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Received: 13 August 2020    Revised: 4 November 2020    Accepted: 8 November 2020

DOI: 10.1111/ijcs.12630

ORIGINAL ARTICLE
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Customers response to online food delivery services during

COVID-19 outbreak using binary logistic regression

Sangeeta Mehrolia1  | Subburaj Alagarsamy1  | Vijay Mallikraj Solaikutty2

1
School of Business and Management, Christ
University, Bangalore, India Abstract
2
The American College, Madurai, India This study aims to empirically measure the distinctive characteristics of customers who
did and did not order food through Online Food Delivery services (OFDs) during the
Correspondence
Subburaj Alagarsamy, School of Business COVID-19 outbreak in India. Data are collected from 462 OFDs customers. Binary logis-
and Management, Christ University,
tic regression is used to examine the respondents’ characteristics, such as age, patronage
Bangalore, India.
Email: [email protected] frequency before the lockdown, affective and instrumental beliefs, product involvement
and the perceived threat, to examine the significant differences between the two catego-
ries of OFDs customers. The binary logistic regression concludes that respondents ex-
hibiting high-perceived threat, less product involvement, less perceived benefit on OFDs
and less frequency of online food orders are less likely to order food through OFDs. This
study provides specific guidelines to create crisis management strategies.

KEYWORDS

binary logistic regression, COVID-19, health belief model, online food delivery services,
purchase decision

1 | I NTRO D U C TI O N order food through OFDs during the COVID-19 outbreak period in
India on the basis of their personal characteristics. The study examines
Post the outbreak of COVID-19, restaurants and associated services the significant differences between these two groups of respondents
were severely affected prompting the Indian government to catego- on their characteristics, such as age, the number of online food orders
rize food and other related services under essential services. Hence, before the nationwide lockdown, affective and instrumental beliefs,
hotels, restaurants and food delivery services can now start their perceived benefit, product involvement and perceived threat.
operations because at least 20% of the Indian population including This paper is organized as follows. The first part of the study dis-
students, paying guests and young professionals depend on them cusses the literature review, specifically in the areas of self-protective
(Shrivastava, 2020). According to the industry reports, the COVID-19 behaviour and customer intentions. The next part of the study explains
pandemic has ushered in a new threat to the business of food de- the research method. The third part provides the detailed data analy-
livery, which could potentially affect the Online Food Delivery ser- sis. The fourth part discusses the implications of the study. Finally, this
vices (OFDs; Keelery, 2020). Restaurants and related services, mainly study concludes with limitations and directions for future research.
OFDs, are willing to supply food. However, the customers are hesitant
to place orders during this pandemic even though many OFDs have
mandated their delivery partners to use personal protective gear while 2 | LITE R AT U R E R E V I E W
encouraging the customers to pay digitally to ensure contactless de-
livery. The two critical issues for the drop in OFDs are the health of 2.1 | Theoretical underpinning
the individuals who deliver the food and the sanitary condition of the
restaurants. These issues have forced existing customers to reconsider An averting behaviour displayed by customers to condense the pos-
their future purchase decisions. The purpose of this research is to ex- sibility of an odd outcome is known as self-protective behaviour. It
amine the differences between OFDs customers who did and did not can also be a defensive action taken to decrease individual or group

