violet 7
mentioned Table 1.1 and the fourth band represents Grey 8
the tolerance value to be taken from Table 1.2. White 9

Basic Electronics 9

Unit 1.indd 9 09-Oct-19 2:17:15 PM

 Table 1.2 Tolerance value

Stated Allowed Allowed

Tolerance Colour Resistor Upper Lower
Value Value Value
+/- 1% Brown 100 Ω 101 Ω 99 Ω
+/- 2% Red 100 Ω 102 Ω 98 Ω
+/- 5% Gold 100 Ω 105 Ω 95 Ω
+/- 10% Silver 100 Ω 110 Ω 90 Ω

For example, resistance of the four band resister with

colours yellow, violet, orange, and gold is calculated as:
yellow = 4, violet = 7, orange = 3 number of zeros, gold
= 5% tolerance, resistance = 47000 Ω (or 47 kΩ), 5%
tolerance.
According to Ohm’s law, power is calculated as the
product of voltage and resistance.

Assignment: Calculate the value of resistors by

using the color code.

(a) Brown-black-yellow-yellow
(b) Yellow-violet-red-yellow
(c) Red-red-brown-yellow

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 Alphanumerically coded (surface mounted) resistors
These are rectangular in shape as shown in Figure 1.16.
They have leads, which come out from the resistor, these
leads are used for mounting of resistor on the printed
circuit board (PCB). Some surface mount resistors use
plates on the bottom side of the resistor.
The first two or three numbers printed on the
surface mount resistor represent significant digits
and the last digit represents the number of zeros that Fig. 1.16: Surface mount
resistor
should follow. For example, as shown in Figure 1.16,
a resistor reading 1252 indicates a value of 12,500
ohms. For tolerance value, one must refer to the letter
at the end of the code. Compare this letter at the end
of the code with the tolerance. There are two types of
resistors — fixed resistor and variable resistor.
Fixed resistor
The resistors made up of ceramic body and cylindrical
in shape with definite or fixed resistance values are
fixed resistors. The resistive element could be either
carbon film, thick film, or a wound wire element. The
properties of fixed resistors depend upon the type of
fixed resistor used.
Based on the type of material used in constructing a
Fig. 1.17: (a) Fixed resistor
resistor, it is classified into  —  carbon composition, carbon
pile, carbon film, metal film, and metal oxide film.
(i) Carbon composition is made up of carbon clay
composition with plastic coating around it.
(ii) Carbon pile is made up of a stack of carbon
disks compressed between two metal contact.
(iii) Carbon film is deposited on an insulating
substrate and cut into thin resistive path.
(iv) Metal film is cylindrically shaped and coated
with nickel chromium.
(v) Metal oxide film is made up of tin oxide.
For example, a carbon film resistor has 5% tolerance,
power rating of 0.125W – 2W, temperature coefficient of
250 – 450 ppm/k.

Basic Electronics 11

Unit 1.indd 11 09-Oct-19 2:17:15 PM

 A metal film resistor has 1% tolerance, power rating
of 0.1–5W and temperature coefficient of 10 – 250
ppm/K.
Variable Resistor
These are the resistors whose resistance value can be
changed. They have three terminals out of which two are
connected to the ends of the track and a third terminal
is connected to the wiper. The motion of the wiper allows
Fig. 1.17:(b) Variable resistor increase and decrease of resistance. Potentiometer,
rheostat, and trimpot are variable resistors.
Capacitor
It is a passive electronic component used to store
electric charge. The unit for measuring capacitance
is farad (F). In a capacitor, energy is stored in the
form of an electric field. It has two parallel plates
and between these plates, energy is stored. It is also
marked with colour bands to denote value. The first
Fig. 1.18: Capacitor showing
capacitance value 4700 micro
two bands are the first and second digits whereas the
farad and maximum voltage third band denotes the multiplier. The capacitor is
value of 10 V indicated by the symbol .
The capacitance of capacitor can vary from –20% to
+80% of actual capacitance.
The parameters of capacitor are maximum voltage,
capacitance, and tolerance. Maximum voltage defines
the maximum voltage value of a capacitor. The
Figure 1.18 shows the various parameters which are
mentioned on a capacitor.
The capacitor is marked with the value of capacitance
and voltage. You can calculate the amount of charge in
capacitor by using equation Q = C x V where, Q = charge
in coulomb, C = capacitance in farad, V = voltage in volt.
Types of capacitors
There are various types of capacitors based on the
type of material used between plates of capacitor.
They are ceramic capacitors, film power capacitors,
super capacitors, electrolytic capacitors, and variable
capacitors, etc.
Ceramic capacitors: They are made up of ceramic and
metal where metal acts as the electrode and ceramic

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Unit 1.indd 12 09-Oct-19 2:17:16 PM

 is the dielectric. This type of capacitor is used in
applications of high frequency and high current
pulse loads.
Film power capacitors: In these, the
dielectric films are drawn to a thin layer
surrounded by metallic electrodes on a
cylindrical wiring. Polypropylene is used as
the dielectric.
Super capacitors: These are electrochemical
capacitors with no specific dielectric in it.
The storage of charge is obtained by either Fig. 1.19: Different types of capacitors
separation of charge or redox reaction.
Electrolytic capacitor: An electrolytic capacitor is a type
of capacitor that uses an electrolyte to achieve a larger
capacitance than other capacitor types. An electrolyte is
a liquid or gel containing a high concentration of ions.
Variable capacitors: Above mentioned capacitors are
fixed capacitors which cannot vary their capacitance.
A variable capacitor can vary its capacitance through
mechanical motion.

Inductor
It is a two terminal electrical component which resists
changes in electric current. The value of inductance is
measured in henry. Inductive tolerance is usually in the
range of -5% to +20%.
In an inductor, copper wire is used which is wound on
a plastic or ferromagnetic material in the form of a coil. The
inductor is shown in Figure 1.20 and it is indicated by the
symbol .
When current flows through the coil, a magnetic field
Fig. 1.20: Inductor
is set. This field restricts the flow of current. Once the
field is created, then current passes normally through it
thus resisting any change in the flow of current.
The types of inductors are  —  air core inductor,
ferromagnetic core inductor, and variable inductor.
Air core inductor
It has its coil wound on non-magnetic material like
plastic or ceramic and there is only air present in
between the windings.

Basic Electronics 13

Unit 1.indd 13 09-Oct-19 2:17:17 PM

 Ferromagnetic inductor
It has its coil wound on a magnetic core made up of
ferromagnetic material.
Variable inductor
It is made up of ferrite magnetic core which can be slid
or screwed to change inductance.

Assignment: Identify the components used in electrical and electronics.

Write down the name of the components

Pictorial representation of the component and identify which category they belong
to — active or passive.

Name of the
components: ___________________
Category:
Active
Passive

Name of the
components: ___________________
Category:
Active
Passive

Name of the
components: ___________________
Category:
Active
Passive

Name of the
components: ___________________
Category:
Active
Passive

14 Installation Technician — Computing and Peripherals — Class XI

Unit 1.indd 14 09-Oct-19 2:17:19 PM

 Transformer
It is an electric unit that Oil tank
transfers energy between two
circuits using electromagnetic
induction. It is a static unit
that simply transforms the
voltage level of an AC signal.
Transformer tank
It either steps-up or steps- Breather
down the AC voltage. It does
not change the frequency of
applied AC signal.
It consists of a core
made up of ferromagnetic or
ceramic material and a coil
made up of some insulating
Cooling fins
magnetic material or copper Control panel
wires. Transformer oil is used
for cooling of transformer. Fig. 1.21: Transformer parts
Based on the purpose,
there are different types of transformers such as
power transformers, instrument transformers, RF
transformers, and audio transformers. However, in
computers the step‑down, center tap, and high frequency
transformers are used. A center tapped transformer is
shown in Figure 1.22.

Integrated Circuit (IC) Fig. 1.22: Center tapped

transformer
Digital ICs are used in computers and computer
networks. An integrated circuit is a combination of
electronic components on a single piece (or ‘chip’) of
semiconductor material as shown in Figure 1.23. It has
a large number of tiny transistors on a small chip and
Fig. 1.23: Integrated circuit
results in circuits that are smaller, cheaper, and faster.
It also has a number of pins.

Semiconductor Memory
It is an electronic data storage device, which is fabricated
on integrated circuits (IC). As we have discussed,
semiconductors have conductivity which is in
between that of conductors and insulators. Electronic
devices are made up of semiconductor material. In

Basic Electronics 15

Unit 1.indd 15 09-Oct-19 2:17:20 PM

 semiconductor industry, silicon and germanium
are widely used. Computer memory is a physical
electronic device. Semiconductor memories are
Fig. 1.24: RAM used to store applications and data. This storage
can be temporary or permanent, as required by
a computer and/or its user. There are two types
of memory  — primary and secondary. Primary
memory includes RAM, ROM, and secondary
memory is — hard disk drive, CD/DVD, magnetic
tape, pen drive, etc. Primary memory is classified
into two types — read‑only memory (ROM) and
random access memory (RAM).
Fig. 1.25: ROM
Power Supply
It is an electrical device which provides operating
voltage to the computer. It is used to provide power to a
personal computer. It requires a minimum load of 7A at
5V and 2.5A at 12V. Modern PC requires power in the
range of 60W – 250W. The electronic components inside
the computer require very low DC voltage.
The various types of power supply used in computing
are DC power supply, AC power supply, linear regulated
power supply, batteries, uninterrupted power supply,
and switched mode power supply (SMPS).

Rectifier
AC power supply takes voltage from the mains and
converts it to DC before transmitting it to any device.
To convert AC into DC, a rectifier circuit is used which
A ensures that the current does not reverse its direction.
D2 D1 Rectifier circuits can be classified as single phase and
RL
three phase circuits. Again, every phase has half wave
AC
Input
C D rectifiers and full wave rectifiers.

D4
Full wave bridge rectifier
D3
B A bridge rectifier is a type of full wave rectifier which uses
four or more diodes in a bridge circuit configuration.

DC Output Bridge rectifier construction

Fig. 1.26: Construction of bridge The bridge rectifier is made up of four diodes namely
rectifier circuit
D1, D2, D3, D4, and load resistor RL. The input AC
signal is applied across two terminals A and B and

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Unit 1.indd 16 09-Oct-19 2:17:20 PM

 the output DC signal is obtained across the load Current flow direction

resistor RL, which is connected between the terminals + A

C and D. D2 D1
During the positive half cycle, the terminal A becomes RL
positive while the terminal B becomes negative. This AC
C D
causes the diodes D1 and D3 to become forward biased Input
D3 D4
and at the same time, it causes the diodes D2 and D4
to become reverse biased. The current flow direction –
B

during the positive half cycle is shown in the Figure

1.27 (that is A to D to C to B). DC Output

During the negative half cycle, the terminal B becomes Fig. 1.27: Bridge rectifier
circuit during positive half of
positive while the terminal A becomes negative. This the input cycle
causes the diodes D2 and D4 to become forward biased Current flow direction
and at the same time, it causes the diodes D1 and +
A
D3 reverse biased. The current flow direction during
D2 D1
negative half cycle is shown in the Figure 1.28 (that is
RL
B to D to C to A). C D
AC
From the Figure 1.27 and Figure 1.28, we can Input
observe that the direction of current flow across load D3 D4
resistor RL is same during the positive half cycle B
–
and negative half cycle. Therefore, the polarity of the
output DC signal is same for both positive and negative DC Output
half cycles. Fig. 1.28: Bridge rectifier circuit
during negative half of the
Battery input cycle

This is a device that converts chemical energy directly

to electrical energy. It consists of a number of voltaic
cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte
containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes
electrolyte and the anode or negative electrode; the
other half-cell includes electrolyte and the cathode or
positive electrode.
Batteries are convenient sources of electricity that
can be easily stored and utilised. (a)
Battery is shown in the Figure 1.29(a). The positive
terminal is cathode and negative is anode. It is
important to show the correct flow of electrons in the
(b)
circuit diagrams by indicating the positive and negative
Fig. 1.29: (a) Battery used in
terminal as shown in Figure 1.29(b). UPS (b) Battery symbol in a
Batteries can be broadly classified into two circuit diagram
types — primary and secondary.

Basic Electronics 17

Unit 1.indd 17 09-Oct-19 2:17:21 PM

 Primary batteries
They are non-rechargeable. They convert chemical
energy to electrical energy irreversibly.

Secondary batteries
They are rechargeable. Their chemical reactions can be
reversed by supplying electric energy to the cell.

Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

It is used to achieve voltage regulation and conversion
of power. SMPS functions in three stages  — input
rectifier, where AC is converted to DC;
inverter phase, where again the DC is
converted into inverted AC; and output
rectifier stage, where the inverted AC is
given to the high winding transformer.
SMPS is the board on which
electronic components are assembled
for the regulation of electric power.
In it, input AC voltage is converted
into low DC voltage. It is used in PCs
Fig. 1.30: SMPS
so that every part of the PC gets proper
power supply separately. It helps split
the power to motherboard, hard disk, floppy drive, CD
drive, etc.
It contains several wires of multiple colour. Each
wire carries different amount of voltage value, which will
pass to different hardware parts of the computer. The
Table 1.3 shows the different colour cables and amount
of voltage they carry.
Table 1.3

Yellow 12 V
Blue 12 V
Black Common [0]
Red 5V
White 5V
Green Power supply ON
Orange 3.3 V
Purple +5 SB (Standby)

18 Installation Technician — Computing and Peripherals — Class XI

Unit 1.indd 18 21-Oct-19 11:12:44 AM

 Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) Notes
It is an electronic device which supplies power to a load
when the mains supply or input power source fails. Any
UPS has a power storage element which stores energy
in the form of chemical energy, for example, the energy
is stored in batteries. A UPS uses double conversion
method of accepting AC input, rectifying to DC, passing
this through a string of batteries, and inverting it to
AC again.
UPS
Battery
Charger
AC Input Battery Inverter
AC Output

Fig. 1.31: Block representation of an UPS

Classification of UPS
It plays a vital role in maintaining the regularity of
electric power. There are a variety of UPS used in power
system. Some of them are discussed below —
Online UPS
In an online UPS, the batteries are always connected
to the inverter, so that, no power transfer switches
are necessary. In case of a power cut, there will be no
momentary power breaks.
Standby or offline UPS
A system where normally AC input (utility power) is
output, as it is to connected devices and when a power
outage or abnormal voltage is detected, inverter starts
feeding using power from the batteries. In the event of
a power outage, a few milliseconds of momentary break
occurs in the AC output.

