.

Natwork tunetions
1 - o r t netuwork

I
For a 1-port uruit, one can

define Ho Sunedions, dependi ng

taken N
upon hieh Vatiable is as

2xcitatian and Lobich Variableis

Constitutesa'port'

Haken sYepome

Y called Dziving potnt admittanceunc

denoted as

and +he
V,(t] 4 akplied
hat an
extation
Here, it is assumed
it

the Tesultinq urent iy t) Furter mte

.

of inteYent
Yespomse C)
Teactive elenentsL and
s sumed that inside netuock N, the

have adl intial cmditions 3ero.

Likewise, we can define a

driving beint imbedamce functic
denoted by
of yuponse V (t)
LaplaceYans tor m
Z(s)
Lajs laceTrans form of
extitation 1,t witb all indial
to be zero
Conditions taken

V
with init'al cnditions baina zeYo

Setooyk func+ions
Togethe,Yiula) and Z ) are called the two

4he 1-bort netwark N. 2-Povt network

i,Ct)
Fo a 2-Port netuook , out puis
+
theye are tuoo Posi ble N V2Ct)
inputs V,(t)
inputs and 4 (excitahimg Yespnse)
Posible ou+puts, bence,
Jouy network func tioms" 1- input þert
Can be defined. 2-2 out put port
 hus, fouY netwrk -functions can be defined f r the 2- poyt netwok

I,) Jals)

Evcitations ,) N
outputs
C766 ponsea)
(Inpats)

1- in put port

2-2 output ert

The 4 nehoork funetionr for a 2- port netwerk ave

Va) Veltage-Tatio transfer funetion

G v,)
i initial eenditions being zero

Curent-ratio transfer funetion

i t h zero initial conditions

> Trans impedance Suneticn

T,6)
with Zero mtia conditians

12=l Trans adn itHance funstion

V,()
eith Zero initial conditions

Celeci vey, G) , ) , 7 2 ) and Y12ls) are talle d four tTanse

unt4ion. the 2-port netwak N

ite, he todriving cint futtions of the - p o t natoov k and hs

tranteunctions dhe 2-prt netuo cn k aY callee4lvely

Caile ). 1'atu ork uncticns Some ti mes he wca d sqstem functian)

oCccude netwerk funchicn a pot me dw ak -port

.terk al the 1otio aplace vans fou m of respme
all
a dace irans f r tyritation , pruvided initial can dihas
2. Example of deterning driving point fuctiong

Find the drioing point impedance Znls)o he 3ven eitut

Preb
2 2

resiters tn2s
Z Capauta s infarads

We frst draw the transtovmed uy uut, toking

Tautor R
Transformed impedane of
CapauHr as

inductora

be
.Transforme) euraut ooud

Z ()

impedance oalein
hauinq mly passive components
Stnce tirut i
Serlesparallel c m binations
irto 1-Can be found oy Consldering
end
startna tromsireme vight
uonual
impedance of this Cen bination
nd are
in paralle
4+2

impedance s in
The above e valent

wtn
hence ther su
Serfes
A+ 4S
4 +2 2 4 4+ 2s)
2 ( 8 +1)
2s (+2) s(S+2)
. admith anta s(s+2)
This adnthane an d are parallel
+ 2 )
Total admi ftance Yn bekoen -

(+1)
3. Examples of Transyer unetions

Prob. Find the votage-yatio 47ansfer functtom

Gi2)= Va Ri C
V)

The byans fovmed iyut

Can be drquon as folos:

2-2
2= O (since terminals
R 2 aTR open)
M

Vals) Potental divde

R2
app lîes
-

Tule

/Z2 V)
V ) =42
then
be I(s,
AHenahvely , Joop curent in the ioput loop
V ($)
T() z+72
V)= z T() +Za(Z,(¢)
hen Va(s) = Z2 16) R+
Noo Z= Ri+
=

Z2 V,6)
Va [s) =

Z+Z2
R2 S
Za R2

G2 )= Val5) Z2
R25
Z+22 R2
Z2 sCaRa +
Ra

Gal = R2+1
Ra
BCiR+

BcR2
G1215 cR+G2 4 C,R2
Sca RIGR2+ 8
Thi's t the requived voktage - Yatio transfefunehion of the given netw ork.
 a dmittance

ob2 For the qven ciruit , sbous that its transfer uncHm is given by-

Yial)=a2 k (&+)
(A+2) (s+3)
what is the value o k and ds sign

3/2
M- 4

FTst,we diau the transformed

Cirut

Note the followîn1

using Cuwent divider

(s
Tule

- I= G+2
0
,(s)
N o , hao much s How

V,()
,)=
/ + )
T2 = 6 V (s)
=&+) (s+3) 6)
(check
(A+2) ( S+4) ,
T)= (y+9) Va(s)
Substituiing trom (2) tnto á)
-

i = a Vals)
T2)a ( -
3 (A+)
Vs) 2)(s+4) (+92)

K =-3

(s+3
 4 Relation between Network unction and mpulse YeA ponse
A nehocrk unctiom (o sys emunctioo ) , there fore, define as

H() R O La laie Yanstovm ofapnseoY output

Els) Loplace +rans-fom of Rxci4atton (Or Dpui)
subject to all initial condthans belng zevo

R() = H). E(s)

f we talke etatton et) = &t) uni impulse functi on

NOTE
R(s) = H(s). Please Tee +hat
here C ) is
Takinq inverse laplate Tyans tom sn both the aides,
NOT he unís
Tamp function!

unit
Tsponse called Ahe mpu se Yeapamse of
RE L
of the
vespamse
(called impulse the network or simply, the impulse eYut

Tesponse)

Thus 6(t) = & [H(

.e Impulse Inverse aplace +ransform o
Yes pmse t's netoork function
a
netoak

h &) of a netuork giuen,

CR
OR alteYnatively , if impulse rspense

by Aaklma CR).
Crna can find he nelwork -funetion

H L
Fas and Consthute a, very tmpartant conce pt in netucrlk and Sysfeims

theary
 , fram ids
. a circuit to an4 arbitraYy xutation
Determining yeApnse of Convolution integral:
Impulse Yeaponse using
+he
9f impulse respense is knoon one can easily f¢nd rs pmse of
metwork o any other itatiom, as folloor

be the i'mpulse res p onse NOTE

Sot
Here, Yt)
wher R() = X[r¢ NOT 4he
Since, H(s) = R(EJ
unit yam
E S)
and F S) =£ [et]1 funcion

R(6)=HG).E()
Laplacetrans torm o
in verse
Noo Y+) can be found by taking
both sides of this eq

(t) H).E(
wd
determine inverse laplate Trans ferm f the product o
To

theye an impartant theortm of Laplace

funetins 0
ConVolution The orem
Lrans torm uhich asoleos

Laplace Transtormab
Transtormable le, i.e
laplace
Hwo functians which
are
ave
Sf SE) and a4)
4 =F

= F
Convalution
hen, L[F).Fa= 4(t-T)1(P) aT Theoyem

lo
(T).f2 (t-T) dr

Lhere T a dummy Vari'able and the too intearals abeue, are

called Convelutton intearals

Thearem:t) can be o und ethey of the folSo coina

sing Conuolution

4) h(T) e(t-T) dT

OR t-T). e(T) d7
 1: Find 4he invevse Laplate Tans form of the produet of wD
Exanle
fus edions

File) Partial fraction method

inteaYal
Fa l)
8 +
Usi'ng Con ublution

- -T
= u(t) -

e ult) = t-e) u t = 1 -e , tz
in volke the
lo evaluaTe the same inverse Laplate Transform, We ean

Convolution theoremCon vodution integral as jollou

F).FC = t-T)a (T) dr Symbolically written

e ) *f.4)

SInce Fi) = ft) = ult)

eur)
4S+| () =u )

) . F= -7)."uer) dT
u(-T)

T T

=-),t
 Find the mse V2t) for the giwen circuit for an
Example 2
applied input V,(¬) = e ut), using Con volution.

-M-

lyansformeol Ctriut
dividey Yule:
Ustng Voltaqe

= Hs)
+

H 3 +
unit impulse Yes p onse_

R)=[ H
= e
No, sn general -2t
since V,lt) = eult)
V21s) = H).V,s) Vi(s) 3+2

hT)V (t-T) 4T = A-T)V,CT) dr

0
-T -2(t-T) -2t T
e e. dT e dT

-*}= tor t > O

-2t
e
 7. Relation betuen untt Impulse &(t), unit sBep utt) and unt vamp (t): Yevisited

94 = F) then di0= A. F)
differetiation multiplicatian of FG)
0 5t) in timedomain
by '&
tn s-domain

Likewlse
t)dt Fo
multiplicatim of F)
Integraticn of (t)
in tlme- domaín by in s-demain

unit
untt
unit ramp differentitate Step mpalse
Recall that Yt)
differentiale

7aultiply multiply
by
. Relation betuween impulse reap cnSe 9teP * p se and Yame ed pms

n general H)=KS)
E)

R()=H(s). Es)

then R()= HG).I = H) unit impulse

f elt) = &lt), sponse)
unié
then R) =
HG step Yespene)
felt) = ut) ,

Tt) then RG)= H(s) untt 7am

elt)= ,
Yesponse)
ht) of a caY aut known, hen
Junit impulse respanse
it and unit
unit
unit atep Tesponse Can be obtainee by integYaing
Yamp Tesp anse can be found by furtheY integvatim.
 EXample The unit impulse espmse f a ciruit u Uen

of the
4 e. hat will lbe the rapnse
RA) = 8e
unttste 9iqhal?
Curet to a

8e- 4 t
Gven h t) =

£ |) =
f 4
functionm = H) =

Netwrk
=
s+2
Stnce et) = ult)

E)

Rl)= El).H)= -
-

8 (S+2) & (S+1)

4 - (
4 4
+ A+2

TE) R )- +2

Mot.the (T_24)
Yam = 4e4e =
4
unetion

of the netuork k 2uen

ALTER NATIUEY Stnce untt impulse Tesponse

92 4E
can be found &imply by integ raling9
unit step Yspanse
above and wouled be theYe fore,

2t

2 (-1)
4( )
 metoork ohae unit
Problem: What u the step of
Yesponse a
- 4t
Sin 3t ?
ven by f(e) 2e
imbulse Yaponse à
=

oles and Zeros of a Natoork funetion

9.

(3+) (8+3)
et H)=- (S+2) (S+4)
4he aenominator
+he roots of
tben S =-2 and 8= -4 ave
becomes
for cohich H(s)
Hs) become s
Polymmial and aYe those values of
H(s).
infinte These ava called poles of
Yoots of
oF h e
Ane
aLYe
a r e those
Yoots
On the other hand 8 =
-1 8 = -3 and
and

HCS) =O
Hs) = O Thus, 8 =
whch make
numeratav polynomial
H).
S=-3 aye Called ZeYos of

a folles
o\los.
These can be rebresenteol in the complex -|plane
Tecall = C +jw)

2
3

O Zevos

X Poles
-
 For tbe gven ciYutt
witb poTt-2 open tind
Problem
into terminals
(a Irmsedanee Zu lookin q
1-1

ratio trans fer funetion Gia (s)=a ls)

bVoltage

2
M

Mu

2
and F)
(all
Values in 2,H

Yule-
Solulan :Ustng
Votage-dioider

Va Z +Z2(s)

Also
Z)= Z,6)+ Za()

both the ab0Ve.

exbYesslansfor
Slve to find
1. Location of eoles of a network unetian and tine- omain behavioOY

-at
+j
&t) = Ke
ore on neqai
Yea axis
exponentilly
Hs) = k
-
decaying
pole at s =-4

time-donain
S-plahe

pode on pesi-tive +bt

+
Teal axis t ) = Kke

K
H(a)= - b exponentially

inCYeasing

pole at =+b

-
Complex conjugaie
axis
Pole on imaqinay

t) = Sn wt
Wo

x+

poes at
S+

t
VUUU
castant amplilude
S n waVe
 Complex congale fok
on u axis, bauing Stn bt
) e
egadive Yeal bavt
b
HIS)
(s*a)+h
b
oles at S= - a
x p onentially

located in
oles are
decTeasing3 19n
left half of s-plane wave

Cmplex conyugade poles +

on w axis , hauing +at
Sin bt
+b.
At)e
osstive Yeal avt

H)
(S-a)+b2

- b
poles ats =+at
locateel in exponentlally
poles are

incYeasing sinus ord

riaht halF of th« s-þlane

ele at origin
t)= k u (t)

pce at b o

Censtant amlitude
Condusions
+d

-
let- half
Yight half
plane
(LHP plane
-j
s-plane

9f poks of HIs) aTe located In LHP In 4tme donain-

Cineludinq orlgin) of s-plane Temains bounded constant

Or 0)
OLs t
Staele ocnavid)
H() In time damain
SF peles ^are located on

w (Immagtnary oxis) hE) an oscilJator y

signal oith cnstant
s-lane
magnitude
OSellatory ecna tay

9 Poles are lotated n RHP In time damain the

cf-plane H)> as t
Re) becomes unbounded
unstable behaauY
2. Laplace Yanstorm of a time-s hifted sigval
u(t-a)
&et ft)= utt-a) as shoon