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396     © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ijcs Int J Consum Stud. 2021;45:396–408.
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vulnerability to risk (Ehrlich & Becker, 1972). Chuo (2014) argues that in food or meat consumption environments (Brug et al., 2009; Kuo
the Health Belief Model (HBM) can explain the self-protective be- et al., 2011; Nam et al., 2019; Shen et al., 2020; Wise et al., 2020;
haviour in the field of customer food safety. The HBM is one of the Yeung & Morris, 2001). From this discussion, it can be concluded
most widely used models for understanding health behaviours while that customer buying behaviour or purchase decision, considered in
also explaining and predicting individual changes in health behav- this study as self-protective behaviour, is the outcome of the HBM
iours. The elements in the HBM focus on individual beliefs about (individual action). In this study, the self-protective behaviour (pur-
health conditions to predict individual health-related behaviours. chase decision) is measured as dichotomous variables (did order and
The model defines the key factors that influence health behaviours. did not order food online during the COVID-19 outbreak).
These include an individual's perceived threat to disease (perceived
susceptibility), the belief of consequence (perceived severity), po-
tential positive benefits of action (perceived benefits), perceived 2.2.2 | Perceived threat
barriers to action and exposure to factors that prompt action (cues
to action; Abraham & Sheeran, 2014; Becker et al., 1977; Jeong & Many academic reviews conclude that perceived threat is a core
Ham, 2018). The HBM is a widely used theory in health education component and the most useful in understanding the practice of
to describe health-related behaviour preservation and as a guiding a variety of preventive health behaviours. According to the HBM,
mechanism for behavioural health interventions. It is a behavioural perceived threat refers to beliefs about the seriousness of a particu-
model that tries to explain and predict health behaviours by focusing lar disease and how susceptibility they are to it (Berg & Lin, 2020;
on individual beliefs, attitudes and behaviours influenced by their Bish & Michie, 2010; Carpenter, 2010; Cho et al., 2020; Janz &
beliefs about a condition of disease and the approaches to decrease Becker, 1984; Manika & Golden, 2011; Weitkunat et al., 2003).
its prevalence. Hence, this model can be used to understand the pur- Many studies believe that it is possible to combine susceptibility
chase decisions of the customers during the pandemic. and severity into one construct, namely perceived threat (Aucote
et al., 2010; Jeong & Ham, 2018; Manika & Golden, 2011). Studies
have shown that perceived severity is hard to predict until it at-
2.2 | The HBM constructs and relationships tains such high limits as to be dysfunctional (Jeong & Ham, 2018;
between the constructs Rosenstock, 1990). Perceived threat is a sequential function of per-
ceived severity and susceptibility (Becker et al., 1977; Strecher &
2.2.1 | Self-protective behaviour Rosenstock, 1997; Von Ah et al., 2004). Perceived threat is defined
as a combination of perceived susceptibility and severity and is a
Self-protective behaviour can also be explained as a function construct that is more relevant to the resulting health-related be-
of threat perceived by the customer (Jacoby & Kaplan, 1972; haviours than an individual consideration of either of these factors
Taylor, 1974). Whenever people see risk somewhere, they develop (Jeong & Ham, 2018; Rosenstock, 1990).
self-protective behaviour. In normal conditions, self-protective be- In this research, perceived susceptibility refers to an individu-
haviour is not observed by customers while they make a purchase al's subjective perception of the risk of acquiring a particular dis-
decision. During disease outbreaks, such as SARs, Avian influenza, ease. Perceived severity refers to an individual's feelings about the
H1N1 Influenza, Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy and COVID-19, seriousness of contracting a particular disease. There is a vast dif-
this self-protective behaviour becomes significantly pronounced. ference in a person's feelings of severity and often a person con-
The fear of getting infection spreads faster than the disease itself siders the medical consequences and social consequences when
(Addo et al., 2020; DeLisle, 2004; McKercher & Chon, 2004; Wen evaluating the severity (Bish & Michie, 2010; Cao et al., 2014; Tang
et al., 2020). Thus, any increase in fear can lead to anxiety and a shift & Wong, 2004). Based on the above discussions, the perceived
in the intention of behaviour (Addo et al., 2020; Chuo, 2014; Ishida threat of disease may have been increased by daily reports of par-
et al., 2010; Schroeder et al., 2007; Setbon et al., 2005; Weitkunat ticular disease infection figures, media news on a particular dis-
et al., 2003). This safety behaviour is usually cautionary behaviour, ease and documentation about patients infected with or who died
including the behaviour of collecting more information and taking ad- of a particular disease (Berg & Lin, 2020; Bish & Michie, 2010; Tang