Printed Circuit Board

This is used to electrically connect various components
using tracks, pads, etc. Internally, all the components
are connected, which reduces the complexity of the
circuit. It can be found in many electronics devices

Basic Electronics 19

Unit 1.indd 19 09-Oct-19 2:17:21 PM

 like — TV, mobile, digital camera, computers parts
like — graphic cards, motherboard, etc.

Types of PCB
There are several types of PCBs available. Out of these
types of PCB, we have to choose the appropriate type of
PCB according to our application —
Single-layer PCB
Single sided consisting of one layer of copper on a rigid
base material.
Double-layer PCB
Double sided consisting of two layers of copper on a
rigid base material.
Multi-layer PCB
They are boards with more than three copper layers on
double‑sided boards which are stuck to each other with
a particular glue.
Flexible PCB
It consists of a single conductor layer on a dielectric film.

Soldering
It is the process of melting a metal onto other metal
components in order to bind them. It differs from
Handle welding. In welding, the component
pieces are melted together; in soldering,
a softer metal with a lower melting
point is used to connect them. Because
soldering does not melt components, it
Soldering
iron tip is useful for delicate applications, such
Soldering as electronics works. The purpose
wire
of soldering is to bind two other
components. Solder can be thought of
as a sort of ‘metal glue’. It can be used
to fill in gaps or hold pieces in place, but
does not serve any more complicated
Soldering paste
purpose. Since solder is metallic, it
conducts electricity, which is another
Soldering stand reason for it being widely used for
Fig. 1.32: Soldering kit connecting electronic components.

20 Installation Technician — Computing and Peripherals — Class XI

Unit 1.indd 20 09-Oct-19 2:17:22 PM

 The soldering process is classified into soft soldering, Notes
silver soldering, and brazing.

Soldering techniques
There are various types of soldering techniques.
The following are the most commonly used soldering
techniques in PCB:
Conduction soldering
It is basically the traditional hand soldering technique.
Induction soldering
Uses induction heat to melt the solder.
Laser
This method is used at a power of 30–50W for electrical
connection joints.
Desoldering
It is the process of removing the solder and components
from PCB for troubleshooting, repair, or replacement.

Check Your Progress

A. Multiple choice questions
1. Which of the following components is used to provide
resistance?
(a) Heat (b) Energy
(c) Product (d) Resistor
2. A diode ________.
(a) is the simplest of semiconductor devices
(b) has characteristics that closely match those of a
simple switch
(c) is a two-terminal device
(d) All of the above
3. Which of the following is a semiconductor material?
(a) Silicon
(b) Germanium
(c) Both A and B
(d) None of these
4. Transformer works on ____________________.
(a) AC
(b) DC
(c) Both AC and DC
(d) None of these

Basic Electronics 21

Unit 1.indd 21 09-Oct-19 2:17:22 PM

 Notes 5. Transistor has __________layers and _________ junctions.
(a) two, three (b) three, two
(c) three, three (d) two, two
6. Diode is reverse biased when ___________.
(a) cathode is connected to the positive and anode is
connected to the negative terminal of the battery
(b) cathode is connected to the negative and anode is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery
(c) no specific polarity is required
(d) None of these
7. What is the ohmic value for the colour code of orange,
orange, orange?
(a) 22 k Ω
(b) 33 k Ω
(c) 3300 Ω
(d) 44000 Ω
8. Which of the following will be the correct value of
resistance for the colour code of brown, brown, red, gold
and for what ohmic value?
(a) 1.2k Ω 5%
(b) 1.1k Ω 5%
(c) 1.3k Ω 5%
(d) 1.5k Ω 5%
9. Which of the following will be the correct value of
resistance for the colour code of black, brown, green,
gold, and for what ohmic value?
(a) 1x105 Ω 5%
(b) 1x104 Ω 5%
(c) 1x105 Ω 10%
(d) 1x104 Ω 10%

B. Fill in the blanks

1. Electrons have ________ charge.
2. The SI unit for measuring the rate of flow of electric
charge is ________.
3. Transformers work on ________ voltage.
4. Extrinsic semiconductor is _______ form of semiconductor.
5. Intrinsic semiconductor is ______ form of semiconductor.
6. Capacitor stores energy in the form of ___________ field.
7. Inductor stores energy in the form of ________ field.
8. Diode has ________ terminals.
9. Silicon is ________ material.
10. Transistor has ___________ terminals.
11. A three terminals semiconducting device is ________.

C. State whether the statements given below are True or False

1. Transformer is used to step up the voltage.
2. Transistor is used as an amplifier and switch.

22 Installation Technician — Computing and Peripherals — Class XI

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 3. The electromagnetism in a transformer is the energy Notes
source for the transformer.
4. Transformer changes the frequency of the applied signal.
5. The junction where emitter layer and base layer touch
each other is named as emitter base junction.
6. Amplification is the process of increasing the level of
voltage and current.
7. The base unit of capacitance is farad.
8. Green, orange, orange, violet colour coded resistor is
62kΩ 5%.
9. Violet, green, orange, silver colour coded resistor is 75kΩ
10%.
10. Blue, red, orange, gold colour coded resistor is 62kΩ 5%.
11. Orange, orange, yellow, gold colour coded resistor is
330kΩ 5%.

D. Short answer questions

1. Describe the relationship between the electrical current,
voltage, and resistance in a circuit.
2. Explain the difference between a conductor and insulator.
3. List the name of conductors and insulators which are
used in our day‑to‑day life.
4. What does 10 A define?
5. Write short notes on—
(a) Diode
(b) Transistor
(c) LED, capacitor
(d) Inductor
6. Explain the types of semiconductors.
7. What are the applications of a transistor?
8. Write down the specifications of a capacitor.
9. Describe the functions and identify the major components
of a battery.
10. What is the role of active and passive components in an
electric circuit?

Basic Electronics 23

Unit 1.indd 23 09-Oct-19 2:17:22 PM

 2
Chapter

Computer System Fundamentals

Introduction
Computers are an essential tool of information technology
(IT). They are multi-purpose machines that are used to
solve a variety of problems in different fields. The basic
working principle of a modern computer is based on the
analytical engine designed by Charles Babbage in the
19th century. Computers have changed our daily routine
as the entire task performed by us in our daily routine is
automated. Our lives are directly or indirectly affected by
the computers. It was in the past era where computers
were used in industries. In this era of information, we are
dependent on the storage, flow, and processing of data
and information which can only be possible with the help
of computers. This is the reason a computer is called a
multi-purpose machine. The purpose of this Chapter is
to introduce you to a computer.

Computer System
The term ‘computer’ is derived from the word ‘compute’,
meaning ‘to calculate’. A computer is a programmable
electronic machine that accepts data from the user,
processes it by performing calculations and operations
on it, and generates the desired output results. Computer
performs both simple and complex operations, with
Fig. 2.1: Computer system speed and accuracy.
Computing is not restricted to only mathematical
computing but to a variety of logic‑based tasks. Computer,
process the data as per the given set of instructions. It
can perform operations like generating bills, reserving
tickets, printing mark-sheets, printing business reports,
or communicating messages. Data can be text, number,
audio, video, graphs, or animations.

Characteristics and Limitations of a Computer

As we know, computers can execute millions of
instructions per second. The computer gives a correct
result only if the data and instructions given are correct.

Unit 1.indd 24 14-Oct-19 5:05:58 PM

 The term garbage in, garbage out (GIGO) is used to refer Notes
to this feature. Computers are very useful because of
their characteristics like speed, accuracy, automation,
programming ability, storage, diligence, versatility, and
ability to retain data.

Characteristics
Speed: The speed of computer data processing is
measured in terms of instructions per second. Modern
computers can process the data very fast that is at the
rate of millions of instructions per second. It means
the calculations which otherwise require hours and
days to compute manually, can be completed in a few
seconds using computers.
Accuracy: Computers can perform complex arithmetic
and logical computations with 100% accuracy. For
example, the computer can accurately give the result of
division of any two numbers up to ten decimal places.
Automation: Computers can automatically perform a
given task based on the given instructions. Once data
and necessary instructions are stored in the computer
memory, human intervention is not required.
Programability: Computers can be programmed to
execute predefined set of instructions. The program
once written can be modified later for the revised task.
Storage: Computers can store large volumes of data
permanently in secondary storage for a long time. The
stored content can be retrieved whenever required. A
limited amount of data can be stored, temporarily, in
the primary memory.
Diligence: Computers are machines and hence they can
operate consistently for long hours without any break.
They can perform long and complex calculations with
the same speed and accuracy from the start till the end.
Versatility: Computers are versatile in nature. They
can perform different types of tasks with the same ease.
At one moment, you can use the computer to prepare
a letter document and the next moment you may play
music or print a document.
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 Limitations
Computers also have some limitations. Computers do
not have emotions, knowledge, experience, and feelings.
They can only perform tasks as per the instructions
given by the user and do not take their own decisions.

Generations of Computer
The computer has evolved from a large simple calculating
machine to a smaller but much more powerful machine.
The evolution of the computer to the current state is
defined in terms of generations of the computer. Each
generation of the computer is designed based on a new
technological development, resulting in better, cheaper,
and smaller computers that are more powerful, faster,
and efficient than their predecessors. There are five
generations of the computer.
Table 2.1 Generations of computer

Generations Hardware Technology Systems Examples

First Generation Main electronic component: vacuum ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC,
(1942–1954) tubes IBM 701
Input/Output device: punch card

Second Main electronic component: transistors IBM 7030, IBM 7094, IBM 1400
Generation Input/Output device: floppy disk and series, CDC 164, UNIVAC series
(1955–1964) tape

Third Generation Main electronic component: integrated IBM 360/370, UNIVAC 1108,
(1964–1975) circuits (IC) UNIVAC AC 9000, PDP 11, CDC
Input/Output device: keyboard and 6600
mouse as input device, high capacity
disk for secondary storage

Fourth Very large scale integrated circuits STAR 1000, CRAY-X-MP (super
Generation (VLSI) technology, microprocessor computer), DEC 10, PDP 11
(1975–Present) CRAY-1, IBM 4341, ALTAIR 8800,
Input/Output device: keyboard and Apple computers, VAX9000
mouse as input device, high capacity
disk for secondary storage

Fifth Generation These machines will incorporate IBM notebooks, Pentium PCs,
(Present–Future) bio-chip and VVLSI (very very large SUN workstations
scale integration) or ultra-large scale
integration (ULSI)
artificial intelligence (AI)

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 Hardware and Software
A computer needs both hardware and software to
function properly.
Hardware: It consists of mechanical and electronic
devices which we can see and touch. CPU, keyboard,
mouse, and monitor are examples of hardware.
Software: It consists of programs, operating systems,
and the data that resides in the memory and storage
devices. Windows, Microsoft Office, LibreOffice, and
Photoshop are some examples of software.
A computer system is useful only if it consists of both
hardware and software.

Hard disk
Optical drive
CPU fan

CPU Processor
Heat sink

(a) (b)
RAM
Fig. 2.2: (a) Hardware and (b) Software

Identify whether the following are a part of the computer

hardware or software.
Component Hardware/Software
Motherboard
Monitor
DVD drive
Hard disk
Microphone
MS Office
Keyboard
CorelDraw
LibreOffice
RAM

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 The Input-Process-Output Concept
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data,
processes data, generates output, and stores data. A
computer mainly performs the following four functions:

Input
The computer accepts input data from the user via
an input device like keyboard. The input data can be
characters, word, text, sound, images, document, etc.

Process
The computer processes the input data. It performs
arithmetic or logic calculation, editing, modifying a
document, etc. During processing, the data, instructions,
and the output are stored temporarily in the computer’s
main memory.

Output
It is the result generated after the processing of data.
The output may be in the form of text, sound, image,
document, etc. The computer may display the output
on a monitor and send the output to the printer
for printing.

Storage
The input data, instructions, and output are stored
permanently in the secondary storage devices like hard
disk. The stored data can be retrieved, whenever
needed.