E ) =F(«) = fce)edt

ut-a) e d t e
e

-S
F(s e

Generali's atian let f't) =

St-a) ult-a)

-8t
fLt-a) e dt
t - a ) ult-a) e

put = i-a
als oohen t= a , t =0
d t = dt 00 ,t
hen t

F ) = e ) e-(t+a)
t =e s)A* at
O

F()

e F($)

9 C S)= F(9
F(s)
then
(t-a)u(t-a) e
3. iscellaneous roblems:

LI For the given eruult find a 2

Vs) Z3
Zuhen I=0) T ) Vi(a) Y ca)

Gi2(s)= Va()
va(s) Va(s) Lodder netusork

(AW values aYe 1H and F)

from thr axtvene Yíght.
conttourd raction, or iten stating
Z Can be foand by
+
By stmblitgtmg
+
oneeanénd Z

write he
For
inding other wo tran sfer Unctions ,
one can

quations-

b = Ya V2 V2 (

TZ2 =V2 + I (2)

Va= V2 +

I = I + Y2 Va Ib + Va (3)

V =IZ +Ya= I 8 +Va (4

By 2duing above qms We can fiind -

V2
Check)
2 (+2)

Trans fer funchion Gi2() (Check)

And Va) VoHage vaio +38+1
V,(5)
12 A ulse input as shown is applted to an RL Ciruit. Detemine Hhe
expresslon for the 7exuHing Cuwent i(t)
Ct 1
MW-

i(t)

Vt) = u (t)- u (t-a)

First we find an expression
TakingLaplace TYanstorm
or v 4)
Thls sianal can be decmpose
VIs) = -e. = (- eir u
as made of two unit step Nou we Can dyaw
the tyans foome

un ctins
uCt)
I)

(lvansfovm impedance f
inducto:sL)

as
I ( ) = V(s) - e
(+) s (S +
t
But 8(44) = -

-a

-u-a ) T)= - e
e
S+1

J
ut)- 1u(t-a) I ) = at- e'ut -u (t-a)
- (t-a)
e u(t-a)
 Shod
thaf if R=| then Z|s) = R

o
R R z)=R+)/R*
zls sCR+(R+2L)

+(RtL)

(ACR+I) (R+8L)
z)=
R (8R +I + 8 (R+4L)

.= L = eR

3CR +) (R+8L) (8CR+1) (R+8CR)

z()E
CR++8CR 4+*Le (CR+ + AC [R+3eR

(1+sCR)
=R (4eR+)
sCR++2CRLI+aCR

R (&CR+) (ACR+1)

BCR411+&CRJ
1 Initial value TheoYem

t
f (A) = F(s) The þroblem t to find f(-)

We kooD that
-8t
dfee dt &F)(0)
dt

- st
e t A AFa)-(6.)
s- dt

&F-5)
Sb

S(0.) Sb
&F)

of auyent i ) obase Laplace +rans tore

am ple Fnd inittal value
23+5

(S+1) (S+2)

A(2s +3 (2
:
Sd
A25
(S+) S+2) - S
(1+)(1
(+) (1+)
2

2S+5
Check Frarn aiUen T(s= 3
(S+ (s+2) S+2

2tnd it) 3e 2t
2. Final Value Theorem
t
Ne knouo that F(a)-- f(o)
dt=s
dt
=

-at

S0
d f eedt
dt
aFt)-f
S6

F f(o.
S0
0

dftt.dt = Fa f(o)

a F ()

)-fo) =
[ sF-lo

sCt)= sF(A)
Final value

.2t
urent 2lt)= 5 ut)- 3 e

Exarmle: Find final value of

value of itt)= 5)
(clearly final at t b

the 2ame yinvokin

We canfind
Final Value therten by din
2 3+1o
Jal)= -
S+2 s (s+2)

2S +10
F S0 s+2
3. Laplate lyaunstom of a Peyiodic Signal
one
j whch
A),with a time period of T.
A seiodié signal
he follaaing holds
f¬) for any integer n', positive o7
ft+nT)
=

negative
which u
uave stgnal
ats fnd Laplace Transtom ofa sqaye
eketrical signal.
Avey Comm eoly employed
tIme
Fivst Considet, the siqnal far one pertod

2a

as

u (E)-2u(t-a) ,)- 2 ak

oD it can be exTesse d
Lf the stanal continues till4
Hoeer

uE) - 2 u (t-a) + 2 u (t-2a-2 u (t-3a) +

check !)

Taking Laplace Tyansfam Reall: E)=F)

-2as -3S t-a=e Fs)
Vs) = +2e
5

205 -3 s
e e

Insinite Serjes

SumE
1+E
2e - US

1+e4s
v=
 4Transformed cirutts wtth nitial conditions
'
(a) Tnductor
Stnce VL (4)= L dlL(t)
dt VLE)

TakingLalslace Trans fom

we get
L di.(4)
VLCt)
I.) -4 (o.)
=
dt
V.(4)= 4
( ILS
VL(s)AL Jl)-L L (0.)0)

V) Li (0)

Euval ent erui

be Yewriten as
Altematively 0) , can
TLS)

L 8L

Aternative equiualent
craut
(b) capactter
From eqm (3), following equivalent
CYut can bc drauon
Iel)
dt

Taking Laplace Transtorm )cV(0)

=8C

Te(s)=c& Ve) - ( )
(3)
(3)
T(2)=BcVe)- c(0-)| Fquivalent Circuit

riHen a From 4) We can sraw Ahe folotwinc

n can be alterna-tively eivcwt
alHeynatiVe eqlu valent
V.6)=() I,)+ de(0)(4) Je (s)

usefal tn V, s)
These qiualent eireust ave

cireuts oith initial

Solu'nq RLO
Conditions.
 Miscelleneous roblems

Fex the eivul'ts shouon in Fiq. I ( , (h) delermine the drivio2

potat lm pedance 7ls)
12/5

Zis) :(6)

Fog.
Hransfoned m pedances
Hint Dyaw transformed rcuits by taki'ng
induetor as SL and
of
5

18
5
2)
1
Trans fomed (b)
start combing
mprdanCes s
Sertes para llel
Combinalians fvom
l h t ehd

and find total Impedahce

ooking lnto 1-1

Ans:)z()= s + (z(s) =s(s+4)

8+3 B+

her Poles and

2 For both the functians of part (a)
and (b) , plot
Zeros n S-plane
zs)
Hit ZeYos qYe the Toots of numerator polynomial of
denowi nator polynomal f z(s)
oles ave the 7oots of
 (s) and s how that wHh
For the n etoork shown io F 2 7 ind z

R , he impeclance Zs) looking tnto l- z(s) =R

R R

Trans-fotmed i t u i
Fg2
lter
the elass ear
been done n

Hint A similar ^7oblem has already

asshoun.
eauit
after main g tansformed

mducy euma
and ihtttal
4Jfcapacto
Ve (o) =o)
uncharged (t.e uwent
dhe
he trans fom f
1 3e70(e l(-)=o), shouw that
IIn the civeut aives by
(s+8+)
( + ) Cs+24+2) V
lo Stht ut)
Gven V 4) =

Fg.3
Hint: Draw the tvansforme d c'rcutt

Series parallel
-

w By considerinq Starting r
Com bi nations and
Tight end ftnd
h i c h is Tmpe dance
z (s)
looking
into - 1
(See Tabk of
.V,s)= Laplace Tyansorms

Ti() +urn out

Ti)= ( ) should
Z()
to be as gtven in he ro blem.
 shouw that he voltage-Tatto trans fer unetion Gi2ls) = Vits)

for the eikust of Fig. 4 groen by

1/RI RaC Ca)
Gia()=
(RIG+ Ra Ca +R Ca) R, RaC 2
CI C2 R1 Ra

R R2 T2(o)

C Na
V C T
2 asswmed

Hint .Draw tvansfor med etyuut

R Vg() R2 V2ls
Assume dveetion s of
eurents in all elemens.

Check that all node Votages

are defined assume

o bereuer mot defind. yefrenc

mode (s)
Ta O
Note that =

.Write mode e9ms

and Node eqns s)-Vas)

Solve Vi(s)-Vz(:) Ra
R se
Vs (-V
R2 (1/sa
 Sinusotdal Steady State (sss) Yespunse
R
M-
4) RL Ciut
ot ect) it)
e) = Em Sin

E = Em Time constant
= 1/p

I(s) = E
R8L

T) Em
(s+) (R+8L)

+()
Ki

constants Ki, Ka , K3 are folund, ( )

c a n be verifed thati[the
turns out to be
in ally R Em
o L Em LL E
Z where z = | + L
I(6) Z2

(S (+
finally obtain
Laplate Trans Torn we
-

Taking n verse

-R/L)t REm Sin ot LEm Cos ot

e
Ces
LEm Em Sin wt R oL Caswt Stn =
z2

Cus- z Sin Cosut

i t ) = LEm e + E Sinwt z

WLEMe EnSn (ot-4 Z=

itt) +
= ta"(
O A1tSIE T STEADY STATE
 Nole thas 0s t+00, the tyonsient Comonent wll eue ntually loeceme

rero and in the steady state tuent wouldhe

T(t) Sin (ot- ) Tm Stn (uo p) O

-

steady state
R R+(L)
where = tan ( )

Jm
R
be obtained 0s foloLdt -

The Same information can

Fiod- H) I(
E($) R+SL

Mod puts=
haue a
would
I(j) +hrs fanc tton
HL) E(w) R +L magnitude and phase

T(w)
(
anod ( t ) % aiven oy
and hase ongle beteen l(+)
tan ()

taken as Em
3 max. Va]ue o E (
Vo.lue ofICg)=Tm (say)
thethe rmaximu
would be aiven

Im
Em using (G)
R+(L)
and eCt) would oe q'oen by (using ) v
and phase angle behueen ift)
tan ()
Eauatians ) , () have same in-fermadtm (deri 0ed altenahely fvam
em O aboue
n. 4) to (7) , tontained in
1. wo-por+ baxameters
12
In a 2-port netwovk , theve ave fauY
Ja).
electical variables Vi, I , Va , N V
, tf we
choose two of +hese
Consequently 2
Variables and
Va'ables as inde pendent
Variables,
Yemaining too asdependent
his
ble u 4us in ohieh
+bere are Six possi
N can be ehaYaederised.
2-port network he netooor We woud See
of
.

4 parametevs
Each characteri s ation defines

hat bg ustng these parameBers

the wo povt N quite easily.
W e Can out tind any metoork function of
(D CaTry out analysis of Uarlous inteY Conmeetions of t w o s emOYe
riese s and

Series ana

vaYtous
ioterconnectlms are -
2-Pt netuworks easily (the
serte8 an ascade)
.

paralle-parzllel, series-barallel, parallel-

qTeatly enables +he undeYStan diog 0
Knouolege of a-pot arameters
elcctronic deutces
(B JT/FET
twe port netoorks fal in modelling etc)
are extye mely use set of ma9
v) parameters
Tvo Por a s peerie paramefers
Course , fo Some +aelca 2- port netuoork,
Of
mot eyistI
aye
of eharacterising a - pot netuork;
The six possible aus

. Z12

open c r u l t
in de pendent
Vartalb less
impedance matrix
dependent
Variables z

Y Y12

2 Yaa

short circut
Qd initahce matrix
Indebendant
dependent Varia bles
UaYcabes
 One ean mote that the four other ossibiies ave

h22

HHbrid-matrix independent vaviables

[H
deendent
Variaales

fndependent Variabless
(anot hev) rybrid
matris
debendeat [G also called
Variable s
Inverse hybrid matrix

B V2
E- ransmtss{en
-Ta
indebendent
Variaales
matrix
dependent OV
varlable s
chain'matrix

anotbeY Way of Independent

Yaviables
e x s s t og a
debendent
Vaycables
Yansission
matrtx oY

Chain matrix

called inverse
transmisstom matrix

OR
Inverse ehain matrix
 Cscut admítance parameters YS
2. Short

T = u V + Ui2 V2
I2
We can deftne
dmitane
short cr cutt input a

admittance
ut trans fer
S hort cr

admitfance

short urult tvans fey

tancc
short eur uit
output admt

12

N
V N

12 a2 Can
be
H, a can
be measuye d from
4his.

Measured trum
above.

Examble Consider

h e TT circuit YA
and Stn d

Y-avamesers

Ye
(U-Va)=(YA+Y)V -Ye Va
I = YA Vi+
V2
(Va-V) Y = - Ye V + ( YB + Yc )
Ta= Ye Va +

= (YA+Y)

1 2 -Yc

822=(Ye+Yc)

whtch 12 a called a 1eciþocal netoor K.