Main Components of the

Memory Unit
Computer System
The internal design of a computer
differs from one model to another but
CPU the basic components of all computers
Input Output remain the same. The basic working
Unit Registers
Unit model of a computer is based on the
John von Neumann architecture. The
CU ALU interconnection diagram for a simple
computer is shown in the Figure 2.3.
Fig. 2.3: John von Neumann architecture John von Neumann proposed the first

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 usable draft of a working computer. It consists of some
functional units namely input/output unit, central Monitor
processing unit (CPU), and memory.
A computer has the following three main components —
(i) input/output unit
(ii) central processing unit
(iii) memory unit
CPU
Keyboard
Input and output unit Mouse
The user interacts with the computer via the I/O unit.
The input unit accepts data from the user and the output
unit provides the processed data that is the information
to the user. The input unit accepts data from the
user, converts it into computer understandable form.
Similarly, the output unit provides the output in a form
that is understandable by the user. The input is provided
to the computer using input devices like keyboard and
mouse. The commonly used output devices are monitor
and printer. Headphone

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

It is the main component of the computer. It performs
all the processing of input data and is responsible
for activating and controlling the operations of other
units of the computer. In microcomputers, the CPU is
built on a single chip or integrated circuit (IC) and is
called microprocessor. Internal architecture of a CPU
Printer
consists of the following parts —
Fig. 2.4: Input and output
(i) arithmetic logic unit (ALU) devices
(ii) registers
(iii) control unit (CU)
(iv) buses
(v) clock

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

It consists of two units—arithmetic unit and logic unit.
The arithmetic unit performs arithmetic operations
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. Logic unit performs comparisons of numbers,
letters, and special characters. Logic operations include

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 Notes testing for greater than, less than or equal to condition.
ALU performs arithmetic and logic operations and uses
registers to hold the data that is being processed.
Registers
They are high speed but have low storage in the CPU.
They are referred to as the CPU’s working memory and
are directly accessed and manipulated by the CPU during
instruction execution. They store data, instructions,
addresses, and intermediate results of processing.
The data and instructions are brought in the registers
processing. For example, if two numbers are to be
added, both numbers are brought in the registers and
added and the result is also placed in a register. There
are different registers for different specific purposes.
Some of the important registers in CPU are as follows —
• Accumulator (ACC): stores the result of arithmetic
and logic operations.
• Instruction register (IR): contains the most
recently fetched instruction.
• Program counter (PC): contains the address of
next instruction to be processed.
• Memory address register (MAR): contains the
address of next location in the memory to
be accessed.
• Memory buffer register (MBR): temporarily stores
data from memory or the data to be sent to
memory.
• Data register (DR): stores the operands and any
other data.
The number of registers and the size (number of
bits) of each register in a CPU helps to determine the
power and the speed of a CPU. The overall number of
registers can vary from about ten to many hundreds,
depending on the type and complexity of the processor.
The size of the register also called word size, indicates
the amount of data with which the computer can work
at any given time. The size of a register may be 8, 16,
32, or 64 bits. In 32-bit CPU, each register is 32 bits
wide and it can manipulate 32 bits of data at a time.
The modern PCs have 32-bit or 64-bit registers and are

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 referred to as 32‑bit processor and 64‑bit processor. A Notes
64‑bit processor can process the data twice as much as
a 32-bit processor.
Control unit (CU)
It controls the input, output, and processing activities
inside the computer. It maintains the order and
controls the operation of the entire system. The control
unit interprets the instructions given to the computer,
determines the data to be processed, where to store the
results (output), and sends the control signals to the
devices required for the execution of the instructions.
It directs the computer to carry out stored program
instructions by communicating with the ALU and the
registers. CU uses the instructions in the instruction
register (IR) to decide which circuit needs to be activated.
It also instructs the ALU to perform the arithmetic or
logic operations. When a program is run, the program
counter (PC) register keeps track of the program
instruction to be executed next. CU tells when to fetch
the data and instructions, what to do, where to store
the results, the sequencing of events during processing,
etc. CU also holds the CPU’s instruction set, which is a
list of all operations that the CPU can perform.
Buses
Data is stored as a unit of 8 bits in a register. Each bit
is transferred from one register to another by means of
a separate wire. This group of eight wires which is used
as a common way to transfer data between registers
is known as a bus. Bus is a connection between two
components to transmit signals between them. Bus is
of three major types namely—data bus, control bus,
and address bus.
Clock
It is an important component of CPU which
measures and allocates a fixed time slot for processing
each and every micro operation. CPU executes the
instructions in synchronisation with the clock pulse.
The clock speed of a CPU is measured in terms of mega

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 hertz or millions of cycles per second. The clock speed
of a CPU varies from one model to another.

Memory unit
It stores the data, instructions, intermediate results
and output, temporarily during the processing of
data. The memory unit consists of cache memory and
primary memory. Primary memory or main memory of
the computer is used to store the data and instructions
during execution of the instructions. Random access
memory (RAM) and read‑only memory (ROM) are the
primary memory. The input data that is to be processed
is brought into the main memory before processing.
The instructions required for processing of data and
any intermediate results are also stored in the main
memory. The output is stored in memory before being
transferred to the output device. CPU can work with
the information stored in the main memory. In addition
to the main memory, there is another kind of storage
device known as the secondary memory. It is non-
volatile memory and is used for permanent storage of
data and programs. A program or data that has to be
executed is brought into the RAM from the secondary
memory. Magnetic disks, optical disks, and magnetic
tapes are examples of secondary memory.
Cache memory
During processing, data and instructions are brought
to RAM from secondary storage devices. For processing,
the data and instructions are accessed from the RAM
and stored in the registers. The time taken to move
the data between RAM and CPU registers is large. This
affects the speed of processing of a computer and results
in decreasing the performance of CPU. Cache memory is
a very high speed memory placed in between RAM and
CPU. It increases the speed of processing
and it is a storage buffer that stores the
Processor
(Core)
L1 Cache L2 Cache RAM data that is used more often temporarily
and makes it available to the CPU at a
fast rate. During processing, CPU first
Fig. 2.5: Illustration of cache memory
checks cache for the required data. If

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 data is not found in cache, then it looks in the RAM for Notes
data. To access the cache memory, CPU does not have
to use the motherboard’s system bus for data transfer.
Cache memory is built into the processor and may
also be located next to it on a separate chip between
the CPU and RAM. Cache built into the CPU is faster
than separate cache, running at the speed of the
microprocessor itself. However, separate cache is roughly
twice as fast as RAM.
The CPU has a built-in level 1 (L1) cache and level
2 (L2) cache, as shown in Figure 2.5. In addition
to the built-in L1 and L2 cache, some CPUs have a
separate cache chip on the motherboard. This cache on
the motherboard is called level 3 (L3) cache. Modern
processor comes with built-in L3 cache, like in Intel core
i7. The L1, L2, and L3 cache store the most recently
run instructions, the next ones and the possible ones,
respectively. Typically, CPUs have cache size varying
from 256KB (L1), 6 MB (L2), to 12MB (L3) cache. Cache
memory is very expensive, so it is smaller in size.
Generally, computers have cache memory of sizes 256
KB to 2 MB.
Primary memory
It is the main memory of a computer. It is used to store
data and instructions during the processing of data. It
is semiconductor memory and is of two kinds—random
access memory (RAM) and read‑only memory (ROM).
Read‑only memory (ROM)
It is an essential memory unit in every computer. It
holds the boot up program called BIOS (Basic Input
Output System) required to boot the computer. This
memory is permanent and is not erased when the
system is switched off. The memory capacity of ROM
varies from 64 KB to 256 KB depending on the model of
the computer.
Random access memory (RAM)
It is used to store data and instructions during the
execution of programs. CPU accesses the data and the

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 Notes instructions from RAM, as it can access them at a faster
speed than the storage devices connected to the input
and output unit. The input data that is entered using
the input unit is stored in RAM, to be made available
during the processing of data. Similarly, the output
data generated after processing is stored in RAM before
being sent to the output device. Any intermediate
results generated during the processing of program are
stored in RAM. RAM is volatile meaning it is temporary
and is erased when the computer is switched off. It is
a read/write type of memory and thus can be read and
written by the user. As it is possible to randomly use
any location of this memory, it is known as random
access memory. The memory capacity of RAM starts
from 640 KB and the present computers have 4 GB to
16 GB RAM.
Memory representation
In a computer, data is stored as a machine code. The
machine code has only two states either 0 or 1. Binary
digit or bit is the basic unit of memory. A bit is a single
binary digit that is 0 or 1. A bit is the smallest unit
of representation of data in a computer. The storage
capacity of memory is measured in bytes. A group of
8 bits form a byte. One byte can store 28 that is 256
different combinations of bits and thus can be used to
represent 256 different symbols. In a byte, the different
combinations of bits fall in the range 00000000 to
11111111.
Binary digit = 1 bit = 0 or 1
1 Nibble = 4 bits
1 Byte (B) = 8 bits
1 Kilobyte (KB) = 210 = 1024 bytes
1 Megabyte (MB) = 220 = 1024KB
1 Gigabyte (GB) = 230 = 1024 MB = 1024*1024 KB
1 Terabyte (TB) = 240 = 1024 GB = 1024*1024*1024 KB
A computer with 2GB of RAM can hold 2 billion bytes
of data and instructions at any time.
Secondary memory
It stores data and instructions permanently. The
information can be stored in secondary memory for

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 a long time (years), and is generally permanent in
nature unless erased by the user. It is a non-volatile
memory. It provides backup storage for data and
instructions. Hard disk drive and optical disk drives are
some examples of storage devices.
The data and instructions that are currently not
being used by CPU, but may be required later for
processing are stored in secondary memory. It has a
higher storage capacity and is also cheaper than the
primary memory. But it takes a longer time to access
the data and instructions stored in secondary memory
than in primary memory.
Magnetic Storage Devices
These use plastic tape or metal or plastic disks
coated with magnetic materials. Data is recorded
magnetically in these devices. Read/write heads
are used to access data from these devices. Hard
disk drive is the most popular magnetic storage
device now.
Hard disk drive (HDD): This consists of metal disks
coated with magnetic material concealed in dust
free containers. Hard disks have a very high storage
capacity, high data transfer rates, and low access
time. They are more durable, less error prone, and
are the most common secondary storage device used
in computers. Fig. 2.6: Hard disk drive

Optical storage devices: This is a data storage medium

which uses a low power laser beam to read from and
write data into it. The laser beam reads the pits and
lands (all optical media have pits and lands which
are microscopic) as 0s and 1s. It is very cheap to
manufacture optical disks in large quantities and it is a
popular secondary storage medium. The main types of Fig 2.7: CD, DVD, and Blu-ray
optical disks are—CD, DVD, and Blu-ray. disc

Compact disc (CD): This is an optical storage medium

capable of storing up to 700 MB of data. A CD drive uses
red laser beams for reading from and writing data into
CDs. There are two types of CDs—CD-R and CD-RW.
In CD-R (compact disc recordable), data can be written
once and read many times whereas in CD-RW (compact

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 disc rewritable) disks, it can be erased and rewritten at
any time.
Digital versatile disk (DVD): This is an optical storage
media similar to CD-ROM but with a higher storage
capacity. This is achieved by using smaller spots to
record data. Recording and reading of data is done using
a DVD drive. Here also, red laser beam is used for these
operations. The capacity of a DVD varies from 4.37 GB
to 15.9 GB. DVDs also come in the form of DVD-ROM
and DVD-RW.
Blu-ray DVD: This is an optical disk format developed
to enable recording, rewriting, and playback of high
definition (HD) video as well as storing huge amounts
of data. CD and DVD technologies use red laser to
read and write data while Blu-ray format uses a blue-
violet laser. The benefit of using a blue-violet laser is
that it has a shorter wavelength than a red laser,
which makes it possible to focus on the laser spot
with greater precision. This allows data to be packed
more tightly. Therefore, it is possible to store more
data on the disk even though it is the same size as
that of a CD or DVD. The format offers more than five
Fig. 2.8 (a): Flash drive times the storage capacity of traditional DVDs and
can hold up to 25 GB on a single layer disc and 50 GB
on a dual layer disc.

Semiconductor storage (flash memory)

Flash drives use EEPROM chips for data
storage. Flash memory is faster and durable as
compared to other types of secondary memory.
USB flash drive and flash memory cards are
the examples of flash memory.
USB flash drive: This is a small external storage
device. It is portable and rewritable. The storage
capacity of an USB drive currently varies from
2 GB to 128 GB.
Flash memory card: This is of size about 1
Fig. 2.8 (b): Flash memory cards inch × 0.75 inches with a thickness of about 2
mm. It has storage capacities in the range of 1
GB–32 GB. It also has a smaller version which is used
within cell phones and tablets. These smaller cards are

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 about 6 mm × 3 mm in size and are less than 1 mm Notes
thick. These cards have various speed levels as per
their usage.
Table 2.2 summaries the characteristics of the
various kinds of data storage in the storage hierarchy.
Modern computers are designed with this hierarchy due
to the characteristics listed in the table.
Table 2.2 Comparison of different types of memory

Storage Speed Capacity Relative Cost Volatile

Registers Fastest Lowest Highest Yes

Cache Faster Low Very high Yes

RAM/ Low/
Fast High Yes
ROM Moderate

Hard Disk Moderate Very high Very low No

Practical Activity
Identify the computer hardware and software.
Material required
Computer, RAM, hard disk drive, CD, DVD, pen drive
Procedure
1. Identify the RAM chip and note its memory capacity.
2. Identify the hard disk drive and note its memory
capacity.
3. Insert the CD in the CD drive and note its memory
capacity.
4. Insert the DVD in the DVD drive and note its memory
capacity.
5. Insert the pen drive in the USB slot and note its
memory capacity.
6. Categorise all of the above memory into primary and
secondary memory.

Classification of Computers
Generally, the word computer refers to a personal
computer such as a desktop or laptop. However, we

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 see different types of computers in our daily lives
performing various tasks, for example while operating
an ATM, purchasing groceries at the store, etc.

Purpose
According to purpose, computers can be classified into
two types:
General purpose computers
These computers are used for general use such as office
applications, banking, invoice, sales analysis, and
financial accounting. They are used at home, offices,
and educational institutions.
Special purpose computers
These computers are designed to perform scientific
applications, weather forecasting, space applications, etc.
Fig. 2.9: Digital and analog
signals Working principle
According to the technology used, computers can be
classified into three types — analog, digital, and hybrid
computers.
Analog computers
These deal with analog data which represents the
(a) continuously varying physical quantities, such as
current, voltage, or frequency. They are used to
measure physical quantities like pressure, temperature,
speed, etc., and to perform computation on these
measurements. Examples are thermometer and
(b)
speedometer.
Digital computers
These operate on digital data. Input and output is in the
form of on/off type (digit 1 and 0). Digital computers are
based on counting operation. Any data to be manipulated
by a digital computer must be converted to a discrete
(1,0) representation. The digital computers are mainly
(c) used in office, home, and industry.
Fig. 2.10: (a) Analog computer, Hybrid computers
(b) Digital computer, (c) Hybrid
computer These use the combination of digital and analog
computers. These computers use digital‑to‑analog

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 (DAC) and analog-to-digital (ADC) technology to deal
with both types of data. They store and process both
analog and digital data. Hybrid computers are mainly
used in artificial intelligence. The ECG machine used
in hospitals is an example of hybrid computer. ECG
machine reads the heart beat as an analog signal and
then converts it into digital signal to print the graph.
Classification of computers according to size and
storage capacity
Supercomputer: This is designed by interconnecting
a number of processors. It has the highest processing Fig. 2.11: Supercomputer
speed with multiprocessing technology. It is mainly
used in weather forecasting, biomedical research,
aircraft design, remote sensing, and other areas of
science and engineering. A supercomputer focuses on
executing a few programs as fast as possible. Examples
of supercomputers are CRAY YMP, CRAY2, NEC SX-3,
CRAY XMP, and PARAM.
Mainframes: These are slower than the supercomputers
in speed and processing power. They can support
hundreds of users simultaneously. In one way,
mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers
because they support more programs simultaneously,
while the supercomputer can execute a single program
faster than a mainframe. Mainframes have a very
large storage capacity and can handle large database
systems, such as patient information system in
a big hospital or student information system in an
university. Example of mainframes are DEC, ICL, Fig. 2.12: Mainframe
and IBM 3000 series. The capacity of a mainframe computer
can be a hundred or even a thousand times that of a
modern PC.
Mini computer: This uses multiprocessing. It is capable
of supporting hundreds of users simultaneously. It
has a large storage capacity and operates at a higher
speed. The minicomputer is used in multi-user system
where various users can work at the same time. This Fig. 2.13: Mini computer
type of computer is generally used for processing a large
volume of data. It is also used as a server in Local Area
Networks (LAN).

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 Micro computer: This has the lowest speed and
storage capacity. Its CPU is a microprocessor. The 4
bit microprocessor chip was invented first. The 8 bit
microprocessor chip was used in the first microcomputer.
The microprocessor chip continues to improve 16 bit, 32
bit, and 64 bit chips. Examples of microcomputer are
IBM PC, PC-AT. The PC supports a number of input and
Fig. 2.14: Micro Computer output devices. Today’s microcomputer is so powerful
that it can serve the purpose of a server, or sometimes
that of a minicomputer that can be used as a server.
The microcomputer can be categorised as below —

Desktop computers
Desktop computers are also known as personal computer
(PC). They are intended for use at a fixed location. They
consist of CPU, monitor, speaker, keyboard, and mouse.
Desktop computers are easy to upgrade and expand.
They are also less expensive.

All in one computer

All in one computers are the new form of desktop
PC. They have inbuilt CPU and monitor like that of a
Fig. 2.15: All in one
computer
laptop. They can also have a touch screen monitor and
are mounted on a desk like a standard monitor. CPU is
mounted on the back side of the monitor. It has a USB
port for connection of a mouse and keyboard.

Laptop computers
A laptop has a built-in monitor, keyboard, touch-pad,
and speakers to make a fully functional computer.
The modern laptops also have touch screen, which
minimises the use of a keyboard or mouse. They are
called laptops because of their small size and being
light enough to be used while being placed on one’s
lap. A laptop can perform almost all jobs of a desktop.
The main components of laptop are  —  touchpad,
Fig. 2.16: Laptop computer
battery, AC adapter and ports. A user can work on
a fully charged laptop without connecting it to a
power supply for three to seven hours. A laptop has a
power cable and AC adapter designed to be used with

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 specific type of laptop. The laptop also have 3 – 4 USB
ports to connect peripheral devices, a VGA or HDMI
port to connect the projector and a slot to insert a
memory card.

Mobile computers
Many mobile devices work as specialised computers.
These are normally used for internet, e-mail, photography,
capturing and storing images and videos. These devices are
portable and consume very less space. The various mobile
computers are categorised as  — tablets, smartphones,
wearable devices, vehicle-mounted, handheld computers,
e-book readers, etc. The most common are tablets and
smartphones, which are discussed here.
Tablets
They are handheld computers and are more portable
than laptops. They use a touch sensitive screen for
typing and navigation. The size of a tablet is about 7 to
10 inches. They work on specialised operating systems
such as Android, Windows, and iOS. The iPad is an
example of a tablet.
Smartphones
In addition to providing telephone services, a smartphone
is designed to run a variety of applications (apps). They
are small tablet computers and can be used for web
browsing, watching videos, reading e-books, and playing
games. Many apps can be installed on the smartphone
which we use in our daily lives for booking tickets, bill Fig. 2.17: Smartphone
payment, etc.

Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)

They are just like a mobile phone with a touch screen and
keypad. They have bigger screens than mobile phones.
They use handwriting recognition software to enter text
and are extremely portable and fit into pockets. They are
a powerful computer that includes satellite navigation Fig. 2.18: PDA
facilities (GPS), mobile phone capability, and versions
of application software that have a limited range
of functions.

Computer System Fundamentals 41

Unit 1.indd 41 09-Oct-19 2:17:34 PM

 Types of computers on the basis of brand
There are two types of PCs — IBM/IBM compatible Intel
PC and Mac PC.
IBM PC
IBM PC began with the original IBM PC that was
introduced in 1981. Other companies began
Fig. 2.19: IBM computer
manufacturing similar computers which were called
IBM Compatible.
Apple/Macintosh
Macintosh introduced the first personal computer with
graphical user interface (GUI) in 1984. Macs are made
by Apple Inc., and use Mac OS X (an operating system).
Fig. 2.20: Apple computer

Look through the list of computer types and state

where they are being used. Discuss which computer
should be used for what purpose. State three reasons to
choose a laptop computer rather than a general purpose
desktop computer.

Check Your Progress

A. Multiple choice questions
1. The computer system is used to _________________.
(a) compute the result
(b) process the data
(c) produce result
(d) All of these
2. The data and information can be stored in __________.
(a) primary storage
(b) secondary storage
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of these
3. Which of the following are components of central
processing unit (CPU)?
(a) Arithmetic logic unit, mouse, control unit
(b) Arithmetic logic unit, control unit, memory
(c) Arithmetic logic unit, integrated circuits, memory
(d) Control unit, monitor, memory

42 Installation Technician — Computing and Peripherals — Class XI

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 4. The device through which data and instructions are Notes
entered into a computer is ____________.
(a) software
(b) output device
(c) input device
(d) memory
5. The measurement of storage capacity of memory is
in______________.
(a) bite
(b) bytes
(c) kilobytes
(d) megabytes
6. The ‘heart’ of the processor which performs many
different operations —
(a) arithmetic and logic unit
(b) motherboard
(c) control unit
(d) memory
7. Unit of computer which is capable of performing
arithmetic, logical, and data manipulation operations on
binary numbers is called __________.
(a) CU
(b) ALU
(c) I/O Unit
(d) processing unit
8. Operations of computer arithmetic and logic unit are
directed by ______________.
(a) ALU itself
(b) program
(c) control unit
(d) memory unit
9. CPU consists of _____________.
(a) ALU, control unit and registers
(b) ALU and control unit
(c) ALU, control unit, and hard disk
(d) ALU, control unit, and monitor
10. The output of a computer is sent to _______________.
(a) input device
(b) output device
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of these
11. Which among the following was found in the first
generation of computers?
(a) Vacuum tubes and magnetic drum
(b) Integrated circuits
(c) Magnetic tape and transistors
(d) All of above

Computer System Fundamentals 43

Unit 1.indd 43 09-Oct-19 2:17:35 PM

 Notes 12. Which of the following refers to the fastest, biggest, and
most expensive computer?
(a) Personal computer
(b) Supercomputer
(c) Laptop
(d) Notebook

B. Fill in the blanks

1. The _____________________ unit is used to perform the
arithmetic operations.
2. The input, output, and processing activities are controlled
by the ____________
3. The ___________ unit acts as central nervous system of
the computer.
4. The _____________ unit presents the results to the user.
5. The different parts of the CPU are ___________, _________,
and _____________.
6. ____________ and _____________ are the main memory.
7. The fastest memory in a computer is _______________.
8. ALU consists of the _________ unit and ____________ unit.
9. The ___________ memory is placed between the RAM and
the CPU.
10. The result of input given to computer is called as
_________________.
11. The __________ is the physical part of the computer
system which one can see, feel, or touch.
12. The _____________ is also called the brain of the computer.
13. The wrong results produced by computer on wrong input
are ______________.
14. According to its size and memory capacity, the digital
computer is categorised into ___________ types.
15. A bit is a single binary digit __________ or ____________.
16. One byte can store ________ different combination of bits.
17. 1 Byte = ___________ bits
18. 1 Kilobyte (KB) = ____________ bytes
19. 1 Megabyte (MB) = _______ KB
20. 1 Gigabyte (GB) = ____________ MB = ___________ KB
21. 1 Terabyte (TB) = ______________ GB
22. The registers are located inside the _______________.

C. State whether the statements given below are True or False

1. The random access memory is used to hold the boot
up program.
2. Control unit is used to present the result to the user.
3. For entering data and instruction to a computer, an
input device is used.

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Unit 1.indd 44 21-Oct-19 11:12:53 AM

 4. Control unit decides where to store processed data. Notes
5. A computer can do anything without data and instruction.
6. A computer is a high speed calculator.
7. CPU is a microprocessor with high speed processing
power.
8. Minicomputer uses microprocessor having large storage
capacity.
9. Supercomputer has highest processing speed after
mainframe with multiprocessing technology.
10. The output of the digital computer is in the form of 0 or
1 type.
11. Digital computers are used for measuring physical
quantities like pressure, temperature, etc.

D. State the long form of the following acronyms —

1. CPU
2. ALU
3. CU
4. RAM
5. ROM
6. HDD
7. ENIAC
8. EDVAC
9. EDSAC
10. UNIVAC
11. GIGO
12. IBM
13. PDA
14. LSI
15. VLSI

E. Short answer questions

1. What is a computer?
2. Explain input and output with examples.
3. List the important characteristics of computers.
4. List the limitations of the computer.
5. Distinguish between software and hardware.
6. Explain the input-process-output cycle.
7. What are the main components of the computer system?
8. Define analog, digital, and hybrid computers.
9. Give an example of analog computer and digital computer.
10. Give names of different types of computers.
11. How is a computer a versatile machine?
12. Explain how a computer is diligent?
13. Draw a labeled diagram of a basic model of a computer
system.

Computer System Fundamentals 45

Unit 1.indd 45 09-Oct-19 2:17:35 PM

 Notes 14. List the functions of a computer.
15. List the components of central processing unit.
16. Name the functional units of a computer.
17. What is the function of ALU?
18. What is the function of control unit?
19. What is primary memory?
20. List five important registers of the CPU and state the
purpose of each register.
21. Why are registers used in the CPU?
22. Define word size.
23. Explain the meaning of 64‑bit processor.
24. List the key features of the internal memory.
25. List the key features of the main memory.
26. Which is the fastest memory?
27. Arrange the memories in increasing order of speed —
register, RAM, hard disk drive, magnetic tape, cache
memory.
28. Give the approximate speed and size of the registers,
cache memory, RAM, and magnetic disk.
29. List the different memories available in the computer in
order of their hierarchy with respect to the CPU.
30. Why is primary memory faster than the secondary
memory?
31. What is the meaning of volatile memory? Also give an
example of volatile memory. Differentiate between RAM
and ROM.

46 Installation Technician — Computing and Peripherals — Class XI

Unit 1.indd 46 09-Oct-19 2:17:35 PM

 3
Chapter

Introduction
Input and Output Devices

Input and output devices are required to communicate

with the computer. These devices are connected to the
CPU through various ports or with the help of wireless
technologies. Input devices feed data and instructions into
the computer, and output devices present information
from a computer system. Output generated by the
output devices may be hardcopy or softcopy output.
Hardcopy outputs are permanent outputs which can be
used later when required. They produce a permanent
record on paper. Printer is a common output device,
that produces hardcopy outputs. Softcopy outputs are
electronic and are available on the screen in a digital
form. They do not produce a permanent record. Monitor
is a common softcopy output device.

Input Devices
An input device is used to feed data into a computer. It
is also defined as a device that provides communication
between the user and the computer.