A eircut for
For a reci rocal , =0 VaO
3. open arwt im pedance arameters

V Zi I +Zi2 I2
J2
Va Z2 I+Z22
ders can
be dlefined as follos
Tbe Various parame
Ia0
open erruit
In put im padance OPEN
V2
Na
open civuit
2
trans fev
Im pedanre

open eixuit
Z12
tyanste Y
+
n pedahce
Z2 N
oPEN

oben evult 2'

outut inpedance

below
the T- netoovk shoon
Rnd z- parameters af
Example
T2
Z

Ze J2
Lop eqatlons V= Za I + (T+Ta) Z¢ =
(Za +Ze)I +

Va= T + (z«) (T+T)

Z= Za+Z¢)

Zia = zZe

Z2 Ze

Z2 2,+Ze)
V2 s called
A civet for whieh Zu Za .e. . I 2T2= o
oYeeilerocal network
 ] [¥ov ] =
[=17. 6] =[3 AJ=G
obsenve that =

and r1 =[T1oY ] =[T

4. Two speuia cases I 32

Consider a single imbedanee

aYanged s a a-port

networkK
2

obviously,
V-Va

and Ta=Va-V
Z
-VV=-
+his erat?
Can we findz matrix for 7-
-

since
] does not exist
Since ) =
[YJ and
det [Y=0 exist
+his i r u t doe3 noi
Heree, z J matrix for
be inde pendent
must
and 2
Aternativelyfor defining Z- parameter, I +hey are dependent
but this eirut, I=-J and hence ,

variabks,,for inde þendent

and 2 net be ehoosen oLs
on each othey hence, I can

can not be efined.

Variables. Therefate, 3-p avameters
as sboon-
natwark ,
admitahce s a 2-Ot
(b) Constder sinqle shunt
J2
ence,
nof be ehosen
as
Va can
cleavly, V =
i n dependent Vartables)

N2 But
V= .
Za=

Henes, Y= }Z] > eloesnoi exis

since det [zJ = o

Alte natéuely, since V and Va

can not be ehosen aa
Independernt Vartables hence,
for ths erlt, Y- parameters
can not be defined.
5. Hybrd parameters:

hu I, + ha Vz
V =

= 2I + hza Va
as Solous:
Vartous param eters aan be ole-fined

uit input impedance

(Rid
hu a=O short c

VoHage gain
(v)
opep ut tuit everse

¥oruaayd
euent gain (
short etruuit ,

ha

àdiitance
ho)
eirwut output
open

model 8JT Fn xample Ya

TbeseParameters
are sometimes used to a
Small sig nal
treate d s a- povt its, Bbrid pavameres
Qommon-emiter transistor,
a

axe aharaeteris-td as follows

lc
b

Sn the foxm of eqaadions-

Dbe ie b +re Vce
Obe hie re
hoe ce ic = fe ibhoe Dece
equations lead to $ollooing
Above

ie i
pie be short ckt input
mpedante to TT)
analog aus
to T) +
open clet Obe are ce de
TeVerse
Votage gain
(A
nfe Vee shott ewt
forward euhent
Fhybrid eqtualent
gain same as B) c r u t ot a comwn-
hoe c emi Her transisor
ce open eir uit
output od»itance
Yecipretal f %)
 InveYse hybrid parameters LG)
The yelevant eajuations are

N
Va au Vi +322 l2
can be
Henc Varlous a payameters

defned as
admittance
open ciyuit input

yeuerSe Cuvwen gain ov CuT1ent ratto

shert ci uut

Yatio
Or vottaqe
Sorward voltAge n
3a i #0 open eir Cult

cirut outpbut impedance

shov
Note tha -
E9uivalent Cireut
22
and H=G

312l2
2

7, Trans hmission parameters LT

V =AV2-B I2
=CVa - D I2
gain of a 2-
pov
Note that A open eireut Voltage

B- =o shovt eiuu't vans fer admr Hante

errcwt Tyansfer impedance

open

shevt c i uut foy ward

Cuent gan
A and Dave
Also note,
ushile B
dimensimle ss
a n împedane cand C
an admi ttance,
 EXample
oo prts
nd tYaunTmissi anavameters of given
T2
2

V V

a) (b)

Fov netsovk@)
I= -Va

By defini4ion ,
VI hen J2 = O
A =© I aso zero

and V = V2
C , =o C=O
A I 7

o
ohen V2
B-V=0
=

B Z
s
Tran smissicm matriy

Similarily for netocrk () Ia = o

To find A and e, put

V = Va = (T+2)
V=V2 =
C =Y
'

A =1
V2 = O
B and D ut
Tofind
V = I= - I2

.Transr,(Ssia atrih u aven

o
F-
8. Cascade- Conoecdion

Na Ib N J2
I2a
+
Aa Ba Ab Bb V2
Vab
Vaa b Cp D

Cascacde conneetin of Na and Nb

eb Na ancd N
be chaYaeterise d by adso
(4)
VIa Vaa
Ta
and

metuo ork
Vab
ovevall
ow for the
(3
1-11
Vie then 0
4sing )

-[.[ using5

using)

using) and then )

overall [T] = [Tal. [T.

Na and Nb the
netoorks
Hence in a cascade connection of too
muHy1
iransml ssien matrix of the overall metwrk can be found by
indivtual transmissian matrices Taand (Tb.

Far a CAstade of n mew

cris FI=[71.[T:3. [......[T»).
 Eyam le Find be voltage Yatio tvans fer une.ti on Gia (s)= Va(s)
of the Soll bioin eirult
(a) ustnq nodas analysis
transmissiom matrice s
) ustnq
1 Va
M

Vis) Va(s)

Dode eoms

(-Vg3s)
Va (s) Va(s)- Va Is)
/s
VaLs)-Va(s) Va (s
1/s
Eq.(I) can be simalifted a

V ()= Va(s L +5 -

Va(

be aimplifred ar
Fa.2) Can

Vs()= Va(6)+4
subs+iButing ) tnto )

V,CE)= Va(6)(A+1) (&+2) - Vals)

G) 3A+1
Using transmissin mali The cirit can be Yedrauon as
cascade o four ci¥uts

3,s) 12(s)T2Cs) =o
O M AM-
V2 s)
V,(s)

above. Hence the TS

Th matrix of each part wrlten
TheLT
matri o the ovevall etY ctt s aven b

- [
-["][ 1[** 1
(4A)+a +

-
+3+1
IT= ( + ) + a(1+a)+4
(lt+) +8

By definition
V=AVa-BT2
= cV2 -D J2
Reverse voltage gan
A

Gals) =Va(s)
Gial) s)T) =o (1+8) t (1+3)+8

Ga) 8 + 3 3+1|

tohtch 2ame as obtaine d by

nodal analysis .
9.Various
nterconneetians of two a- purt networks

hae
derived earlier thoct- fov a Cascade
aCascade Comne ctin: we

K shown-
ConnectHn of two netuoovks NA and Ne

NA Ne

TA TT
LTJ marix of he overoall netaork B Uen

E1= Tal. [a]

Also, foY a cascade af n
netoor kKS
T= L.[Ta]-LT] ..... T
Sertes SereS Cormneetion

NA V2

Ne Na
TB
For N

T
Vi IA
+

But I1A I18 T

aAT8 =T2 -F-+Ea
Lveret 2= [za +2s
 R R

)Parallel-PavallelConneetion Eajutvalent to
R/2 parallel con neetlon

of t w o T -n e t ü e r k s
Tutn-T ne twovk

Via NA
I22
Iab Na
Vab

earalle aralle
Connectiom Connecdin at
a the
inp ut
the out pa

V=Via = ib Va= Vaa = Vab

(
= Ia + Iib
2 2 a + T2b

and Ng chavactern'sed by Hhev

y- parameter
Lat Na
s)usingalsa

A)sin8 and(d

Adding)and A
(4)
4sina (3)and

using
6) and )

- [)+[)
 4

A) Seriy- baralal Conne cttn

Sya S20
NA 32

Iab

Vib Na
114 Iab

Parallel Canneetlon
SeTles
on authut side
Con nectin
on tnput S i d e
VaVza= Vab
Ia = ib | )
but Vi = Vja + Vib ba I= Iaa J2b

Na and NB et the -paYA me ters be glvtn

For metu0 ok

(A)
and Vb
Iab

-- 4 s i n g {) and (2)

using ) and (4)

usina ( ) and ( ) again

dhintion of{6 natrlx

foperall nedoork
 eFaxalle- Serles Connection

Tha 2

NA VaA
Ja
T18

V18 Ne Vaa

Paralel-con nee tion

at input slde Output parts
Coneeied in serte

V= VIA VyB T2 IaA =I2B

Va VaA+2

Let na and Ng characterised by

heiv - arametere

VB
Te -o Ias
|Vas
Fran )oand)

Va

E1--
. From5)
(ustn9
) and 4)
using (e)
 of Frg ()
Rroblem 1 Find ABcD arameters *be qiven cruit by Consicdeting
this as cascade conneeli c of three simpler subeywis
in igb)
ethe tyhe shoon
M- MM

V V2

(b
(a
Crcuit) Can be analgzed as follews

For Tnput loop 1.

( I+ 2) 211+ 2 (11
V=4.1 + =

For out but side

Va(T+ T2). I = T+ T2 (a)

=2 (T+ I2)J2 =2V2-T23

T a Ta A)
trom and() tvansmissiom matrix of oavuit (b) s

T-[
Noy eiruit Rg.(a) can be awanged as a cascade of three
Susciruts o ge gioen in
Fg (6)
AM

8 5
Roblem 2: Detevmine the YJ matrx of the follousinq netuark Assume
Poslem 2 deal of -amp.

Ra T2
Vo

R2
M

Non -inUertinq
&mllfteY
R2

Due to inf¢nite in|put+ impedance of the op-anp

also Va-Vo (+
R3
R3
2Va
R3 ()
R3
From ) and (2)

I
T2 -(14
R3
Re

- (1+Ra
R
R3 R3
Prob.3 Assuning ileal o-am, ftind the T1 matT of
the follcustn Curut
Vo

R R2
+
T

=V-V,
Rr

V2- Vo

R2
in +erminals to
qain forces the
two input
onceea op-amp, o
have e a Vokag

Va (
alsoI -VoVa-Vo = Ta Ra) usinqN-(2)
RR R

using
n 3)
The Cirwt s chayacteriged by

V= V2

60TiHen as
nmatri x form the albove can be
O V
V
-(
= (
 matrix and
matrtx of the auen eiyuit
Prob.4 Findthe, tyansmissi on
2
M-

eVs 32 N2
V 20

Tn ut loop eqm T2
T, + 20 (+T2)= 3o I +2o
V = 1o

0utput loo Va-lo I +20 I1+ 12)

Va o T 20 IIa

30 2D

Va 30 20

ABCD
From and (2) uwe can find T] y using the definitan of
parameteus Gs
oll ows:
Put T2 =0 9 in G) and (2)
A = V
VI T=0 30 T
V =

V2 = 1o I

A =3 C=
also

V Put Va-o
O 1o I
in (2)
+ 20 2 I =- 2 I2
D - ao
=a
ron (1) - 30 I +20 32

= Bo (-2 Ja)+20 Jz
- h0 I2

10 2
 Rrolb.1 The cuhcut shocan s ehavacter bscd bX-paraume tev
sheo that open avu't uiaqe yatio trons fer wetio is
lven y Gi2 Za
Z

( Ta(s)

N 2(s
Vil

Vals=Z21
Val Als)+Z2a I ()

Sre Tals) = o Za
Gia( s ) a ( )
VLs)= Zu Is) Gias)= ZP
ana Vats) = Za Tls

d
povt 2
ob.2 The ciyuuet N n the fgure is teri mated
medance Z= Shou hat
tto an

Jls) Jals
a2 YL
Is)= Uu V,) N
+ iz Vals)
Ta(s)= a1 V,s) + aa Vals) (a)
aso, Vas) =-I, Is). (3)
Subttutng)oto(2)

-YLVas) = 2 Vils)+2 V(s)

Vi(s)
Y +Ya) als=-Ha
Ga()= 4l) -a
V(s) aa+ML
 Problem 3 Tne erui+ N is termina led at port 2 ino an mped antaz.
z) giuen by
S bouo that tbe +ransfer ivnpedance uneticn
Z21 ZL
22+ZL

N
Zl) given by
Zul)= ¥al
ts) Zu ,6)+Z1a J )OD
of N are deine d byV, =

The pavameters
Va = I)+ Z2a Tals)

ako Va(s) =- Js) ZL )

Substitutng in :
a s ) = Z 2I,)+ Zaa a

ZL

Z2 Zai. ZL
a(s)= ZL+Z2
)

and oHen
C i t shouon called o Toln -T ciY ut
Peb.4 in
Fia. i
used as
a notch fiHey to reect a
specic qu<n
2 2
M-

28

Tnd the Y-þarameters of the etYuit.