Text Input Devices

Keyboard
This is the most common input device. It is designed
just like a conventional typewriter. It allows the user
to input alphabets, numbers, and other characters. It
provides keys for additional functions. It detects the
key being pressed and generates the corresponding
ASCII code which can be recognised by the computer.
The standard US keyboard introduced in 1986 has
101 keys. It has a keyboard layout called the QWERTY
design. QWERTY gets its name from the first six letters
across in the upper left hand corner of the keyboard

Unit 1.indd 47 09-Oct-19 2:17:35 PM

 as shown in Figure 3.1. Normally, keyboards come in
two sizes—  one with integrated numeric keypad and
other with a separate numeric keypad. Keyboards can be
classified into wired and wireless. Wired keyboards are
connected to the CPU through a serial, PS/2 port, or USB
port. Wireless keyboards are connected to the computer
through infrared (IR), radio frequency (RF), or bluetooth
connections. Portable flexible keyboards are also available
now. New generation keyboards like laser keyboards
that project the keyboard layout to any surface are
Fig. 3.1: Keyboard
being developed.
Numeric keypad
It is a small keyboard having only numbers. It is used
to enter only numeric data such as those in ATMs. The
computer keyboards also have a numeric keypad.
PIN pad
Fig. 3.2: Numeric keypad
This is a device with a numeric keypad used to enter
a personal identification number (PIN) of debit card or
credit card while doing the transaction.

Pointing Devices
These devices are used to move an onscreen pointer or
Fig. 3.3: PIN pad cursor (usually an arrow). They are commonly used with
graphical user interfaces (GUIs).

Mouse
It is a small handheld device used to indicate the
position of a cursor or its movement on a computer’s
screen by rolling it over a mouse pad or flat surface. A
mouse has one or more buttons and possibly a scroll
wheel. This scroll wheel is used to scroll the screen
vertically or horizontally. The different types of mouse
are ball, optical, and laser mouse. Ball mouse works
Fig. 3.4: Mouse
on the principle of the movement of the ball, whereas
optical mouse uses LED and laser mouse uses laser
beams for sensing the movement. Laser mouse has more
precise movement when compared to other types of
mouse. Wired mouse uses serial, PS/2, and USB ports,
to communicate, whereas a wireless mouse comunicates
with
the computer via radio waves.

48 Installation Technician — Computing and Peripherals — Class XI

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 Light pen
It is a pointing device shaped like a pen. The tip of the
light pen contains a light-sensitive element which when
placed against the screen detects the light from the screen,
enabling the computer to identify the location of the pen
on the screen. Light pens have the advantage of drawing
Fig. 3.5: Light pen
directly on the screen. They are used by engineers, artists,
fashion designers for Computer Aided Designing (CAD)
and other drawing purposes.

Touch screen
It is an input device that allows the user to operate by
simply touching on the display screen. Some computers,
tablets, smartphones, etc., have touch-sensitive display
screens. It can also be operated using a stylus which gives
more precision. Information kiosks at railway stations
and bank ATMs also use touch screens as input device.
Nowadays, touch screens is the most common hardware
interface for electronic gadgets. Fig. 3.6: Touch screen

Graphic tablet
This consists of an electronic writing area and a special
pen that works with it. It allows artists to enter natural
hand movements to create graphical images with
motions and actions similar to traditional drawing tools.
A stylus is used like a pen and moved over the surface
Fig. 3.7: Graphic tablet
of the tablet. Stylus’ movement data is then sent to the
computer. The pen of the graphics tablet is pressure
sensitive. Hard or soft pressure on the tablet using the
pen can result in brush strokes of different widths in an
appropriate graphics program.

Touchpad
This is a pointing device found on the laptop computers
in place of a mouse to control the pointer. It allows the
user to move the finger across the touchpad just as
a mouse pointer does and this movement in the form
of data is sent to the computer. Touchpad is operated
with fingers and dragging it across the flat surface, as
the finger moves on the surface, the mouse cursor will
move in that same direction. The touchpad also has two
Fig. 3.8: Touchpad
buttons below the touch surface that enables clicking.
Input and Output Devices 49

Unit 1.indd 49 09-Oct-19 2:17:45 PM

 Joystick
This is an input device used for playing video games,
controlling training simulators and robots. Joysticks
and other game controllers can also be used as pointing
devices. The joystick has a vertical stick which can move
in any direction. It can be used to control objects in a
video game or to make menu selections by the movement
of a cursor displayed on the screen. It has a button on the
Fig. 3.9: Joystick
top that is used to select the option pointed by the cursor.

Audio Visual Input Devices

Scanner
Scanning is a process of taking a close-up photograph.
Scanner is an input device which functions like a
photocopying machine. It has a glass plate to place the
paper which is to be scanned. Scanners can capture
information, like pictures or text, and convert it into
a digital format that can be edited using a computer.
The scanned image or document is captured by the
laser beams and converted to digital data. The scanned
picture or document can be saved in the computer.
The quality of the image depends on the resolution of
the scanner. The resolution of the image scanned is
expressed in dots per inch (DPI). The higher the DPI,
the better will be the resolution of the scanned image.
Fig. 3.10: Flatbed scanner The different variants of scanners are flat bed, sheet
feed, and hand held scanner. A sheet feed scanner
can scan a single sheet, whereas a flat bed can scan
even from a book but they are not portable. A hand
held scanner is portable but the scanning action is not
smooth as the scanner is moved manually.

Microphone
This is used to input human voice into the computer.
It is attached to a computer for the input of sound. It
accepts sound which is analogue in nature as input and
converts it to digital format. The digitised sound can
be stored in the computer for processing or playback.
Fig. 3.11: Microphone The headphones come with microphones to use chat
applications. A computer loaded with speech recognition

50 Installation Technician — Computing and Peripherals — Class XI

Unit 1.indd 50 09-Oct-19 2:17:46 PM

 software like the one pre installed in Windows 7 can
convert what a person has said into text, which can be
saved for word processing. A voice recognition program
can process the input and convert it into machine
recognisable commands.

Digital camera
This can take pictures and videos and convert them
into digital format. Pictures or videos taken using a
digital camera are stored inside its memory and can
be transferred to a computer by connecting the camera
to it. It is a kind of small computer that controls
camera focus, stores images, etc. It runs a very simple
operating system (stored on ROM) and usually provides
a menu‑based GUI for the user. Fig. 3.12: Digital Camera

The quality of the lens, the density of charge coupled

device (CCD), resolution (measured in megapixel), optical
zoom, and the software used in the camera determines
the quality of the picture. Each picture is made up of
thousands of tiny pixels (picture elements) and the
camera stores the data on the colour of each dot. The
quality of the picture is determined by the number of
pixels in each picture. Digital cameras have resolutions
ranging from 2 mega pixel to 24 megapixels and optical
zoom ranging from 3x to 60x.

Webcam
It is a compact and less expensive version of a digital
camera. It is used in computers for video chatting. It
does not have an internal memory. It is a very basic
video camera used to feed live video into a computer. The
video data from a web cam is low quality compared to
a full video camera. It is positioned on top of the laptop
monitor and for desktop computers it can be connected Fig. 3.13: Webcam
externally. Applications like Skype, Yahoo Messenger,
etc., use webcam to capture images. Now, laptops also
come with an inbuilt web camera.

Closed circuit TV (CCTV)

CCTV captures the images and videos fed as input to the
computers. (Figure 3.14). CCTVs are commonly used to
maintain road safety and the security on premises. Fig. 3.14: CCTV

Input and Output Devices 51

Unit 1.indd 51 09-Oct-19 2:17:48 PM

 Input card Readers

Smart card or chip reader

This is a plastic card that stores and transacts data. It
has a tiny ‘chip’ of computer memory embedded inside.
Data can be stored in the chip’s memory and read
back using a ‘chip’ reader. The data card may contain
a memory or a microprocessor. Memory cards simply
store data, while a microprocessor card on the other
hand can add, delete, and manipulate information in
its memory. The smart card is used in most banking,
Fig. 3.15: Smart card reader healthcare, telephone calling, electronic cash payments,
and other applications.
Smart card readers are used to access data in a smart
card. It can be contact type or contact less. A contact type
of reader requires physical contact with the cards, which
is made by inserting the card into the reader. A card is
inserted into the reader where metal contacts connect to
the metal pads on the front face of the card. The reader
can access the data stored on memory chip. A contact
less type of reader works with a radio frequency that
communicates when the card comes close to the reader.
Many contact less readers are designed specifically for
toll gate payment in transportation applications and
person identity applications. Satellite TV decoders use
smart cards to store data regarding subscription of
channels by the user. The data is encrypted so that it is
not easy to alter. Many types of cards — ID cards, phone
cards, credit cards, and door security cards use this
system.

Magnetic strip reader

The credit cards have a magnetic strip. This strip
stores the user’s data in the form of magnetised dots
(for example, the credit card number, card expiry
date, and customer name). The strip allows inputting
of this data to a computer system faster and more
accurately than typing. A magnetic strip reader is
used to read the data by swiping the card through a
slot on the reader.

52 Installation Technician — Computing and Peripherals — Class XI

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 Input-reading Text or Codes
Entering the data in a computer using a keyboard may
be a slow process and it is prone to mistakes. Sometimes
speed and accuracy may be essentially required. In
such cases, the following input devices are used to read
and input the data.

Barcode or Quick Response (QR) code reader

It is a set of vertical lines of different thickness and
spacing that represent a number. These lines are read
by a barcode reader or scanner. Barcode readers are
devices that are used to input data from such set of
barcodes (Figure 3.16 (b)). This code is converted to an
alphanumeric value and is fed to the computer connected (a)

to it. The bar code reader reads and enters the value
quickly and accurately than entering the data by using
a keypad. Barcode is used to code items in a shop and
(b)
books in a library. Handheld scanners are commonly
Fig. 3.16: (a) Bar code, (b) its
seen in shops to scan codes and price information for reading using BCR
each of the items to make billing easier. Mobile phones
with camera and special software can also be used as a
barcode reader.
QR codes are similar to barcodes. Barcodes are single
dimensional, whereas QR codes are two dimensional
as shown in Figure 3.17. The two dimensional way of
storing data allows QR code to store more data than a
standard barcode. This code can store website URLs,
plain text, phone numbers, email addresses, and any Fig. 3.17: QR code
other alphanumeric data. The QR code can be read
using a barcode reader or a mobile phone which has a
camera and special software installed.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

It is an input device that recognises
marks made by a pencil or pen in a
multiple-choice type form. It is commonly
used to check forms filled with pen or pencil
and to correct MCQs of exam papers. It
can read the marks and feed that data to a
computer (Figure 3.18). Fig. 3.18: Optical mark recognition

Input and Output Devices 53

Unit 1.indd 53 09-Oct-19 2:17:49 PM

 OMR technology scans a printed form and reads
predefined positions and records the marks on the form.
This technology is useful for applications in which large
Fig. 3.19: Optical mark number of forms needs to be processed quickly with great
recognition accuracy, such as objective type tests and questionnaires.
OMR sheets are normally used to evaluate multiple
choice questions in competitive exams. It consists of
bubble shaped options to mark the answers. Candidates
are required to darken the correct bubble option using
a pen or pencil (refer to Figure 3.19). For accuracy of
results, good quality paper and accurate alignment of
printing is essential.

Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR)

It reads the data written by the magnetic ink. The
cheque number is printed at the bottom of each bank
cheque by special magnetic ink using a special font. It
can be detected by a MICR reader. MICR reads this data
and feeds it to the computer quickly and accurately
Fig. 3.20: MICR (Figure 3.20).

Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

This is a software technology that converts images of text
into an actual text file. To use this technology, first scan
the document using the scanner. Then the scanned image
is analysed by the OCR software. The result is such that it
seems the text has been typed by hand.

Input Sensors
A sensor is a device that senses the real world data (for
instance, temperature) and converts it into digital data
to be processed by the computer. A computer system
cannot sense the real world data such as light or dark,
hot or cold, quiet or noisy. We use our senses (eyes, ears,
mouth, nose, and skin) to read such data. In the same
way, the sensor reads this kind of data and converts it
into its digital equivalent. The sensors are connected to
a computer.

Remote control
This is a very commonly used input device. It sends
data signals each time a button is pressed using

54 Installation Technician — Computing and Peripherals — Class XI

Unit 1.indd 54 09-Oct-19 2:17:49 PM

 infrared light or radio signals. The signals can control
the system from some distance. It is also used to control
a presentation slide show.

Biometric sensor
It is a device that identifies unique human physical
features with high accuracy. It is an essential component
of a biometric system which uses physical features like
fingerprints, retina, iris patterns, etc., to identify, verify,
and authenticate the identity of the user. The three
major types of biometric sensors are semiconductor
sensor, optical sensor, and ultrasound sensor. Figure
3.21 shows a biometric sensor. Fig. 3.21: Biometric sensor

Identify the following input devices and list their features.

Input and Output Devices 55

Unit 1.indd 55 09-Oct-19 2:17:52 PM

 Notes Output Devices
These can be categorised into three types based on the
output produced by the computer in the following form:
1. soft copy
2. hard copy
3. sound output

Soft copy output device

The output on the screen is called a soft copy. The soft
copy output can be provided on the following devices.
Visual Display Unit (VDU)
This is an output device that visually conveys text,
graphics, and video information. Information shown
on a display device is called softcopy because the
information exists electronically and is displayed for a
temporary period of time.
Display devices include Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
monitors, Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors, Thin
Film Transistor (TFT) monitors, Light Emitting Diode
(LED) monitors, and gas plasma monitors.
Some of the characteristics of a VDU are size,
resolution, pixel pitch, and response time. VDUs are
available in different sizes. The size of a monitor is
measured diagonally across the screen in inches. The
resolution of the monitor is the maximum number of
pixels it can display horizontally and vertically (such
as 800 x 600 or 1024 x 768 or 1600 x 1200). The
pixel spacing on the screen is called the dot pitch.
A screen with smaller dot pitch produces sharper
images. Response time refers to the time taken for
a pixel to turn from a state of brightness to a state
of darkness and then back again. Monitors with
lesser response time provide better movie viewing
experience.
The CRT monitors were used earlier. Nowadays
they are not being used, as flat LCD monitors are
available at the same cost. But it is essential to
know the old technology also. The CRT monitor looks
like a television set from the past. It is large in size,

56 Installation Technician — Computing and Peripherals — Class XI

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 heavy, and consumes more electricity because it
contains a large cathode ray tube. It is available in
two forms—monochrome and color. A monochrome
monitor displays characters and images in a single
color on a dark background. Another variation
of monochrome monitor is capable of displaying
different shades of gray and is called a gray scale
monitor. A color monitor uses three different basic
colours such as red, blue, and green to display 16
to 1 million different colours. These monitors are
preferred by graphic artists for their accurate colour
rendering and by gamers for faster response to rapidly
changing graphics.
Flat panel monitor
These are very thin, lightweight, and need very less
power. Flat panel displays are thinner, lighter in weight,
consume less power, and emit less heat as compared
to CRT monitors. They are most commonly used in
computers, especially in laptops. Different types of flat
panel monitors are LCD (Liquid Crystal Display), LED
(Light Emitting Diode) and OLED (Organic LED). LCD
uses liquid crystal molecules for display, LED uses light Fig. 3.22: CRT monitor
emitting diodes for display, and OLED uses a special
organic compound for display. LED displays have
better brightness.
Liquid crystal display (LCD): This displays consists of
liquid crystals sandwiched between two plastic plates.
These crystals rearrange to form an image when an
electric current passes through them. A light source
at the back of this plate makes the picture visible. This
LED Screen
light source can be a fluorescent lamp or LED.
Light emitting diode (LED) monitor: This uses LED
directly behind the liquid crystal display (LCD) in order
to light up the screen. This technique is very effective
and gives each area of the screen its own light, which
can be on or off. LED screens can produce massive
contrast ratios resulting in better color quality and
LCD Screen
clarity. Further, wider viewing angle, faster refresh rates,
and power saving are its other advantages, making this Fig. 3.23: LCD and LED
display
technology expensive.

Input and Output Devices 57

Unit 1.indd 57 09-Oct-19 2:17:54 PM

 Plasma monitors: A flat panel display consists of
sandwiching neon or xenon gas between two sealed glass
plates with parallel electrodes deposited on their surfaces.
When a voltage pulse is passed between two electrodes,
the gas lights up as different colours creating images on a
monitor. Plasma monitors provide high resolution but are
also expensive.
Fig. 3.24: Plasma monitors
Organic light emitting diode (OLED) monitors: The panel
of OLED is made up of millions of tiny LEDs. The ‘O’ in
OLED stands for organic which means there is carbon
in the light emitting layer of the panel. OLED screens
are thinner and lighter than LCDs and LEDs. They
can produce better quality images and have a better
viewing angle. OLEDs consume less power but are again
very expensive.

LCD projector
This is a type of video projector used for displaying
videos, images, or computer data on a large screen or
any other flat surface. Several people in a classroom can
Fig. 3.25: Multimedia projector
view the output on a wide screen at the same time. It is
a modern equivalent of the slide projector or overhead
projector. A beam of high-intensity light travels through
thousands of shifting pixels in a LCD display. This beam
of light then passes through a lens which projects and
focuses the image on the surface.

Hard copy output devices

Hard copies are tangible computer outputs. Printer and
plotter are used to get a hard copy output.
Printer
This is used to produce a hard copy output. There are
different kinds of printing technology. Two factors that
determine the quality of a printer are its resolution and
speed. Resolution is measured in terms of DPI. Speed
is measured in terms of number of characters printed
in a unit of time and is represented as characters per
second (CPS), lines per minute (LPM), or pages per
minute (PPM). Based on the technology used, they can
be classified as impact or non‑impact printers.

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 Impact printers
These use the typewriting or printing mechanism
where a head or needle strikes against an ink ribbon to
make a mark on the paper. The ink ribbon used in this
printer is not very expensive. It is used in banks and
shops for printing receipts, etc. Dot matrix printers fall
under this category.
Dot matrix printers: Use small electromagnetically
activated pins in the print head and an inked ribbon to
produce images by impact. The most commonly used
printer heads consists of nine pins. Certain printers
use 24 pins for better print quality. A dot matrix printer
prints a letter in a grid or matrix pattern of dots. It Fig. 3.26: Dot matrix printer
forms the letters by hitting the print on the ribbon and
then both the papers. Its print quality is poor and also
produces noise while printing. But its running cost is
very less and one can also print multiple copies in one
go using the carbon paper between the papers. These
printers are slow and noisy and are not commonly
used for personal use. The dot matrix printers are
widely used at cash counters in shops due to their low
printing cost and because we can get carbon copies
from them.
Line Printer: The line printer also uses the similar
technology but it is a fast printer which prints one row at a
time. This means it can print upto 3,000 lines per minute
(Figure 3.27). Fig. 3.27: Line printer

Non‑impact printers
These do not touch the paper while printing. And
since they don’t strike the printer head, they
are not noisy. They use different technologies
to print characters on paper. Inkjet, laser, and
thermal printers fall under this category. Running
cost of these printers is more expensive than
impact printers.
Inkjet printers: These form the image on the page by
spraying tiny droplets of ink from the print head. The
four colour ink (cyan, yellow, magenta, and black) is
used to produce colour printouts. The droplets of ink
come from tiny holes (the jets). Each droplet creates Fig. 3.28: Inkjet printer

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 a tiny dot on the paper. Since the dots are so
small, the quality of the printout is excellent
(1200 dots per inch are possible). They are used
to print photographs. They are inexpensive, but
the cost of ink cartridges makes it a costly affair
in the long run.
Laser printers: These produce a good quality
output. It utilises a laser beam to produce an
Fig. 3.29: Laser printer image (through a mirror) on a drum. The light of
the laser alters the electrical charge on the drum
and applies toner (dried ink) in the cartridge.
The toner powder from the toner cartridge is
then sprayed onto the drum. The toner powder
sticks onto the portions traced on the drum
by the laser beam. It is transferred to a paper
by rolling the paper over the drum. Through
heating, the powder is fused onto the paper.
There are laser printers which print about
four A4 size papers per minute. These printers
produce clear and quality printouts. They are
also faster and their speed is rated in pages per
minute (PPM). Monochrome and colour laser
printers are available. Colour laser printers
Fig. 3.30: Laser printer’s toner use multiple colour toner cartridges to produce
colour output and are expensive.
Thermal printers: These produce a printed image
by selectively heating heat sensitive thermal
paper when it passes over the thermal print head.
The coating turns black in the areas where it is
heated, producing an image. These printers are
less noisy and faster than dot matrix printers.
They are also smaller, lighter, and consume less
power, making them ideal as portable printers.
They are commonly used in business to print
receipts in devices such as an ATM and in
printing labels.
The features of all the above printers are
Fig. 3.31: Thermal printers
summarised in the Table 3.1.

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 Table 3.1
Comparison of printers

Features Laser Printers Inkjet Printers Thermal Dot Matrix

Printers Printers

Printing Ink powder Liquid ink Heat sensitive Ink soaked ribbon
material used paper
How does it It fuses the It sprays Thermal paper Pins are pushed
print? powder on the liquid ink on is passed over against ribbon on
paper through paper through the thermal paper.
heating. microscopic print head.
nozzles.
Printing speed 20 pages per 6 pages per 150 mm per 30550 characters
minute minute second per second
Quality Printing quality Printing quality is Poor quality Poor printing
is good. Best good, especially printing of quality for
for black and for smaller fonts. images. Good images. In
white. quality text terms of text,
printing. printing is good.
Advantages Less noisy, Less noisy, high Less noisy, fast, Cheaper to print
prints faster, print quality, no smaller, lighter, as ribbon is cheap,
high print warm up time, consumes less carbon copy
quality. device cost is power, portable possible.
less.
Disadvantages More susceptible Ink is expensive Requires special Initial purchase and
to paper jams. and not thermal quality maintenance are
Toner is waterproof, and paper, poor both expensive,
expensive. nozzle is prone to quality printing. printing is not fast,
Device itself is clogging. makes noise.
expensive.

Three dimensional (3D) printers

This is a new generation output device used to print
3D objects. It can produce different kinds of objects
in different materials and this can be done using the
same printer. It can print anything from ceramic cups
to plastic toys, metal machine parts, stoneware vases,
fancy chocolate cakes, etc.
The 3D printing process turns the object to be printed
into thousands of horizontal tiny little layers. It then
prints these layers from bottom to top, layer by layer.
These tiny layers stick together to form a solid object.

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 Plotter
It is an output device used to produce hard copies of graphs
and designs on the paper. Plotters are used to print the
drawings by using a special pen. Coloured pens are used
to produce colour line drawings. The pens are held by an
arm which can lift the pen up or down, and move across
the paper. The arm and pen of the plotter creates drawing
just like humans but with more speed and accuracy. A
plotter is typically used to print large format graphs or
maps such as construction maps, engineering drawings,
and big posters. It is used in the designing of cars, ships,
aircrafts, buildings, highways, etc. Plotters are used by
designers and architects since they work with huge pieces
of paper, that a normal printer cannot handle. They are
not used to print the text and images. They are used to
print the drawings prepared by the CAD software. Plotters
are of two types: drum plotters and flatbed plotters.
Drum plotter
It is also known as a roller plotter. It consists of a drum
or roller on which a paper is placed and the drum rotates
back and forth to produce the graph on the paper. It also
consists of a drawing arm that holds a set of coloured
ink pens or pencils. The drawing arm moves side to side
as the paper is rolled back and forth through the roller.
In this way, a perfect graph or map is created on the
Fig. 3.32: Drum plotter
paper.
Flatbed plotter
It is also known as a table plotter. It plots on paper that
is spread and fixed over a rectangular flatbed table. The
flatbed plotter uses two drawing arms, each of which
holds a set of coloured ink pens or pencils. The drawing
arms move over the stationary paper and draws the
graph on the paper. Flatbed plotter is very slow in
drawing or printing graphs. The large and complicated
Fig. 3.33: Flatbed plotter drawing can take several hours to print.

Sound output device

The device which gives a sound output is called a
speaker. Speaker devices are designed for personal and
public use.

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 The audio output is the ability of the computer to
produce sound. Speakers are the output devices that
produce sound. They are connected to the computer
through audio ports. They produce sound by the
movement of the diaphragm in the speaker, forward and
backward according to the electrical signals coming out
of the audio port. For high quality sound reproduction, Fig. 3.34: Speaker
computers use 2.1 (3 speakers), 5.1 (5 speakers), and
7.1 (7 speakers) speaker systems.

Identify the following output devices and list its features

Check Your Progress

A. Multiple choice questions
1. In ink jet printers, to produce an image it uses _________
(a) special pen.
(b) tiny droplets ink.
(c) laser beam.
(d) All of these
2. Printer in which printing head and paper is forced
together to form letters is called ________________
(a) impact printer.
(b) non‑impact printer.

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 Notes (c) page printer.
(d) line printer.
3. Which printer is an impact printer?
(a) Laser printer
(b) Line printer
(c) Ink jet Printer
(d) All of the above
4. Which of the following groups consist of only output
devices?
(a) Scanner, printer, monitor
(b) Keyboard, printer, monitor
(c) Mouse, printer, monitor
(d) Plotter, printer, monitor
5. Printers are examples of ______________ output device.
(a) hardcopy
(b) softcopy
(c) double copy
(d) None of these
6. In LCD, ‘L’ stands for  ___________________.
(a) light
(b) liquid
(c) limit
(d) long
7. Which of the following is a type of monitor?
(a) LCD
(b) CRT
(c) LED
(d) All of above
8. Computer output which is printed on paper and is
tangible is known as _______________.
(a) hardware
(b) hard copy
(c) document
(d) result
9. The smallest unit of an output device display is
called a  __________________.
(a) pixel
(b) picture unit
(c) VDT
(d) monitor
10. Touchscreen is usually used to detect the touch
of a  _______________.
(a) human finger
(b) pen
(c) wooden stick
(d) None of these

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 B. Fill in the blanks Notes
1. CRT and LCD are types of _____________.
2. A digital camera can take pictures and videos and convert
them into a _____________ format.
3. Web camera is a compact and less expensive version of a
_____________ camera.
4. Smart card readers are used to access data in a
____________ card.
5. The credit cards have a _____________ strip.
6. A QR code is similar to _____________.
7. Magnetic ink character reader reads the data written by
the _____________ ink.
8. The output on the screen is called a _____________ copy.
9. Printers are used to produce a _____________ output.
10. A laser printer produces _____________ quality output.
11. The device which gives a sound output is called a
_____________.

C. State whether the statement given below are True or False

1. Thermal printer is used to print the drawings by using a
special pen.
2. Speaker is an audio input device.
3. Inkjet printer is an impact printer.
4. CD, LED, and CRT are the technology used in monitor.

D. Short answer questions

1. What are non‑impact printers?

2. What do you mean by output devices?
3. List all output devices.
4. Priyanka is taking up digital photography and she wants
a printer that enables to print her photos, with the best
results. Which printer would you recommend and why?
5. Printers are generally classified as ‘impact’ and ‘non‑impact’.
Which category does a laser printer fall into?
6. In printing, DPI is the standard measure of printed image
quality on the paper. What does DPI stand for?

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 h apter
C
10 Computer Networks

“Hoaxes use weaknesses in human

behavior to ensure they are replicated and
distributed. In other words, hoaxes prey on
the Human Operating System.”