 -arallel
connech n O
be Cns idered *o be a paroalel,
The given
he given ciytuit can

wD T- netuooks ence , the name Toin-T metwovi

NA
2
2
*

o Considev NA

M-

23

We know that f
Za Zb

Ta+Ze
b+Zel

4+2
2+ Find

2 + 4+2
Stmilarty -1

matyitej
conncctiam S
.Oueral Y= [Ya] La + Tna parallel-bavallel
acd u)
16 Conversi an of Parameters

in tevms of z avameteYs
4) ABCDaraine tevs
oaue to ind yansn(ss{ on
f 7 -sarameteYs are knouon and Loe

Pawameters, We can proceed as oljor;

Zi2 I2 )
V Zu I
I + Z 2 a J2 )
U2 = Z21 m
their definiton
be foupd o ah blying
payavneters can
*Bc
he folowing
A Va 3 T2 (3)
V
-

e V2 9 J2 4)
I
-

and 4) we defne as folloaos

From 31
e et
O n ) and al
A 3a = utting T2
=

V2= Z2 J

A ==
V2

V
Favthemm are
Put Va o in (a)
B - Va=o
Ti Z 2 a 2
O = Z2

Za
Result
Substidutnq
Z Z2a-Z12Z2 Ja
Za
Vi ZZaa, ) + 4a
=- 2 +Ziu)J2

Z 2 2 - Zi2 <2
8 VI
Z2l
bZ-parameters in derms of ABCD poraneters

9 ABC arameters are knoon we can rite-

Y= AVa - BI2

= e V2- DI2 (2)

found by evaluatnq
4 llows
Now -paranetors can be

and )
qms (1)
Z1 Ta=o Make J2 =O, in

V= AV
Za =o

and Za =
Next we define -

Z = -o Pat I O in eqn ) :

0 = eVa - D I2
22

Subs+g I n ) -
BI2
V

The Teqireå 1 ] matrix is

A-BC

Conditicn cf zecip reeity in tems of ABcD fara nie ters

neotrk Tecipyora f
Z12=Za
AD-8

AD-BC = I
 Mblity of 2-prt and 1- Þat networks

lahily of a-pot netwoks

hile eoYYelal ing the locai on of poles of a netoor k Function

Rts lem unelin) Hs) loitb its mpulse 1es ponse ht) when

lalon e t) &), the following were observed

hw boles of HG) ave locate d in the vtght half df s-plane,

hen me 7apnse has carnponents olue to which res pnse

4nstable
d s lo become D, ast> . Such tycuts are called

uhen poles of H) are located in the left half of S-plane

takes a
then yespanse tends o be ettheT zero ovSinite n6n3 &vo value
a8 t Suc.h ecuis aYe ealle e stable

1) ben H) has imaqinavy eonjugate Youts on ois of plane,

e esse 8'0sullaleryin Matue Thus, altbough Yponse cdoo nt

lend do be.come , when l - O but Tother Cmadns Conhneel

fdeon Sinite values. Such a eivcut salled osce \la t y
"

Sauwe-tnes 'cmditimaly stable).

Thus, evaut s Said to be stable for bounded input (such as
anshep input u(t)), e outhut o the circut a lso remains
bernie.
oa de & (i.e doet not t end to bo, as t 0).
poles
1+o (s+) A-30)
Conditimall y stable)
stable) X+

unstable)

o
s4ble
siable
Frg.
ose|la ovy
 al the poles of tts netwovk
A -port eirut ú aaid to be stable if
intevest ocated io left half of the - plane
unehin of are

Q12ls) of a two
Example et the voltage Tatto transfev fanehion
Pot be
1

Gal$)vIG) +2 (3+3)
art on

S =- 3 , 8 = - 2 both of which
boles are

Teal ayis ie. in the left boalf of S-plane

negaiive

conclitian of boum ded input

Check: doca this eiyCut s0tisfy the
bounded outbut
ohich bounded input. NoD U(s) = .

Apbly V(t) = att) a

V,t)= u(t) . Va(¢) = V,()

(s+2) (343) (3+2) (343)
8
Va(s) + S+2) &+3

14)- A + S+2

N
Valt) = A u(t) + Be t)+ce3 utl
) Hs) nou a t , 2 and evms ene to be
3e10 ancd VaH) A (whieh s a finite hence,
bounded' value .

Fig 2
.Ciubolds gsod , the p7operBy of bounde
iopu bounded outpuf.
 ERoum ple 2 Let H = 2{5) 2 2
s) 2 +2 (s-1)+()2
ar
metwork unetiom
-

The pole of the

8 = +2 + 4 - 2 2
(*o
-X

Fig 3

enstable.
the círuut
Simce both þoles are in RH. P
Conta 7 aterm
Check oben o< find unit step response Vat) wil inusor'dal
funcHon
all 7istnq
exponent i
2 e Sint hich L& aD

t> Tespanse /ouBput w oulod

tendin to
became a8
cYuit unstable).
become unkoundeo and hence h e

eiYuit shotdn
Example 3 Cnment on the stabiuty of he

Vo(s)
Fi
i0
K-gain
amplfie

Node e9ms are

V» (s)
e ( (s
-

Vs) -e (s) =
+

e (s)Vo(s)
and
k
/s

ftnd:
BySalolnq above, we

Hs)= Vo(s) 8 + s (3-k) -+

V(s)
 Stnce Hs)=Vo
+ (3-k) +
osillatory a unstable dependi ng pon he
the eirut can be stable ,

Value of k . Thus
bolesat& =t 6.1
Hcs)
Fox k=3 roots
fmagtnary cmjugate
on +dw ak*)

C r u t oswllatry
(Condttimally stnble)

be In Ye ft half of 5-plane
be found to
For k 3 Yoofs can

9+k6k-4
Tn general, = - (3-k) +
3-)4 (- 2

=K2)+5+KGK

mag hay
-ive f k <3
ferk3
would b
S-pla ne and c
are n let halS of
hence Toots
8fable and hence,
pavt
roots would have po stHive Tea
Fur k>3 the conplex ei>cut woulel be
The re fere,
the Tig ht half of S-plane.
6uld be n

unstable for k >3

,
cut and cmment
funetiom of Ahe given e
Determtne the fransfer
Problem.
on
heBtakility of this etr ut 1 F
1

F k-)R Fig.5
Assume ldedl M

afp-amp. R
. Stabi liBy of
0ge -pat nedudorks

( =V ( - k ( C
Lat Cs+b)
N (a)

=-b ( e . in
Pole at
hence,
s-plane),
lef+ half of eivuut atable)
8table ( ca led open
Cirut s

Take another example

k (A+a)
atz1)= (8-e)
)
N
6)
(.e. in
Scnre pole ts at s =+C
3-plane theYfore,
4he Yight hajf of
unstable (calld open I,)
Ciwt
unstable ").
Cirtut
and
exijati m
But if we ehange the

Tapanse
hen netwrk functiom
iteret would be

-)
() k(S+a)
V,(S) Fg-6
a
bole u ot
-
=
Tow the

(i.e. In eft half of s-plane)

and the Aame eITCut no
cirut stable)
Bhchlealled short
ScS

eiyeut may be
of1-post neicoorks, he
same
orelu slon Tn case
unstable for he
Hable fer ofexeitalien but T y be
one kind
ypeS
Hence, 1-bat eloa ks
çan be o f folleofng
CHer kind feutatim

both 0 cS and SCS

CS but SC-unstable, 0-unstable but ScS,
u t bo.d no had

OC-unstable SCunsiable
Useless
Example Cut usiog a neqative impedance som Verter:

- port ative lement

- tmedance~ e6MVeYtev NIC) a
Negatve

..

NIO
Fig.7
2
on matrix-
Characterlaed by he foll ousinqtransmisst

A
-D -Ta
and +D also)
Can have -A
Cose, one hawe
an od ante
tmpeeah ce Z we

tetmin ated toto

Ohen outaut pot
= - Zu
Va=-Ia ZL
Smce V = AV

Ond

-(4)3
ZL
an NIC onevts a ive lmpedanee
Henee Fquivalent eivcuit
ito a negative jmpedante Z L lo oking
the
ifo input ort 1-1 TheYefewe
Frg 8
hen
+he complete edv t y
equivalent of showntd hy.8
as
lcoking tnto inpat pot
 A SImple piactica Tealsatin of NIC L uslo g an deal e amp

as shown
No
Aob

(RIRa
R2 +
. R2 I2
Frg9

the Seedbackforce the

*he
Seedbaek force
and the
infenlte aain op-amp
op-amp the ofthe
(cleal termin)s
n ,

on the two input

Volfage aspearin
o be eqJual

There tore V2= V

and = Va-o

Since V=V2)
V-Vo R2
R
;- R Va-Vo R
orite-
'. We c a n
V
oY In
matrix -for
--2-
. T h e eirewit con sideved
o8 an NIC thA =\»19)=
then-
teYminated
into a load P3,
3F Outut b

We et = Va =-
Ja Ra
RI

R Ra
R2
Prublem Find Y an hence deter mine the Conditio
s)
under b ich the círut ould be ahort - eirauit a table (SCs)

Assuye that the ncnideal, requeny omain gain A

of be op-amp can be modelled A e wnere

thr op-amp.
0 s the 2adn- band width þroduct
-
P-amp

(Fr a A741 pe op-amp 2 r 2t (IMHz))

) 4
A

Tak Ag

Frg.lo
Nonickea fre jaency depencdent gain of op-amp The aben loop gain A of but
frequency-inde þendestt,
un op-amp o} type uA741 nelther infinite nor

is as shouon in Fig Th's Can be vepresented by

A
Ao lp
Ap +p
- 20 dB/decade
2x10)
wheve, far p A741 spe

op-amP
p(=
p27 SHa) Ao 21o

x 5Hz
Non-ided heauenca Yaponse and p =
2 TT
the open loop garn A of denateo by
Garn band
width product
he op-amp
Ao
= 21 x1o
is:
= 3TT ( MHZ)
Stnce p = 2TT (5 Hz),
than 5 Hz
to be ueh JaYger
E we ass ame o perational freguencas
aphoximated a
. P then A can b
small wp)
A Ap . gnoring

A = AD
ot =o.

Also at

Al
as
g a i n io dB can, theve fore be expres.sed

a log (oe) -
ao
ug
20
leg Ai
ihed ualue
This comment will
Stne

decTaase
decade ehinqe
fe auey
Hencethis
in
at a Yate
Lw cnanq

20 dB decade.
 i
Vo
A
Vin
AZ

substituting frm ()= WA

Z2

O
n
ZtZ 2

.6) = +
A+ Z (4+22)

24&(4+7a) Z z E E )2
+(7+Za) Z3 (3-
Z41a) + Z4 z

Afable ($Cs) because pole of Y) 1

Ciust is shorl civut

oc.cte at
Ct.e. in left half ot s-plane)
Zt22.
Hoicevas at us chesk if the erCut can be male open Circut stable (o es) toa

zs)=
lin
a%(3+) +73 (+72)+ zZ4-23)
n arder hat 4he eiruut is open ciruit stable (0.C. s)

the poe zgiven by

(3+3a) (Z2+Za)

shsuld be in left half of s-plane

This tst appen if Z Z 4 Z2Z3
open eir cuit
. The candttom fStability is

4 Z a Z3
 Aternat ive (irtutive)aPpYea

back
() o- amb wth neqatve feed

in

R2 Negahve fee dback

R Vo
Ri+R2 factov
feedback
called

P R,

Do
(tn-BUo)A
=

Vo
(Uin-BDo) =

Vin(1+ P)v

Nomideal gain NO
in 1+
on he negatve
n

The transer unction has pole at &= - B a

Yui
stable. Thus
Yeal axis .e. Jn left halt. of
s- plane, hence,
leads to slabiLty!
Negatve feedback
o-amp wtth +IUe Jeedback posiiive feedba dk
)
3 aadback tacter
R4
Vo

we Can nouo wUte

teminals Is changed
Sinte l y polarity oinput Vo
A ( pDo
-

Din =

A
R3+RuA
o -i«) =

Do -Ap) =- AVin
A.

-AB
Vin - A -p

inhe tgkt half

This cctut has a poe at S +8 i.e.

of the s- plane . Rence this civuit s unstable

Yosttive Seodhatk leads to instabi lity
 :
as the geve n civcuit)
and ositive See dback
0ii) e n eirut tas both neqative

Vo

factoY is
Negative ee dback

R R Vo
paritiue Ri+ R2
is
fed back factor
Ra .Vo
Ra+Ry
dback

stabelity »
the negative feo
Nou CommM sense Says that for
dominate aver the aositive feedback
mus

R Vo R 3 Vtn
Ri+R2 RatRy

RR3+Ru)> (RI+R2) R3

RIR R2 alysi
eloabavate
Tathematical
Tathematical ana
anlysis
Dhich is same os derivee by 4he move
 invevtes and the Gy rata
Impedance Converters/

1. Imbedance Invetters /Convexters

netuwork elements
veyters are two -

port
ioverers and tm smalated
s m a l a t e d inductors
inductws
Jmpedance
Yesistors,
cYeating negative
whieh are useful in
in he
the lek'g
olekgn
which ind ap þltcatims
useful elements,
and other

Oscllatas
and ft HeYs.

nehbork N characterise d by
hese elements, Considey a
To fomaly de-ftne
we can wYte-
parameters Thus, for N,
transmission I2
.

Hs

V, = A Va- BI2 (
CVa-Dl2 ) N

port 2 teminatecd into

aload impedance Z1 ,
de
Zin
Can write
-12ZL Va (3)

From ) and (2)

- A J ZL- BJ2 =A+B (A)
AVa-8 I2 = cZL+D

CVa- I2 - I 2 ZL-DI2

Consider now the olootn Cases

then
i fB =0
C =0
Zin =(
'A 3- port netook hauing Thas he preper
D
that it Conuerir the impe dance Z into A)ZL lboking into Ahe

input port
defi'nes a two- þort impedaace
Above ransmissian matrix
Converter
 there too furthey cases f-
No ate

|+A then Zin = -

calle eqatrve
and the element
fmedanee conveyter NIC),

O and +he
then Zin
Zin +(A)ZL
D Dostive
eement called
PIc)
inpedan ce conver tev
d D = D then
to have = C an ,

C) 9f N ü designed
Zin
a a-pot netoork <lement hautng
Thus,

F1-
into
into
impedande ZL
has the pro petty that it inuertsthe

when lookinq imto 1he

in put part.
CZ
mpedance inverterS too haue tuo0 Varietes

hen Zin e ZL

and the element callecl apositive impedante invertey (PIT).

if transmissjen matrix 1s of the

kind
On the other hand ,

+
then in =-

cdement Called egatiue lmpedance

and he Coespandinq
(nUertey (NTI)
 the four elements .e. NIC, PIc, PTI and N II, tbe s t
easily realisable i he NIC, ohièh meeds only a slngle o-ap
and wo TeSLStrs As s hown

Ra
R
- RIR3

R2
Zin

F-
D =
A=1, B «o ,C =o
Ri Ra
and Zin = Z =
Ahe YS
2- povt element eharacierise d by
2.yrator: A gyrator is a
S2
matnx

G *

-G
rem+he aboue we have,
+he
= GV2 Circuet symbol of
yrator
2-

SY V -

GV2 misston mat rix as

where we can fomulate the trans
7om is a
A 38raBoy

- Speecal

wit hB-a
Case of f I I

AO, B = Vs , C G , D =o)

O
whreh is the
G O trans missian
Taataix of PIJ,
 eonuertey (GIc):
3.A Ceneralisec lmpecdance
too NIC-tybe circuts
A GIe oatainecl by cascacdinq

Zin

The oveall
Trans misssom mathix is a'ven by
O

ZIZ3 we
e
Connected
8
the output on mpe d ance z
at
AS,
V= V2
I=-2a
Zu J2
zZ3

=V2
and -

I2 Zs

Soloing the ahoue ue 3et

VI
Z2 24
a
vaYtedy of
ettbey sesistive or eapaaiive
to be
By choosin Z 4he eirut Ls called
be ereated, hence,
interesttna impedances
can

Generalesed Impedance Conuerier (Crc

 An alte? native GIc (Antonieus GIc)

t not a eascade tuoo

A slightly dfferent eiruut oheh
natix shouon here
NICs and yet has the åame TS

Vol

No
2

Zin Analysis = V-Voa

Ta=V-Vot
Z4

Voa 3
Z2

V2 Vi (A)
By thspeetion =

N-No2/zNo2-V
/Voa-V -

Fom (1) and (2)

-Va1 Vo-VaVoi-, using n(3 )

= V (5)

23
()
Cyut a GIC
V Since

- z23
A=
B0
C

D 4/Z43
0
 'ohteh are psattcal utilty
noD be Cms( dores
Sme speeeal cases may
ostillator and t e design :

the uteuopotnt of
from
Case Stnulated indueto
Ra Cu
A
M AM
R
Leay

Zin

Cy Ri Ra Rs a Le
R2 resístor)
Variable
varled b having one
can be
Lohere eq,= y RIR3Rs
R2

Case 2 Capacttance multiplier

, R5
R3
MM- MM

A R2
CeA
Cs
RIR3
Ra Ry Cs

C
sCe Zin
Loheye ean be
ereated rm
R4 valued capautante
Ce Cs Ra (a larze
-

Ceg modest- ualued capactor 5

R R3 he awaxable

O f F
For eyamble , if C5 =

R2=Ry 1ook

\K
Ri= Ra =

1 mF
O lu F
Ca T6
 Case 3 FDNC
Ra

R
Ms

Zin
M oheye M= 2 Cy R1 Ra Rs
Zn sCRRgRs=

Vinls = M For sinusoldal exaitatien

Tin(
Zin (do) = -Mu
M S Iin)
negadive conduciante
Freqjuency dependent
Vtn(E)= M dint
2
FDNC
t2
Called a Supertneluctor due to double d£ferenttatian ofurent involued

Ziu(o)= -
Case 4 FDNR DU2

RA Fyequency- dependent
ANL- egative Tesubtance

C FDNR)

D*

y
RaRy Cs
R3 D Ra
SRaRy C Cs
Sometimes
Called ab a
Vtn
Supeicapauto in(s)
because of dusle
integvati n in) i t ) clt
4 6 aoa
Cuwent
 eauivalent imped ance Zeq, of 4he gtuen ciYuust
Pyob Whdt is the

R2
A Z

Zaa,=P

negative impedance
impedance
TRalises a
circu+
There fove lven
Ans Zea, =-ZL Thes & Called a2

between poris O
and .
ZL of the
mone
mone of
megative impedance since
Sloatng 1
connected
connectec to around.
g roumd.
tuo temt als of h i s - Z L
.standarel esuts

Tansmis sfom matrix

F
series tmped ae

2'
shunt ad mt trane

(C)A R2 O

R2

Lohen R= R2 =R,

NIC 4hen T

R
M
then
R,
when R R2 = R3 :

_R R a ..

R R
R3 o

Negatlue Tesistor Ra
RIR3

(e Tnvertina amplifier (E) Naninverting amblifier

Vin Vo Vo
Vin

Z2

Vin
Ve
Vtn
1+
2. Negative im þedance Inveyter f NIi):

matvix
ANII s chaxacterised by he tyansmisstan

OtB
C

NII shown
ciruit 10 bieh yealises
a
A tdo op-amp

12
R
AM- R
AML

R
R

R
R
-R

Thus + V-V
aso z +

)and (2 con be arranged as

-I2 R
Va

c Ae
of

E-
Stnee B and
sign he eveLt
Ppesite
a NIT.
 Alteyna ively , \TJ matn'x can be found by treating the eurcu
a Cagcade connection of thvee netw orks

R
M-

87-11R1 R

-
= a R
wnich La same as derived earlie

3 Pasitive Impedance Irverier (PIT

the transmisi m matrix f type

A PII b characierised b

Va
-1
T
6toe stqns Parameters
and Cthen
94 we take the of

V= B I2

I -cV2

O C

l3
 A twb-op-amp crautto Tealise PIX shown

14V2
Ve

N
NIC

R R

follow8
Node equations can be wT en as

V-Va
()
R R

I2 + but -Va (
V2
R (3)
3) be orttlen as
Eans. ( and can

R I2
I

V2

- -
Since

sign
8 and

he
C
ericuit
aYe

a
of
PII.
Samc

07iMen rm (1) and (2)

The - 7nattx o PII can be directly

oith G
Hence,4his tirtut is aso a ayratar s
G
LG
 4. Simulated Lossless inductor usng a gyutor/PTI

1 AM-
-32
R

zCRS
M L

R
R

almula tes
irbo eapaciter it
s terminatec) at pot 2 a

wben PII/GyraBor
ooking tnto termtnal
a lossless inducan ce
the equattons
have alYeady oderi ved
For the elrutt shown
we

I =-

2 t 2)

haue
acddtnq a capoutov ot ort 2 we

sin a (3)
ReoTiting () , --)

*R*2
V ubstiduiing I a r o e n ( 2 )
aCR2
2
eR heny iesS.
where Le =

An = AcR = A Leg
shoun as follouos
YCut u 2qMvalently
The above

SC

Zin8CR Gyrator
Zin 2CR
 it to be a cascade o
The circutt can dso be analuged by Considevi ng
oLLY Sub- eircutts

negative NIC
Teststance

- R

-
o1

=
O - R

lahich same a derivedl earlo

becames a PJCc
Shoo that cascade of too PIIs
Rreblem
PTI2
PII
Ba
oB

B2

PIC.
tbis matvix vepesents a

C2
5. Thc Rtorolon Gy ratot

in
A
Vo

M -
Vin

Vo2 leg= CuRRaRs

R2
Cu
-1-

noninveting ampli ftey

a& a
ke seen -to be Conneete d
o-OVnp Aj can

V o a = + z4)R5
Vi in
Vtn-VoI
Now TLin

Vol
Vin
RI

R 2)
Zin Vin
Lin Vo
Vin

writing an eqm. at the Aunctid }R2 and Ra

Vin-Vo2
ol-Vin
Vtn R2
R3

Vol + Vo2
+
Vn ( )
R2 R3
substitutingrem (1)

R2
=
Vot l + R3
5s = &Cy Re R5
Vin
ZinR
CR1 Ri Rs Rs s Leey
Substituting (4) Ine) we
3t - Ra Ra
sCuR3R5
 &imulate a
between them
embeded
wtb a copacitor
6wo Guraiars
iocluckor .
lcssless Sleatina

Crator2
Ggator

chayacterised by
A ayratar
9+ has the
matrix

and i2=-GU
- [ 1 tuwo- Pot
reci procal
V= - and s a non-
12 Ga)
netoork element &nce
=GV2

-C1
G o
as shouon

of thyee subciycuts,
cascade
s a
curuit shoton
No the

- G
G

G
-

an equyalent
Therefore, this Tepresent
between and D)
impedance (appeaving
= = CR (if G=/R)
equal to

L/G CR
O
Joslessloatinq inducto)
Eguiralent e u t (A
 GIC Find Zin) what bassive eauivalent o+his
Prob.2 Mekted
tirtit lecking lto þorè O?

Modi fred
GIC
75
in

0
determine
an equt valent
Find Yin and
modified GIC.
Prob.3 Another

thls laokt»g into port O

Another
modifted
Z3 Z GIC

in

and usith Ri,

uoit RI, R2
R2
wth Rs deleted to cYeate port 7
Prob.4 Shocothat and A4,
Teplated bg eneral
impedantes Z1 , 22, Za
R3 SC4
s matrix
t also a GIChauing transmission
Riord on Gyrator
Z

ZaZy T
ZZ3

OV
Riordon
Gyrator
a GIC

V2
 Fschem Find the cauivaent of the gien cuyuit as shoon

Ra Zea, 2
CH -MM-
R
M M H-
RR2 2

GTC2
cIC resisancCe
Rs
R R s Rs CRIRas
Ley where Lea, =
R2
1 Zea q RiR3k9
R2
the eiruit shoon
Prcb 2 the transmissi en matrix IT f
By jtnding value
LeRZ
H 7calises a floating nductanca of
Verifthat

NUC

Reall 4hat -
R)
RIR3
-R (uhen R R =R3
=

R2
R2

2
3CR Foainq Z = 8¢R = 3L toheYe L CR
 Netuork GrasbTheory
means
ot8vra ph thecry pro
vole. a 3ystemactic
The eebniques me thedolog ies
and oop euattons and
mode eqms.
ofwwiting nearly-independent
ave parttularly useful in som
puter-aud -

analysu of very ae elecmt

eleetronic eircuits.
a.bleto lot of m e eonceþBs and defnitions
To bePly the methods , a whole
are to be studled s hich aye asjo louos

Cu
1.Grah 9f each mode of the gloe
2
vepyesentee as a Vertex
ctruit s
R2
(node)
and 2ach element R,L,C
C ) 5
Vor I) s Tebresented by a

ne Seq mente then he resulHtng

Tesres entailon is called a qraph

4

Tbus, rabh
G
is a 8et containî oq b2 M2 b m3
all branches and vrties (nodes)
b5
the etcuit
of aiven

G= Mi, n2, m3,

n4 ; bi, b2,b3, b4,b5,
Grah given ciruib

2. Subaraph A ubgraph of the aph a

subset of set G n2
bu, bs,bé n b2
G Set ni,n2,n3,n4; b1,ba, ba,

i , na,b , ba,b6}
then Subset

s asubgraph of G
b

n2

bsetni,n2, ne, ny, by ba,bg bs

G'
anci hey subgraþh of
 3. Connected arath a conneeted grapb one in which here at least

Oneath betueen euery pair of node s

(vertiea.
Crapb G
G Con nected graph
mot conneeted (drsjolnt) Con nected arakn
Ga
s+has two unconneeted

e arts
Graleh G2

disjoint arakh
4. Plana and nonplanar grahs

A planar graph is on ohch Non-planar

Gvaen
Can be draon on a lane (oY
a sheet of papev) wthout any
branches intersecting cach othey. L5

Other wise , ts nn-blanay A non-planar

graph is shoton In Fig.