— Stewart Kirkpatrick

In this Chapter
»» Introduction to Computer
Networks
»» Evolution of Networking 10.1 Introduction to Computer Networks
»» Types of Networks
We are living in a connected world. Information
»» Network Devices is being produced, exchanged, and traced across
»» Networking Topologies the globe in real time. It's possible as almost
»» Identifying Nodes everyone and everything in the digital world is
in a Networked interconnected through one way or the other.
Communication
»» Internet, Web and the
Internet of Things
»» Domain Name System

Figure 10.1: Interconnection forming a social network

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 Activity 10.1 A group of two or more similar things or people
Identify some other interconnected with each other is called network (Figure
networks in the 10.1). Some of the examples of network in our everyday
real world. life includes:
• Social network
• Mobile network
• Network of computers
• Airlines, railway, banks, hospitals networks
A computer network (Figure 10.2) is an interconnection
among two or more computers or computing devices.
Such interconnection allows computers to share data
and resources among each other. A basic network may
connect a few computers placed in a room.
The network size may vary from small to large
depending on the number of computers it connects.
A computer network can include different types of
hosts (also called nodes) like server, desktop, laptop,
cellular phones.

Networking
Device

Figure 10.2: A computer network

Apart from computers, networks include networking
devices like switch, router, modem, etc. Networking
devices are used to connect multiple computers in
different settings. For communication, data in a network
is divided into smaller chunks called packets. These
packets are then carried over a network. Devices in a
network can be connected either through wired media
like cables or wireless media like air.
In a communication network, each device that is a
part of a network and that can receive, create, store
or send data to different network routes is called a
node. In the context of data communication, a node
can be a device such as a modem, hub, bridge, switch,
router, digital telephone handset, a printer, a computer
or a server.

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 Interconnectivity of computing devices in a network Activity 10.2
allows us to exchange information simultaneously with Create a hotspot using
many parties through email, websites, audio/video a smartphone and
calls, etc. Network allows sharing of resources. For connect other
example, a printer can be made available to multiple devices to it.
computers through a network; a networked storage
can be accessed by multiple computers. People often
connect their devices through hotspot, thus forming a
small personal network.

10.2 Evolution of Networking

In the 1960s a research project was commissioned by
Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET)
in the U.S. Department of Defence to connect the
academic and research institutions located at different
places for scientific collaborations. The first message was
communicated between the University of California, Los
Angeles (UCLA) and Stanford Research Institute (SRI).
Slowly but gradually, more and more organisations
joined the ARPANET, and many independent smaller
networks were formed. Few of the milestones in the
magnificent journey of evolution of computer networks
is depicted in the timeline shown in Figure 10.3.
The idea of Advanced First version of Wi-fi
Research Project Agency TCP/IP introduced as (802.11) standard was
Network (ARPANET) is standard protocol on introduced
conceptualized ARPANET National Science
Roy Tomlinson develops Foundation brings
network messaging or connectivity to more
E-mail. Symbol @ people with its NSFNET
comes to mean "at" program
1961 1997
1982
1971 1986

1969 1983
1990
1974 Domain Name System
ARPANET became introduced
functional by
connecting UCLA and
SRI
The term Internet was The Berners-Lee at
coined, CERN developed HTML
and URL, thus giving
First commercial use of birth to World Wide Web
ARPANET, was started (www)
in the name of Telenet

Figure 10.3: Timeline showing evolution of networking

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 Notes 10.3 Types of Networks
There are various types of computer networks ranging
from network of handheld devices (like mobile phones
or tablets) connected through Wi-Fi or Bluetooth within
a single room to the millions of computers spread across
the globe. Some are connected wireless while others are
connected through wires.
Based on the geographical area covered and data
transfer rate, computer networks are broadly categorised
as:
• PAN ( Personal Area Network)
• LAN (Local Area Network)
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN (Wide Area Network)

10.3.1 Personal Area Network (PAN)

It is a network formed by connecting a few personal
devices like computers, laptops, mobile phones, smart
phones, printers etc., as shown in Figure 10.4. All these
devices lie within an approximate range of 10 metres.
A personal area network may be wired or wireless.
For example, a mobile phone connected to the laptop
through USB forms a wired PAN while two smartphones
communicating with each other through Bluetooth
technology form a wireless PAN or WPAN.

Figure 10.4: A Personal Area Network

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 10.3.2 Local Area Network (LAN)
It is a network that connects computers, mobile phones, Explore and find out
tablet, mouse, printer, etc., placed at a limited distance. the minimum internet
The geographical area covered by a LAN can range from speed required to
a single room, a floor, an office having one or more make a video call.
buildings in the same premise, laboratory, a school,
college, or university campus. The connectivity is done
by means of wires, Ethernet cables, fibre optics, or Wi-Fi.
A Local Area Network (LAN) is shown in Figure 10.5.

Figure 10.5: A Local Area Network

LAN is comparatively secure as only authentic

users in the network can access other computers or
shared resources. Users can print documents using
a connected printer, upload/download documents
and software to and from the local server. Such LANs
provide the short range communication with the high
speed data transfer rates. These types of networks can
be extended up to 1 km. Data transfer in LAN is quite
high, and usually varies from 10 Mbps (called Ethernet)
to 1000 Mbps (called Gigabit Ethernet), where Mbps
stands for Megabits per second. Ethernet is a set of rules
that decides how computers and other devices connect
with each other through cables in a local area network
or LAN.
10.3.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an extended form of
LAN which covers a larger geographical area like a city or
a town. Data transfer rate in MAN also ranges in Mbps,

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 but it is considerably less as compared to LAN. Cable TV
network or cable based broadband internet services are
examples of MAN. This kind of network can be extended
up to 30-40 km. Sometimes, many LANs are connected
together to form MAN, as shown in Figure 10.6.

LAN 1

Networking LAN 3
Device

LAN 2

Figure 10.6: A Metropolitan Area Network

10.3.4 Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Network connects computers and other
It is possible to access LANs and MANs, which are spread across different
your bank account geographical locations of a country or in different
from any part of the countries or continents. A WAN could be formed
world. Whether the by connecting a LAN to other LANs (Figure 10.7) via
bank’s network is a wired/wireless media. Large business, educational
LAN, MAN, WAN or
any other type? and government organisations connect their different
branches in different locations across the world through
WAN. The Internet is the largest WAN that connects
billions of computers, smartphones and millions of
LANs from different continents.

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 Network User Network User
Network User Network User

Network Switch Network Switch

Network User Network User
Internet

Network User Network User Network User Network User

LAN 1 - Delhi LAN 1 - Shimla

Figure 10.7: A Wide Area Network

10.4 Network Devices

To communicate data through different transmission
media and to configure networks with different
functionality, we require different devices like Modem,
Hub, Switch, Repeater, Router, Gateway, etc. Let us
explore them in detail.
10.4.1 Modem
Modem stands for ‘MOdulator DEModulator’. It refers to
a device used for conversion between analog signals and
digital bits. We know computers store and process data
in terms of 0s and 1s. However, to transmit data from
a sender to a receiver, or while browsing the internet,
digital data are converted to an analog signal and the
medium (be it free-space or a physical media) carries
the signal to the receiver. There are modems connected
to both the source and destination nodes. The modem
at the sender’s end acts as a modulator that converts
the digital data into analog signals. The modem at the
receiver’s end acts as a demodulator that converts
the analog signals into digital data for the destination
node to understand. Figure 10.8 shows connectivity
using a modem.

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 Analog Signal
Modulation Demodulation
Digital Signal Demodulation Modulation Digital Signal

Telephone Line
Modem Modem

Figure 10.8: Use of modem

10.4.2 Ethernet Card
Ethernet card, also known as Network Interface Card
(NIC card in short) is a network adapter used to set
up a wired network.
It acts as an interface
between computer and
the network. It is a circuit
board mounted on the
motherboard of a computer
as shown in Figure
10.9. The Ethernet cable
connects the computer to
the network through NIC.
Ethernet cards can support
data transfer between 10
Mbps and 1 Gbps (1000
Mbps). Each NIC has a
MAC address, which helps
in uniquely identifying the
computer on the network.
Figure 10.9: A Network Interface Card

10.4.3 RJ45
RJ 45 or Registered Jack-45 is an
eight-pin connector (Figure 10.10)
that is used exclusively with
Ethernet cables for networking.
It is a standard networking
interface that can be seen at
the end of all network cables.
Basically, it is a small plastic plug
that fits into RJ-45 jacks of the
Ethernet cards present in various
Figure 10.10: RJ 45
computing devices.

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 10.4.4 Repeater
Data are carried in the form of signals over the cable.
These signals can travel a specified distance (usually
about 100 m). Signals lose their strength beyond this
limit and become weak. In such conditions, original An Internet service
signals need to be regenerated. provider (ISP) is any
organisation that
A repeater is an analog device that works with signals
provides services
on the cables to which it is connected. The weakened for accessing the
signal appearing on the cable is regenerated and put Internet.
back on the cable by a repeater.
10.4.5 Hub
An Ethernet hub (Figure 10.11) is a network device used
to connect different devices through wires. Data arriving
on any of the lines are sent out on all the others. The
limitation of Hub is that if data from two devices come
at the same time, they will collide.

Activity 10.3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Find and list a
few ISPs in your
region.

Figure 10.11: A network hub with 8 ports

10.4.5 Switch
A switch is a networking device (Figure 10.12) that
plays a central role in a Local Area Network (LAN). Like
a hub, a network switch is used to connect multiple
computers or communicating devices. When data
arrives, the switch extracts the
destination address from the data
packet and looks it up in a table to
see where to send the packet. Thus,
it sends signals to only selected
devices instead of sending to all.
It can forward multiple packets at
the same time. A switch does not
forward the signals which are noisy
or corrupted. It drops such signals
and asks the sender to resend it. Figure 10.12: Cables connected to a network switch

Ethernet switches are common in homes/offices

to connect multiple devices thus creating LANs or to
access the Internet.

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 Notes 10.4.6 Router
A router (Figure 10.13) is a network device that can
receive the data, analyse it and transmit it to other
networks. A router connects a local area network to the
internet. Compared to a hub or a switch, a router has
advanced capabilities as it can analyse the data being
carried over a network, decide/alter how it is packaged,
and send it to another network of a different type. For
example, data has been divided into packets of a certain
size. Suppose these packets are to be carried over a
different type of network which cannot handle bigger
packets. In such a case, the data is to be repackaged
as smaller packets and then sent over the network by
a router.

Figure 10.13: A router

A router can be wired or wireless. A wireless router
can provide Wi-Fi access to smartphones and other
devices. Usually, such routers also contain some ports
to provide wired Internet access. These days, home Wi-Fi
routers perform the dual task of a router and a modem/
switch. These routers connect to incoming broadband
lines, from ISP (Internet Service Provider), and convert
them to digital data for computing devices to process.
10.4.7 Gateway
As the term “Gateway” suggests, it is a key access point
that acts as a “gate” between an organisation's network
and the outside world of the Internet (Figure 10.14).
Gateway serves as the entry and exit point of a network,
as all data coming in or going out of a network must
first pass through the gateway in order to use routing
paths. Besides routing data packets, gateways also
maintain information about the host network's internal
connection paths and the identified paths of other
remote networks. If a node from one network wants to
communicate with a node of a foreign network, it will

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 pass the data packet to the gateway, which then routes
it to the destination using the best possible route.

10.0.0.0/8 Server GATEWAY Server 20.0.0.0/8

IP ADDRESS IP ADDRESS

PC 4 PC 5 PC 4 PC 5

PC 1 PC 2 PC 3 PC 1 PC 2 PC 3

Figure 10.14: A network gateway

For simple Internet connectivity at homes, the

gateway is usually the Internet Service Provider that
provides access to the entire Internet. Generally, a
router is configured to work as a gateway device
in computer networks. But a gateway can be
implemented completely in software, hardware, or
a combination of both. Because a network gateway
is placed at the edge of a network, the firewall is
usually integrated with it.

10.5 Networking Topologies

We have already discussed that a number of computing
devices are connected together to form a Local Area
Network (LAN), and interconnections among millions of
LANs forms the Internet. The arrangement of computers
and other peripherals in a network is called its topology.
Common network topologies are Mesh, Ring, Bus, Star
and Tree.

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 10.5.1 Mesh Topology
In this networking topology, each communicating
device is connected with every other device in the
network as shown in Figure 10.15. Such a network can
handle large amounts of traffic since multiple nodes
can transmit data simultaneously. Also, such networks
are more reliable in the sense that even if a node gets
down, it does not cause any break in the transmission
of data between other nodes. This topology is also
more secure as compared to other topologies because
each cable between two nodes carries different data.
However, wiring is complex and cabling cost is high in
creating such networks and there are many redundant
or unutilised connections.

Figure 10.15: A mesh topology

To build a fully-
10.5.2 Ring Topology
connected mesh
topology of n nodes, In ring topology (Figure 10.16), each node is connected
it requires n(n-1)/2 to two other devices, one each on either side, as shown
wires. in Figure 10.16. The nodes connected with each
other thus forms a ring. The link in a ring topology is
unidirectional. Thus, data can be transmitted in one
direction only (clockwise or counterclockwise).

Figure 10.16: A ring topology

10.5.3 Bus Topology

In bus topology (Figure 10.17), each communicating
device connects to a transmission medium, known as
bus. Data sent from a node are passed on to the bus
and hence are transmitted to the length of the bus in
both directions. That means, data can be received by
any of the nodes connected to the bus.