R2
OTiented Graph w hen the
C
bTanches ave ass tqmed an 'oren toatidn
(direchon) n accaydlance ith the
as sumed diYections of Curent S
bs
n +he
m3
it is
Var ous bYanches othe given curuut,
b o2
Called an OTtented qrash.
be

oriented araph
 AbPanch satd to be incideat to a node f t s
GIncidence
Conneeted to that node. Ang gten
ranch can be intident to only

oo noees. r example branch b

L intident to nodes i and a s shouon.

1
7. Degree avertex degre

avetex the nunbey

branchesalso callecd
node
edges) ina det on a .

3
Thus, degree n=

Lhik egree
Tledes mi , n3, na =
n3

8. Path': A path behaan teo

VaTttes

adgs (branches)
Scqente
berween mi and such that
thYaugh
Verttus and edg aPpearing From , na, n3t na
all distinct. branches b bz, b6, a path
in this ath av
ane n3 aYe
and m are called ternminal vtits hile T2

Internal vevitces

vertices ae
Lhile all inter nal
Tenninal vertises are of oleqree

degree 2
Vertites and i aTe same
A closed paih in ohich e rmi nal
s called a
reutloep)
 . Tyee a g7aph
2 2 n3
A trae T' a q7aph G
eonneeted subgrash of G,
toclucde all nedes of G bu
Lonteh
but loes not form a oop (eiruit).

G as sheuon can GralphG'

A ven gYaph
Some ae
howe manyt yees
m2 b2m3
n
shouonhere

b n2 b2 m3
G.
araeh
A 4ree o
(a)
b5

n3
D 6- a 2

(6) /b6
Some other

trees of
+he same

draph G
b5
b2
n3
M b2
na .M3
(4)

OY
The branches Incuded in the tyee ar ealleo rtyee branc hes
included in the Yce
ohile the branches not
Some
t mes, ust branches) ,

doted Ynes). Links are also called ehovds.

are called "Lenks (shown by
branches wheye N = total numbev of m od es
Evev tree has cxactlyN-) ,
CUertrces)

B b total number of branches/edges , then is

.9f B-(N-) (B-N+)
numer of Pinks =
=
malrix.
total here A incidence
Total number of Trees oß any graphdet {[AI[Al
 the chosen tvee called
0 Cotree The Conplmentary sub-gyaph of
all Renks (chovd«')
aeotree and the edges of Co-tree are

n3 o2 3

nu

Graph 'C Tree T

m3

.'

Co-tree L

1 Augmented Intidence matrix: Aa

b
kcL to all medes
Apptng b 2
We can wYLfe

b b tb5=O bH

-1b+1b2 + lbg = 4
-

2 g -bg =o Aacalled
bbalbg CVuCmen tecl

matrix
încidence

and its
These can be oriHen in matrix torm oveler is NxB.
b2 b b6 Addtng

-1
-1 O

O
ib O++
T2 ib2
b3-byib(=0
iba
b
b5 b4-ibg+ibe=o

KC in matrix
cbtained
fan:Aaib
4re not
0 indpendent
neary
A obtained by
Havetver eqna tions adding +@+
 OYiented NB matrix
s a
ro
ang given gph G Aa can be ormulated

whose element ,the follouoin Tuks apply -

node ands
brancb is Incident 4o ith
aL=+1 if
Hhe Lth node
lireeded aLway rom
and
branch s incident to 1th node
divected oLoards the th node

to i Th node
branch not ineident
= O if th

propertfes
inerdence matriy LAa has the ollouoing
he augmented

entry and
One1 2nbr
Sn each Colamn there is nly one +

Sum o each column s zero

Sum of al Tos oAal=o

be deletee
oithaut any lass of inovmation.
Ag Tow ofAa can

Recuced Incidence matrix (oY Simply *incidence matrix A

12.

mode olatum node ) dele4ed,

J7 the 7o corYes jpmding to refetence
scalled Teduted incidence matrix oY simply inadence matrix LA

then
ifwe echoose n4 a3 Yeferenee node,
buS, in the evious 2xamble
as
delerinqthe last You Coneapon di'ng to nu) 3vesA

n
ib2
02-
ib
O -1 bs
b6

Jn matrls Herm: [A]i = givestnearlyndependent node eqs.

A,Doleninadon otol umy of lvoe

lA -

4 33

AISA=

etonmi ymn 3-+ 4a}

24 - 4 6

aph shoud haue 1 rees!

4. A fossi ble 4rees ofthe of ang graph det [AILA
gYalph Totalno o trees =

. .. .*
15 Re kaution between node votages and
bYanch voltages
bi m2 03
b 2

by b3 b6
n n2
Dn2 Vn3

Vn VnH

-On
n-Un3

b6 Dnu4-Vn3

Vba Vn2

Nm3
VE4
Vn
Vb6

Same as Aa

16 Tellegans Theoyem:

of both sides
Takingrans ponse

- 'TA
b2
ib3
Ncw multtplying boh sldes by ibuhere ib4
ib5

trom KcL in matrx farm

in matmx tor
Hence ' [o This s Tellec ans theoTem

e. b lby + Vbz2 lba t. ..+bg lb*0

ib3 0
b K
ib l-e algebraie sum of instand aneous pouoes

B branehes of oa netooak = 0
in all the
 17.t-set of a conmectecd 3Taph
A eut-set of a eonneched araph G the mini ma set of brancher (edges
whose 7emoval divtds the qrohh imto tuo diolnt 3ubgraphs.

m3
b7

b6 ou

M6 2 M7

u eut set
C Setba, bio, bn, bsy a

m3
b7

b8

subaraph subgraph

A connected aaph cah have mahy eut-sets

T of araph G
witb r s pect to a ehosen tree

1e.Fundamental Cu4-set A fundamental eut-set u 4ha eut set includes

tree ba nch and its other elements

aTe all inks only.
enly one

chosen tyee T be
Let the
by 2 b5 b6

b2 2 b5 n3
b

Note
Graph G An Isoladed
nade s a
Fund amental cut sets are
.No. fundamental tut-set
oy a8 yash G u.7.t a C, br , b, be -ba,bs, be} subgraph
of
ehosen tree (N-J) C2=b , b2,ba
 he saUne gYaphG be fundamental
another tree
T
6-
9f we ehoose
but în all Cascs
Cut set be feret
eut- sets =
N-1)
mo. o und amental
ambey o nodos of rahh G.
where N s the tota
and idetif
another tree o 4ho same araph G
Jets ehoose
Fxamhle tree
allematite
ht's
enenta u i sets with repect to
und

TYee

b5 n3 C
b

M2 b5 m3
.b

b2
m
CrekhG
C
tree brancheS
solte tnes

dotled nes nks (cherds

undametal eut sei
cut- set C2
CSby ba, ba tundamental
C b, b, ba , b
apother
Subgaph
sugrah
2 n3

another
T4 subgrah
To dtsjolat Subaraphs
Subgvabh
n2
a ne a mental eut set 13 anstheY
subg rash
3=b, b5, bey
Note No. ef funclanental
MA Cut Sets
braaches
= Na. t i e e
Subgah
 19 tundametal Cut-set matvik and keL
orlen ted has been
T
Let tbee be algrabh G for ohieh a speeufic tree
branches and each of th
+the eho Sen yee T OOuld haue N-1)
choSen.hen
one tvee bYaneh and a unigue no.

include only
N- un damental eurl set would

ioks.
For example, for the 3rabb G
M2
let the chosen tyee T be aas

Shouon. Then the ye ave three

fundameda) cut-sets C, 2 ,3

s shoon

Sbb, bs Graph G
C b5
M2 3
g ba, bu, b
The erientati on of a fundame ntal b3

CatSet defcned a outtdards,

orlentation of the b
po
or snavds accord inq to the speeific
tree branch D arcardane wlth the

avhicular S.cutset defined. chosen Tree T

The fandamen tal cut Set matrix

a
(N-1) x B matrix, uwhose
elements 9 are definced as if h branch is
O
mot inelucde in the
Hh S- ut sef
tree branches enks
+1 an branch havt of h
b2 by b b6
f- eutset and haS Same
crd ien ation as that of the
h cut set Cao10
-I
t h e the branch is included
fn ithctset anc has orientatin
the
opbosite to the osleniatm 0 dentity
mat y
ith f-cutse+
 form and leads to
KCL b=0 u
a kc in mattx

N-
node
set of eqMs
neary jodlependent

cheek

O
iB4

KCL at node ni
b-ibs + lb5 =0
kCL at mede m2
tba+ibs +b6 =o
KCL at node n13
tba by -

lbg = 0

20. und amental loops

tree T Theb
Connected graph G, we have ehoocen a speci fte
Suppose hat for a

A fundam enta loop a clssed patha b5

whreh ontal ns anly one nk ,
qrahh b2
2
ts all other elements betog tree
Thus, in ang aroph , there
b ranches.
would he only (B-N) fund amental
lo ops

Example In the avaph G shoun, a2

tree has been idedifced There are three, fundanemal

Containin g (N-1) branches. lcopr
Then 4here aYe thsee fundamental
L ba , by by
to each
cops (one corres ponding
nk. Thus, there Would be L2 =Sbi, by, ba}
CB-N+) fundamental loops. L3= ba, ba, be}

Orientatian of the locps (clockotse o anticlock taise)

oYfentati øm oftAe
de-fined as in accordance with theSpeafc

in as pey which the conceYned . Roop has beenM

defined
21. Fundamental Loop matrlxB;and kVL :

Fundanental loop matrx B u a

B- M+) Bnatuix ohose element

bij s dei ded as pex olloainga
b2 113
b T2
ules

if th branch
bij = +1 the
includ ed in itb loop ond

has the same oxientation

as that of the ith -Yoop

f Ahe
b braneh s included
in ith Joop but has orientatiom Li=bi ba, be
posthe to that of the toncerned
P

f-loop 3=b2,b6, bat

in the
O f th bra nch is not included
h fundamental loop. 2inks
bree branc hes
b2 b3 bs 6

LI

3O-
Tdentity matiix

Yepresents KVL

Vb+Vba + Vby =O

- - Vb2 - Vbi- ba +bs = o

Vba -Vb2 + Vb3 +b6 o

Ns yalds (B-N+) ineatl-independent

made eqn
 +Hhe
Heb.1 he inestence mati ofaConneeded qrahh G gien, d

A -
O
Rroblema For 4he en graph wrie docon A and A choosing node A
as the datum modes.

() Drw oll pos sible trees of this raph

(e) W.Y.t.a paticuar tree fonulale and

35).

b n2

2
Aby b3
b5
m3
 Vablems on Grabh Theay Consteler he Jolloeuine cixut

Cta
L2

5
ion
Take node 5 as datom node vefenence) a nd treat patallel Combina

Caancl I2 A me byanch

Cany out the Sollouo?ng

aDraw Graph of tbe network

(b) Dvuw an rientec ara

Fommulate augmented incideee

matrix [Aa

verify that LAallJ = O yields eqms ohich are ineavly alependent

Teduce d incidence metrix AS

FOvTpul at e
( erif tat AJ[i =o Yepresents Rineanly - indlapendent node ems.

Dsaw at least 4 akferent trees fo the graph

Wt espect to anu one of ihe identifedxees idenAiS

undasent al Cuf sets

For mulate fundamental cut sef mo-l sty

Show that r =o Tepresents keL f the comhlete cicut

o tsee idertisrecd in bart ( ) ,

Wth epect he same

tdenti fy fundametol loops

( malaix L B¢
Fe ulate fandanetal loop
Yepreset s KV or the complete civcut
Veify that [Bs\V) =o
 zepresenta tion and analysts of Civuts
Stale-variable

. The RLC cixuits vevis ited

RI
Lers defne three M
Varrables, as fo)oas Vot)
Rs
V,(t)
t ) Voltage across
C2
4 ) : Cuent hrough Fia
Xg4)uottage acrss Cy
his e i r u t 10
Nous lefe rite douon the eauations (mode eqms. & loop eqns) of

time domauin

V,t)-*,t) C dx1(t) Tode em.

dt

2,) = L3 d x +3 ) oop
t

Kt) = 4 dxat + 3 node em

dt RS
and al'so
V,t) = K3 t 4)
The above eouatims Can be Te-
aranged in the
folouwing matrix fovm

dt

dk2
dt
O 4)

rin
 Tbese equalions axe in the follouoin8 aenexal Socm

a (c)
r order
RLC

Bhate vartole 9

(u) (Y)
:Clumn vector of capaitor olages output
ohe nput
and induetor cuerts, called the unt step
Cnot
funchon
State varla.bler

Because, if we knoD Values of

We ea n
these variables ,then
othey in
and curents
find out all voltages
the ciruit, fvom their knouledge.