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 Bus

Figure 10.17: A bus topology

In this topology, a single backbone wire called bus is
shared among the nodes, which makes it cheaper and
easier to maintain. Both ring and bus topologies are
considered to be less secure and less reliable.
10.5.4 Star Topology
In star topology (Figure 10.18), each communicating
How will a Bus and
device is connected to a central node, which is a Ring topology behave
networking device like a hub or a switch, as shown in in case a Node is
Figure 10.18. down?
Star topology is considered very effective, efficient
and fast as each device is directly connected with the
central device. Although disturbance in one device will
not affect the rest of the network, any failure in a central
networking device may lead to the failure of complete
network.

Figure 10.18: A star topology

The central node can be either a broadcasting device

means data will be transmitted to all the nodes in the
network, or a unicast device means the node can identify
the destination and forward data to that node only.
10.5.5 Tree or Hybrid Topology
It is a hierarchical topology, in which there are multiple
branches and each branch can have one or more basic
topologies like star, ring and bus. Such topologies are
usually realised in WANs where multiple LANs are
connected. Those LANs may be in the form of a ring,
bus or star. In figure 10.19, a hybrid topology is shown
connecting 4-star topologies in a bus.
In this type of network, data transmitted from source
first reaches the centralised device and from there the
data passes through every branch where each branch
can have links for more nodes.

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 Figure 10.19: A hybrid topology

10.6 Identifying Nodes in a Networked

Communication
Each node in a network should be uniquely identified
so that a network device can identify the sender and
receiver and decide a routing path to transmit data.
Let us explore further and know how each node is
distinguished in a network.
10.6.1 MAC Address
MAC stands for Media Access Control. The MAC address,
also known as the physical or hardware address, is a
unique value associated with a network adapter called
a NIC. The MAC address is engraved on NIC at the time
of manufacturing and thus it is a permanent address
and cannot be changed under any circumstances. The
machine on which the NIC is attached, can be physically
identified on the network using its MAC address.
Each MAC address is a 12-digit hexadecimal numbers
(48 bits in length), of which the first six digits (24 bits)
contain the manufacturer’s ID called Organisational
Unique Identifier (OUI) and the later six digits (24 bits)
represents the serial number assigned to the card by
the manufacturer. A sample MAC address looks like:

Activity 10.4
Explore how can you
find the MAC 10.6.2 IP Address
address of your
computer
IP address, also known as Internet Protocol address,
system. is also a unique address that can be used to uniquely
identify each node in a network. The IP addresses

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 are assigned to each node in a network that uses the
Internet Protocol for communication. Thus, if we know Do mobile phones
a computer’s IP address, we can communicate with have a MAC address?
that computer from anywhere in the world. However, Is it different from
unlike MAC address, IP address can change if a node the IMEI number of
mobile phones?
is removed from one network and connected to another
network.
The initial IP Address called version 4 (IPV4 in short),
is a 32 bit numeric address, written as four numbers
separated by periods, where each number is the decimal
(base-10) representation for an 8-bit binary (base-2)
number and each can take any value from 0 - 255. A
sample IPV4 address looks like:
192:168:0:178
With more and more devices getting connected to
the Internet, it was realised that the 32-bit IP address
will not be sufficient as it offers just under 4.3 billion
unique addresses. Thus, a 128 bits IP address, called IP
version 6 (IPV6 in short) was proposed. An IPv6 address
is represented by eight groups of hexadecimal (base-16)
numbers separated by colons. A sample IPV6 address
looks like:
2001:CDBA:0000:0000:0000:0000:3257:9652

10.7 Internet, Web and the Internet of Things

The Internet is the global network of computing devices
including desktop, laptop, servers, tablets, mobile
phones, other handheld devices, printers, scanners,
routers, switches, gateways, etc. Moreover, smart
electronic appliances like TV, AC, refrigerator, fan, light,
etc. can also communicate through a network. The list
of such smart devices is always increasing e.g., drones,
vehicles, door lock, security camera. We have already
studied IoT and WoT in class 11.
The Internet is evolving every day and it is difficult
to visualise or describe each and every aspect of the
architecture of the Internet. Computers are either
connected to a modem through a cable or wirelessly (Wi-
Fi). That modem, be it wired or wireless, is connected to
a local Internet Service Provider (ISP) who then connects
to a national network. Many such ISPs connect together
forming a regional network and regional networks
connect together forming a national network, and such
country-wise networks form the Internet backbone.

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 The Internet today is a widespread network, and its
influence is no longer limited to the technical fields of
computer communications. It is being used by everyone
in the society as is evident from the increasing use of
online tools for education, creativity, entertainment,
You are encouraged socialisation, and e-commerce.
to take up any area
of concern where 10.7.1 The World Wide Web (WWW)
you think IoT can be The World Wide Web (WWW) or web in short, is an
immensely beneficial ocean of information, stored in the form of trillions
and discuss it with
your peers. An of interlinked web pages and web resources. The
example for the same resources on the web can be shared or accessed
can be preventing through the Internet.
road accidents.
Earlier, to access files residing in different
computers, one had to login individually to each
computer through the Internet. Besides, files in
different computers were sometimes in different
formats, and it was difficult to understand each other’s
files and documents. Sir Tim Berners-Lee — a British
computer scientist invented the revolutionary World
Wide Web in 1990 by defining three fundamental
technologies that lead to creation of web:
• HTML – HyperText Markup Language. It is a language
which is used to design standardised Web Pages so
that the Web contents can be read and understood
from any computer. Basic structure of every webpage
is designed using HTML.
• URI – Uniform Resource Identifier. It is a unique
address or path for each resource located on the
web. It is also known as Uniform Resource Locator
(URL). Every page on the web has a unique URL.
Examples are: https://www.mhrd.gov.in,http://
www.ncert.nic.in,http://www.airindia.in, etc. URL
is sometimes also called web address. However,
a URL is not only the domain name. It contains
other information that completes a web address,
as depicted below:
Domain Name

http://www.ncert.nic.in/textbook/textbook.htm
URL

• HTTP – The HyperText Transfer Protocol is a set of

rules which is used to retrieve linked web pages
across the web. The more secure and advanced
version is HTTPS.

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 Many people confuse the web with the Internet. Notes
The Internet as we know is the huge global network
of interconnected computers, which may or may not
have any file or webpage to share with the world. The
web on the other hand is the interlinking of collection
of Webpages on these computers which are accessible
over the Internet. WWW today gives users access to a
vast collection of information created and shared by
people across the world. It is today the most popular
information retrieval system

10.8 Domain Name System

The Internet is a vast ocean where information is
available in the form of millions of websites. Each website
is stored on a server which is connected to the Internet,
which means each server has an IP address. Every
device connected to the Internet has an IP address. To
access a website, we need to enter its IP address on our
web browser. But it is very difficult to remember the IP
addresses of different websites as they are in terms of
numbers or strings.
However, it is easier to remember names, and
therefore, each computer server hosting a website or
web resource is given a name against its IP address.
These names are called the Domain names or hostnames
corresponding to unique IP addresses assigned to each
server. For easy understanding, it can be considered
as the phonebook where instead of remembering each
person’s phone number, we assign names to their
numbers. For example, IP addresses and domain names
of some websites are as follows:
Table 10.1 Examples of domain names and their
mapped IP addresses
Domain Name IP Address
ncert.nic.in 164.100.60.233
cbse.nic.in 164.100.107.32
mhrd.gov.in 164.100.163.45

wikipedia.org 198.35.26.96

10.8.1 DNS Server

Instead of remembering IP addresses, we assign a
domain name to each IP. But, to access a web resource,
a browser needs to find out the IP address corresponding
to the domain name entered. Conversion of the domain

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 name of each web server to its corresponding IP address
is called domain name resolution. It is done through
a server called DNS server. Thus, when we enter a
URL on a web browser, the HTTP protocol approaches
a computer server called DNS server to obtain the IP
address corresponding to that domain name. After
getting the IP address, the HTTP protocol retrieves the
information and loads it in our browser.
In Figure 10.20, an example is shown in which the
HTTP requests a DNS server for corresponding IP addss,
and the server sends back an IP address.
DNS root servers
User
are named using
alphabets A through
M for the first
13 letters of the
alphabet. Ten of 164.100.60.233
these servers are HTTP in DNS
Browser www.ncert.nic.in Server
in the US, one in
London, one in
Stockholm, and
one in Japan.
The organisation
Figure 10.20: Request of IP address corresponding to domain name
Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority A DNS server maintains a database of domain names
(IANA) keeps this
list of DNS root and their corresponding IP addresses. To understand
servers. how the domain name resolution works, we have to
understand how and where the DNS servers are kept.
The DNS servers are placed in hierarchical order. At
the top level, there are 13 servers called root servers.
Then below the root servers there are other DNS servers
at different levels. A DNS server may contain the IP
address corresponding to a domain or it will contain
the IP address of other DNS servers, where this domain
entry can be searched.

Summary
• A computer network is an interconnection among
two or more computers or computing devices.
• A computer network allows computers to share
data and resources among each other.
• Networking devices are used to connect multiple
computers in different settings.

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 Notes
• In a communication network, each device that is
a part of a network and that can receive, create,
store or send data to different network routes is
called a node.
• Based on the geographical area covered and data
transfer rate, computer networks are broadly
categorised into LAN (Local Area Network), MAN
(Metropolitan Area Network) and WAN (Wide Area
Network).
• LAN is a network that connects a variety of nodes
placed at a limited distance ranging from a single
room, a floor, an office or a campus having one or
more buildings in the same premises.
• Ethernet is a set of rules that decides how
computers and other devices connect with each
other through cables in a LAN.
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an extended
form of LAN which covers a larger geographical
area like a city or a town.
• Cable TV network or cable based broadband
internet services are examples of MAN.
• Wide Area Network (WAN) connects computers
and other LANs and MANs, which are spread
across different geographical locations of a
country or in different countries or continents.
• The Internet is the largest WAN that connects
billions of computers, smartphones and millions
of LANs from different continents.
• Modem stands for ‘MOdulator DEModulator’,
is a device used for conversion between electric
signals and digital bits.
• Ethernet card, also known as Network Interface
Card (NIC card in short) is a network adaptor
used to set up a wired network.
• Each NIC has a MAC address, which helps in
uniquely identifying the computer on the network.
• A repeater is an analog device that regenerate the
signals on the cables to which it is connected.
• A switch is a networking device used to connect
multiple computers or communicating devices.
• A router is a network device that can receive the
data, analyse it and transmit it to other networks.

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 Notes • Gateway serves as the entry and exit point of a
network, as all data coming in or going out of a
network must first pass through the gateway in
order to use routing paths.
• The arrangement of computers and other
peripherals in a network is called its topology.
• Common network topologies are Mesh, Ring, Bus,
Star and Tree.
• In mesh topology each communicating device is
connected with every other device in the network.
• In ring topology, each node is connected to two
other devices, one each on either side.
• In bus topology, a single backbone wire called
bus is shared among the nodes, which makes it
cheaper and easy to maintain.
• In star topology, each communicating device is
connected to a central networking device like a
hub or a switch.
• In tree or hybrid topology, there are multiple
branches and each branch can have one or more
basic topologies like star, ring and bus.
• The MAC address, also known as the physical or
hardware address, is a unique permanent value
associated with a network adapter called a NIC.
It is used to physically identify a machine on the
network.
• IP address, also known as Internet Protocol
address, is a unique address that can be used to
uniquely identify each node in a network.
• Unlike MAC address, IP address can change if a
node is removed from one network and connected
to another network.
• The Internet is the global network of computing
devices.
• The World Wide Web (WWW) or web in short, is an
ocean of information, stored in the form of trillions
of interlinked web pages and web resources.
• Sir Tim Berners-Lee — a British computer
scientist invented the revolutionary World Wide
Web in 1990.
• HTML (HyperText Markup Language) is a
language which is used to design standardised
Web Pages so that the Web contents can be read

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 and understood from any computer. Notes
• URI (Uniform Resource Identifier) or URL (Uniform
Resource Locator) is a unique address or path for
each resource located on the web.
• HTTP – The HyperText Transfer Protocol is a set of
rules which is used to retrieve linked web pages
across the web. The more secure and advanced
version is HTTPS.
• Each computer server hosting a website or web
resource is given a name against its IP address.
These names are called the Domain names or
hostnames.
• Conversion of the domain name of each web server
to its corresponding IP address is called domain
name resolution. It is done through a server called
DNS server.

Exercise
1. Expand the following:
a) ARPANET
b) MAC
c) ISP
d) URI
2. What do you understand by the term network?
3. Mention any two main advantages of using a network of
computing devices.
4. Differentiate between LAN and WAN.
5. Write down the names of few commonly used networking
devices.
6.
Two universities in different States want to transfer
information. Which type of network they need to use for
this?
7. Define the term topology. What are the popular network
topologies?
8. How is tree topology different from bus topology?
9. Identify the type of topology from the following:
a) Each node is connected with the help of a single cable.
b) Each node is connected with central switching
through independent cables.

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 Notes 10. What do you mean by a modem? Why is it used?
11. Explain the following devices:
a) Switch
b) Repeater
c) Router
d) Gateway
e) NIC
12. Draw a network layout of star topology and bus
topology connecting five computers.
13. What is the significance of MAC address?
14. How is IP address different from MAC address?
Discuss briefly.
15. What is DNS? What is a DNS server?
16. Sahil, a class X student, has just started understanding
the basics of Internet and web technologies. He is a bit
confused in between the terms “World Wide Web” and
“Internet”. Help him in understanding both the terms
with the help of suitable examples of each.

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