Also mote that all initta Comdttiorns

In terms of Inctlal
4his ctruit are

and K3 (0) and

Capacttor olfages *, (o)
inttial tnductoy carent , (o) . Hence,

7,o), (o), X3(od denote the initial 'state f ths cuvult

of the 2tate vayiablee

Colun veetar caowprised o ttme- derivatives
arder ciruit) called System matrix '.
AS 3x3 ( for 3
for a single-input erivuit)
E 3x
13 Hor a 2ngle - autput eiruit)

Y Outbut of ihe civtuit

U in put to the círuwit

Equatin (G) a called State enuahon oß 4he euruut.

FyohnG) b ó caled the output equation.
 Geperalisatton of SAate -Vauiable YeYesentatin
.
nstate Variables
Theye could be an nth oder eituut hauing
the
inputs and a utputs then eqm (6) can assume
with 9

Tolloiolng most generalom

N
thorde
2
3 ouutbuts

inputs (n state Uariabe

A : mxn matrix muti par

netuoor

, [B: mxp
Colunon veetar o
al state vayrables
02
D3

p I columavectot of
P inputs

-7
Xn
x
Coumn
Veeter of
'outputs
Nde that w e haue a Bingle -input - single- outsut e t u t , e n

would be Ixi t. e. a stalaY and we widehis Q d

 matvix TG]
3. Tans fer unehm
eiyut
eivuit be
o v dovdey
mtb ex
box
let a -input, 9- output 7nulHc
Chchevised by -

(S)
above eqMs.
ens
sido of he a bove
og bodh
Taktng a p e yansfovur
be zevo)
condidions Bo
nssumin initial
()

mxn
Fron ( tohere T s an

fdentity matrix.

substituting (u) in go) we get

Trans fer funetim Column veetor o

Colamn vecdo matix Laplace Transfov
Lapau transfom e all inputs
aall outputs

, vo - [To fuci]
fwe

T= [5]+ [][a1-A] [B] (12)

malsk of a p-input, q-output, nth oyder

b s Lhe tyansfes meticn
Crrut/ syshen.
4. State- Vaxtable vebresentation of an aeli ve eiruut

To wride down the state eqns Co

we fvst deftne state Variables.

So,et us choose the R2

AM-
too eapacitor Vin R
Vottages as 'state
Varcables i.e. unity gain
a+)
Vo Hage folooe
%, Ct) = Ve t)

4 ) = V, t)
follus
In Aime- domain
as
hen we urite mode eqns. of the eiyuit

Vin-X24X) 2 +X)-X1
R2
R
OY = - --
dt Ri +

(1a)
d RC- ) +
Oso (3 +1)-X Ci d
R2 dt

14)
dt R2C
asthr Vo =x
*his
Fem eqns (13) -(15), the '8lale- Variable epYesentationm fa
CCruuit would be
-

RaC
dot + Vin

RIC2 AC

Und
 uneHn om he Bdate eqMD:
5. Dotermi nation of the transjev
has only one input and one output hence
SToce the etr cuut cons ided
which
will -bave a 'ACalay transfev Functton T(s),
ioskendofA) we

as
expressed
-

Can be

VoB) =[][aI-Al [E]

T )

T ) = L1
1 - -

1 RaC

RI
+RaS

det [AI- A
tohere
- k}-Rom

Ts) = I
RaC R

C2R

( ciGRR2
m(s)
T()= cCaRR2 d
eGRR

Iuporlant to nde :
C)chovaelerisic poynomial
( t roots are poles of T6)
the eivcaut ),
poles deuide 4he time yespanse
and it u apwal to det [AT-A
 Covreated
Sate-vaviable vepresetarton and analystu of Ctcuts- Veysion

W n n g slate qualons foo d ffeveutal equation of Ahe cyuit

Let a eÝCuet be chavacternsed by the follocoinq oleventtal eqatron.

ol vo C
ot4g dust) +
dd3 dt

Vartable eould be au ol)ous

One ossi ble chotte of aate
eboose = No
Vo

olVe
dt
Qnd
dt2 (a)
Noo the qiven eam can be e-aranged o
2 lo%+bo Vin
oVo
- 2 odVo - a elvo
dt

o Vo Vin
dVo 2 dt R3
dt2

-a2X3 - 2 a
be oriMen togeher as olloto s
Eqns (1)- (A) can

QeX bo Vin

CA3 a3

And

(3) be writlen in
n Can

o
6)
2
a3

No
|*3
2 Fosmuleling alade equations,} he tranrfer unetio iu aruen

at the iven vons fer Sunction be

T)= Yol
Vials)

Cvoss nultibly

Yol)4 a o = bo Vinl)

all initial eomdittms bewig zup)

Sn tme domain. he ab6ve uevalent to -(with

oV bo Vin
+ Vdt
as
The otbove ean be e- aYangeod

= -

Qc Vo-a dVo
bo Vin (A)
dt
Varrables as ollows
Weuw ehoose the two state

= Va

t
Fyem 4_we can wite
-1 K2+bo Vin
-A

We ea wr te
Hence,naly

=2
+ bo Un
-
- a Mq

onc Vo

be oTi then in matrtx torm an folloo9

Fam G) can

- These are he
-a Yequtred
2 bo
)ate eqn
Vo =[
3. Ts t necessany to choose eapadt- YolHages/tnductor curents as

slade Vaviablas

Ansuer is NO
M

Let us eheose, 4he too

mode Voltagas a

tate-varialsles
C
ni)
Nin otHoge
Vo=X2
Chote = Yn follooeY

ound Xa = Vn2

Node equatons are

c dUin-X =
Ca -a+K-RI

- a ) = R2
oTablninq (2) and ()

C, dVin-C dX R+
dt

- C, +a ( - - d i n

E+(Re)
CR +di (
Suhcituting e) in a ) -

+ dx- C, dr

di
dr
CaR2

CF2 () Alin

cda
)-
 d

Vin +
dt
dE [El
A B
Vo
+(o)n + (o) d
[C F

AT +[E]tI+EJ[4 S4tll more qeneralised

form of state equatims

A. Anotter xample : Wrte the tate eqms for +he jollowlng eraut

R
W-

inclucta
Cheose +he tate Vaytables as =
Qu nent thyaug h
= Vottage aeross C

hen Vo=Xa
-

BAinpection
Vin =R + Ldx. 2

+C dXa da
cdt ()

Penpited Sha te eqm, can he wlen as

and Vo Xa (>)

Vi
d
R2 (4)

1
2
5 EXample of an op-amp RC CiYcutt
input and three outputs
Whrote atate eamc. fo the auen eirat o hrch bas one

R4
-M-

mR3
AM
Ro
Vin M-
R Ro
R2 VoD Vo
Vo2

state vartables
theve must be tuoo
Since tt is a 8ecmd -
order ekcuit,

e t us ehoose

= Vo03
K2-Vo2
Note that Vo= -Vo2 -X2)

Node equations Vo3-O C 6-Vo)

RI
- d
RIC

Vrn-0 = C - Vo3) + o- -Voi

R4
R

Vin=C d - + (2)

V=-K2

Voa= 2
Vo3
be e0Ti Hen in matrx form
0), ) , (3) can

CRa C2 RH R2 in
These aye
the
dt CRI Yequi ved
t e qns

Vo2
 Freb.1 Write aate eans and Send
TO). Ca
R
2
C

Node ,t)-xt)
.

R dt

Loop eqn = K2 Vo

Vo= X2)

from : =AX2

A)

Vi-X CL dx dx2
RC2 dt

RC2 dt

RCI - (x-x))
RC C R2 CIRa RIC

dt AC 5)

. From (4) ond 5)

dt C Re
RiC
d2 V, =
dt R
C2Ra
T VS-LCHsI-4] [B]

1-
RIC
s+(a) C Ra

3R2
2
+
2
+ R cRa)c,R,G
No let S81-A] =

R cRa*aeA2
A =A+ (

cR2
T) - "
LG2

- (+
cGRR

RICRRa CC2 SICRiR2

RIC
Ts)=
Ra) + C RIR2

Thrs tthe required thansfer funetiD e +he giuen erutt

 the ollan
Psob. DeBemine the trans fer tunetin othe evrax aueng
state-spate model
Vin
-1
-
O

Vo - [o
 Solution af State equat ions
1. Zero input Tesponse a ayut/s9stem
Given
o inthal conditions Lx\
Taking Laplau tyansfom

sR-[xo] =[al[x«

4-Ax] =[xo
x= [s1-A [x
caled
wher =[47-
Tesoluant matrix
Transfarm:
Taking in velse Laplare

xei =[a«i) [ x ( wherei]- 47-Al la

Calledstate t7ansition matrix
From above we can determinethe

the erut at any time t

tate
Tom the known state of the circLut at Atade
Telates to transition of
initcal state (o)to
Hime t=O. Thus, A))
of the system at any time
t>o or ts (+he fenal +ime) .

gives

be de termined at an tvme t ' from

Thus, the outþut of the eircuit can

about inidial eanditinsx(o and the

The guen infor matian
Statetransition matris .
 2. An example of determining zIR (zeo input reaponse a nahural respotse

Given

S1-A]=
s+5

T-= 345A+6

s2+58+6
82+5 346

s-A [ 2 3

inverse Laplace Transfenm we can find ot)

Taking

- 2t
6 + 6 3
2

Noud

T3e2et

- 2 4 33t

finally» we get
- 3t
3 at
X,)

L -66
2Geneva, Simon of state equations

(a)

Takinq Laplace drans fxm:

-
xo=43-A}[X]+ [s3-A[E[u
Taking h verse Lap ae Transform

(A

matitx
called the atate drantHion
obere () = [sI-A]

At matrix and has mang

G e This an impatant
iderestin s pro perties

No ubs-tituting (4) in @) 4he salution fer4be oulput tound to

be

The above procedure and Solutien steps oould be clear by atblyinq this on

aprocital arut xample

4An eyample bi determng 4he output
Foy the gstem gluen belod:

1-1
nitial
Y L O as suming all
s to ke z e r o
Cand4ton

ind:a) State transi tm

matrlx [
unt siep funetion)
() (t) ohen U) = ut)

- a7-A]

Naez- -
-

+3

here A =^ + 3 +2

(s+2) (S+1)

Cs+1) s+2) (S+) (S+2)

2
(s41)(s+2) ( ) (+2)

This mairix is
calleod esolvant ma

S +2

-t*
Thrs dhe state tvanstion matrix or the 2len systum
sicelo=°,

: 1

dT

-(t-7) (t-T

2 (t-T)
- (t-
+2
e

+2T
e
dT a
+2 e dT

2T

4) e t t20
 matrx
5.Froferdits of state Transiton

4o= I identety ma+iix

 slate-vartable Synthesis of Transfey ancBions Coractec versicn

Siynthesis netüok furo qiven transfer funeton

TG) Vocs) bo
biven =

Vin ($)

to Aynthetlge a ctvut ohieh can Teallse he above evauit funhion.

Wrde dovon state eqms :

bo
Vn +4a+

CYoss-mulH«bly

bo Un(o)
Vols+44 =

Convert into ttme domain

dve dt
d+2

dvo +bo Vn
d42
-

o Vo -1 dvo
dt

state vaviasles :
Define
lat = Vo
(3

2 Can be Ye-wTitlen as

N2=- a0*-a 2 + boVin

(A)
also ra

Requived state «qus aTe given above in 4).

 .From A) the follaong block-dtagam can be made

Variousblocks can be zealised as folloos

Integrators: Rg

Ra
-M-
ein R1 N

2tn
&R

R2

R3 ch oose
ein ACRIR2

ideal non-inverting tntegrata)

Summer/adder
a\T2 + Vin ba
whose output should be
-4X-
we need a etrut
Ro
/ Ro
ax + bo Vin)
-Qo
-

Rola

Ro/a
-boVin
o do so. We can
I n pactice , it not nece ssavy
obtadn praettal valu«s of RC elementr after syntheatslng
he elreut.
 .The final ciruut can be Teallsed by replacing each black by
Tespeetive c(rutss

Ro
Ro/ao C
C1
Ro R N K
Ra

RI
Nin R2

No
Ro

Complete cirai4 uohieh Tealises 3en

T)
Note that )
CRR3
A simplified crit with a rduced number of op-amps and assive
Cano pon ents can be oktained f the block dtagram mod Hied to use

Inverttog tntegrators Yather than non-invertinq intagvatrs

Vo

Modified bleck dtagram empoginq inverting intgatms

 The vayious blocks n eeded can be realtsed as lloos

Tnvermgintegtator: C
R
ein

Cprobided R,C, = ) *
ein
=-
Inverting integrator

sumner/adder s requved to produte an output eual to

bVtn+ a, Vo- a,Vo
Ro

Vn M-
Ro/bo Ro Ro

(bVin44,V-a,)
-boVin-a,V
Ra

Hence, the complete ctruit can be dra on as folloos

Roap
Vin
Rolb Ro M-
Ro
R
RD Vo
Vo 4M R
Rola
Rc=t

Realsatlan of gtoen T)
ith ouly A oP-amps
and a Trduced number of passie cmlpments

n o t nee-espry o do so in practire.
AA furtber redued- component ustnq th ree op-amps s also Possthle
which is shoon below
Ra
M

C Ca
R4
e
RI
w- R2
V
v Vo

be shown that this

. y analysis of this cirut, tt can Ve
Vin
for
cirut s of the same
tyhe as the uen T(s)

Analysis Vo V
G)

Vin-e e-Vo
R5

Vo-E = -V
R3 R4

Taslise. wtth
By Solutng the above equations, one can find TCS)
Valueso bo, by and ao in terms of resstors Rg, Ru , Rs RG
 GIC
Generation of equivalent ciruits of

model of NiC
1. Null

A R
l2

NIC (edraon, dtferentl)

impedance cCon Ve -ter above has -

"The neaati ve

-i
Yonsnissy'on

matrix

LT
to
An ideal op-amp
is eguivalent
Tallo,as follows

2
4
2

4
Fa2
2

Henee mullatar-novato« model i2

NiC wculd ww-
o5
or cguivalent civtuit) Ri R2

be as shoan (n Fig 3

Nallatar-naraBor mocdel of Nle

 Gies
: GeneYatton of four equualent
2 . PIc/GiC **

doo NICs s shouon im Fra.3,

PIC GIe vealis able by Cascadng

1 A A Zy

FRa
Pie/G)C

NI2
as
alhove euru t can be or Hen
Drdns miSslon matrix of the

The above efuit

1 s edrawn as in g,
1- 5.

A2
Fig'5
CIC ciruit I|

6
its mullator-norator model ean be draon as in F
From above 9

NUI NO2
op-amp
NO-NO1 A
1 Zy
V2 NU2- NOg A
NO2
NO

Nalla-tor-novator model of
Fig-6 PIC/GIC
 Recons tder 4he nullator moratoy model of eg
NO2

Z4
NO2 Fig.7
NOI

Nau if we combine NU- O2 to apesent

one op-amp (3ay Ar)
0e ean
and NUa -

No to represent another op- amp (say A2),then

( Frg. 8):
This s populavy
Construct another too-op-amp Glc eiruit
Known as At omiou's GIC.

Z3 Z4

Z
Fr:8
Ardoniouss
GIC
Carutt 2
44
more +wo- o p - a m p
ciruit 1. Tiwo
Thi's GiC has same LT matsix as that of
of Feg 6
the null ator-n orator medel
GIC3 Can be dewised by modifina
Qs follouws NU2

ZH Fig.9 A mod fed

V2 mullator- norato
N02 mocdel of GIC
NO

vareous etents and

the
the posiHon o NU2 7
Note
4hat, by changtng Oould
also a e the
Hence, the eisuud of ia.
Vottages yemain uncha nged.
matrix 1e.
Same yans misslon

F1- Z2 Zy
Genexodion of 4 equvalend GICs ustng nullatat-nurator (Cente.)
NU2
NO

Z2 Z Model of tg.5
NOI N02 7edrawn

w e epne sent byP- amp A nd NU2- N02 of-am Aa Abe

be covut 3.
Yestating cur c t would
Za

A Fig

A2 ciat 3

and NU2 -NO b

AHeXnotively , f we epresent NU- No2 b o-anpA
eiruit A.
op-amp A2 , the resuting cuut wcwd be a& shoon in Fcg2,03
Ai
NU2

Z4
Z2 3

NO O

ig.12 eiruit 4
This Completes the derivarkon of fouY dtffevent
he ideal
two-op-amp GIC ciruuts, hauing same

behautor
bub difvent nontdeal
rans mission matrix T =

f A and A2 are talæn mam-tdeal been found to ba

the BEST J

the four eiruts, the Anto nious GIC has

of all
 of any of the our dghes s equiUalent
5. Tftnrte-gain controled sourte

to a Dullor;

make Ro o
a)Ccvs 9f we

i2 Copen
Ro 2.
CuYut

then euruit redu ces to

N2 2

2
Zino
nullor
Ro î cCVS breh s
a

2 =-

) i2 = arbitr

Gain (Trans resistance) = - Ro

() eecs i2
make Ri 0
SFwe
R 2 open)
m-

2
8 R2
2
2

C Zin>o

S2=-,) Ra
3 = areitvary

Curert gals =-
R2 oPEN
Curct

D , ohích can ae
Let us make the eu rent aain
one
D (open ciyuit), oY
erther bynaking R>

.by mokinq f2>0 (shayt eiycuit)

Nullo
 f we make Ro=0 ( SHoRT)

R 2
M

Ri 2
MM-

2
-

equivalent

o an
SHORT Ciruit Hence, - a i n eecs

eauivalent to a nullor
R 2

Nullor

2= ia =o ( 0-Zn)
C)VecS
I in S = Vi(vecs)
Ro
Ro
+ -0 o u = arbil>ary

Ro transconduckance qain 0
Fwe make
Oio )., the n Ro o (shORT
RO as
20
0 2 2
t-O-

2 Nu loy
0b-goaiy Vecs is equuvalent to a nu|l
) VCVs
l2
R2 0 (ZinoD)
MM-

Va Re VCVS
R

(2 arbidavy
2

be
lence9 UoHage gain(a Can

made C0 by-

=b (open),or
Malem R2 d o )making R2
) maldng Ri
= O (SHo RT)
2

R Alkeynatiuely 9 bg makina R =0,

we get

OPEN
Ciycul

R
2
R2
2

SHORT

Nullo

2
Thus, D-qain Vevs u equvaleRt
o a nullor.
2

OUeyall Cwn custoo

of all
OD-gotin eootmlled
sources

the four tges are eui valent

to a nu|lor
2

mullor
AHematve proof (mathemateally)

o
-L
eevs
Transveststanca
C
aain-Ro
Ro

Lohen Ro oO

-[
(cces
Curyent gain = -R oV D
2

when (RL
R2

VCcs: o Ro
Thansconducdance

tvansconcluetanca gaa)
Hence f Ro>O (fov infnide

-[
(a)VcVs
VofHoge qds = R
Va A
Fo od Uoltage aatn, make o

=
of any of he four 8es has
nas ts
Rence, 0- - gain emtrolled souce

ransm(ssion moctrie a nul matodx (hence, is eauivalent

to a nullo).
. ullatar-Noretor models of Consolleed 3ourcesFusther ekanples

2
R
R e

e
R2

Ro 2
AM

N2
N
2

i R O
R
N

0), Ia =-( )
(),
6 =
(+R)
I. Nan-inverting /nvevting amplers t a single ciraut

R3
M AMA- --Vo2

WM-
Vin Vo
NU R2
No2
NU2
NO

functim of Vin
.

a
(aFind Vo an Vo2 QA

ciraut based on above model

() Draw an o-amp

Drou a dfevent op-amp ciruut usig an aternLatVe roupengf

nulato's and norators shown rough highlighttng lo dtant

ColoYs.
Ra
AN-
To

Vin
NU
NU2
No2

On oth the op-amp eiruits mark tbe cowect polarities of tnput tevmnals

t h e tso eftcait cp-amps.

as7ao)
I.Dezisg an iC circuit fom nullor mode

By tnspeetim: = V2
no voltaqe drop
across nullator)
R
V e
e. . a a
M-
RI R2

"e

Since V Va) =

1
NIC
Cuut ia an

hen
foutput iu loaded into Ra,
RIR
Since
= ) =
- R2

n
-

Ki K3
CiritYealirs a negatH Je resisBante Re

Now Tecnsidex he follouoing

NUI
n u lator
and
A serles
combinaion of
e i cuit
Yepreseni.s
an open
AM- noYator

opeh ckt

NO
N02

NO2
Above can be m odifted afollos
NUI
open
icut
N
R R2
NO2 ould
This civ tul too
No NU2 have same tans mj ss
matoix
 Conssder Dod the Sollotsing E
sansrstox B

BI

AMM-
MM-
M-
C L
R R2
No2
C B2

NO
ND2 E2

Atvanst star vealisation

Tyasista 2
Of the NIC
ctrcuut fvm antther model
I. Derivmq transistor

Fwe have a eircut

C
NOt
NO1
R2
ET
MM-
R R2 N02 C2
NO2

NU NU

82
Netuoork N

R2
R M
M-

E
C
B
B2

Trasistor ealisati nn oneluak N

 RoulO)
op-amp A o , Rin-> d ,
Ideal

2
3
dd > | , To
To o))
0, 2
Translsior Jm do, B
Tdeal bibolar

2 C

Collector 2
Base

3
emitter

Is Smo0, Yo> o)
lG=O Ip ,

Jdeal mosfet

2 Datd

-C DYain

Gata
Gate
SouYCe
3
Source
 NIC Synthesis
Alkernati ve
nalla-tor nxato
malla-tor- nwato
-
model of
the JamilaY
start fro
We agauñ
NIC

R R2 -R

Tdentify an open eircuit

MA

Ri R2
open

open
ek

Replace the open eircuit b

asertes Comhination fnullator
and meYatv

R2

Co
C

tb
nullator- norator
palys bt
Replare the identfted
ranslstars 6, and 2 a

oboye

Es
Ca
JN
Ri R2

E
Ancther aHernative

BI
E
R2
AM

Loei
Ct, B2

BI

Ee

cirut Draih
a mosfet
Making

mosfet M
Gate

Suurte
Equlvalene needed

Thosfet M2 G
 AM V02
iso
w
Vin R2
NO2
NO2
NO

Node equatior:
1+e-Vin Vin-Yo
R Ro

ut i=o

And e 0

Vin-Vol
Vin
R2

- Vin =Vin - Voi

Vo =Vin1+ )

Anothey node euaton

Vo2-e=i + e
e-Vin

R3
e = 0
gain

Vo2 Vin
Ra

V o -RI) Vin

that the ercuit Yeadrses

rono 0) and (2) t is Seen

0 in the Same
hdn-ipueyting amlitier toel a8
inve thing ambliier
eirut
 R3
ANALA AMA- Vo2

-- -NMAL No nU 2 NO2
Nia
NO

euit, Areat -Ovnp 1 to be mode by

T6 make an op-amp
to be made
Comblning ND and No2 ond op-ampa

Combining NO-No02.

R R3
AM AM
vo2
R
-ww- Va
C
b

M
A R R3
R2
C A2
S A Vo
Vo

last to ensuYe that

tha
been marked in h e
The pota1itres have
back around them.
them
nave megaive feed
botb
both the op amps
Desivalco) of alter)ative op-awp etrutrom 4he Same modal
Rid
AM -M

b
MM
Ra
NUI ND2 No2
NO

and
ond
Nouw
Now we comblne NU-N 02 to represent op-amp A
NU2- NO to YepTesent o-amp A2

R Vos
M-
A R3
R2
MM
Vo
Az

y e

ake note sf Conneehions of modes a, b,e nd d

he input temipale o both the

Jn this case also, the bolavities of
op-ampss haye been decided to ensure hat both the op-Amps
stable
have
have nega-tivefecd lback around them, to gaunantee

operatio0 othe denueo etýcut

 VCes:
model of 94rator ustng tuo
A nullor-nosator

Vees (non-inuerting)
OO 2
V

Vces Cnverting)

R2
R2

connectlon as foloos
malke a parallel- back-Lo- back
No

0- follbws
R Fron the
albove resa Hs, it
2
R2 that

i'-0
V

- above matrix defines a gy7ato.

The

. We hale a nullator narator

mod of a4rator, b makina
conneetion
a arallel- back-to back
and one inverting Vecs.
o5 one non-Invertina
aa
hree- BJT cicut
From this model t can eithey make

0Y th7ae- mosfet based cruit.

Recall the ollooing equvalenee

G -OO-
G

S
of mosfet
nullatos- noratos model
The
mosfet

G
S
G
O S
G2 RI
S2
S2 R2 $3
G2 R2
D3

D3
D2
G
civutt
mosfet- based auxatoi
M2 The
 Miscellaneous Cirtts

ACR-I
Veifg that Vo
Vin ACR+l

1/sc

Ro
o
Vo
Nin M
R

Unty ga
VoHage fellouber
inverttnq amplifier

2 Vertsy the glven rsutts:

R R
R
w Vo

Lw
R

-&CR sCR-I
(b) T6)= JeR+
(a)TO) +scR

equualence shun(Hit find )

E] Vertfy the

R2 Ru//R2
R
Va O
izo LeRiRR2
RI

Floatlng barallel-RL
impedauc

sCRIR2