ditional care at the time of buying and preparing food. Such fear per- & Wong, 2004; Wong & Tang, 2005). Centre for Disease Control
ception patterns were observed in various service industries such as and Prevention recommends various self-protective measures to
travel (Lau et al., 2004) and tourism (Chuo, 2007; Cooper, 2013; Pine control COVID-19 spread and one of the main recommendations
& McKercher, 2004) and supply chain (Clark, 2012; Kumar, 2012; on ‘Running Essential Errands’ is ‘Use online services when avail-
Kumar & Chandra, 2010). Customers, in particular, often avoid travel able’ (CDC, 2020). The chances of COVID-19 spread are relatively
and ignore places or products to minimize the risk of illness during high through online food delivery and this has been confirmed by
SARs and H1N1 Influenza outbreak and this disturbance of spending national media news (The Times of India, 2020a). With this note,
has a significant impact on the economy. Previous studies have linked it is clear that the perceived threat of COVID-19 infection is high
fear appeal to the behaviour of respondents to pandemic diseases through OFDs, which may influence the respondent's purchase
(such as Avian influenza and Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy)
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decision. Similar results were recorded by many researchers and perceived barrier towards OFDs find them convenient and inexpen-
are explained in the next section. sive. Also, the customers’ fear appeal is measured through perceived
Circumstances such as technological disruption, natural disasters threat. Therefore, with regard to the perceived benefits of OFDs,
and animal-spread pandemic influence an individual at the physical the following hypothesis is proposed.
and psychological levels. Such situations bring much change in human
behaviour and trigger a type of defensive and coping mechanism to Hypothesis 2 Perceived benefits of OFDs positively influence custom-
fight against all odds. This protective mechanism is usually developed er's purchase decision
based on the level of perceived threat. Weber (2006) explains that fear
acts as a motivator to reduce the feeling of risk and take specific action
to tackle it. Perceived threat is always followed by a feeling of fear. 2.2.4 | Affective and instrumental beliefs
So, if perceived threat is high, the feeling of fear appeal would also be
high and, consequently, would result in withdrawal or escape (Addo Many studies have used theory of reasoned action/ planned
et al., 2020; Loewenstein & Lerner, 2003; Rhodes, 2017; Rountree & behaviour to explain and predict behaviours. These social psy-
Land, 1996; Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006; Warr, 1987). Based on these chology models indicate that individual behaviour is defined by
discussions regarding perceived threat, the following hypothesis is intentions that are in turn determined by perceptions, subjective
proposed. norms and perceived behavioural control (Ajzen, 1985; French
et al., 2005; Hardeman et al., 2002; Povey et al., 2000). Underlying
Hypothesis 1 The perceived threat of catching COVID 19 through the these three variables are assumptions that can form the founda-
use of OFDs negatively influences purchase decisions tion of behaviour change interventions. The above-mentioned
social psychological models have been used with varying degrees
of success to develop approaches to improve health behaviours
2.2.3 | Perceived benefits (French et  al.,  2005; Hardeman et  al.,  2002; Li et  al.,  2019; Nam
et al., 2019; Povey et al., 2000). In the cognitive tradition, these
Health-related behaviours are also influenced by the perceived models are strongly grounded and concentrate on instrumental
benefits and perceived risk of taking action (Carpenter, 2010; beliefs as the detriment of affective and other factors. The attitude
Glanz et al., 1992; Janz & Becker, 1984; Tang & Wong, 2004). component of a behavioural intention comprises both instrumen-
‘Perceived benefits refer to an individual's assessment of the tal and affective beliefs (Ajzen, 2012; Keer et al., 2013; Lawton
value or efficacy of engaging in a health-promoting behaviour to et al., 2007; Lowe et al., 2002). Despite this, a growing body of
decrease the risk of disease’ (Janz & Becker, 1984). When a per- correlational research shows affective and instrumental beliefs to
son assumes that a specific activity can minimize the vulnerability be strong determinants of intentions and behaviour. Instrumental
to a health problem, then, they may participate in that behaviour beliefs relate to the benefits and costs associated with behaviour
irrespective of the objective facts about the activity's efficacy (e.g., healthy or unhealthy). Affective beliefs are emotion-laden
(Glanz et al., 1992; Jeong & Ham, 2018). Due to the nationwide judgements about the consequences of the behaviour (e.g., pleas-
lockdown, many individuals were forced to stay inside their homes ant or unpleasant, enjoyable or unenjoyable). Thus, attitudes will
and they preferred to buy food items through OFDs. Local govern- be most favourable towards behaviours with outcomes that are
ments also encouraged individuals to buy products online in order believed to be both beneficial and pleasant (Lowe et al., 2002).
to reduce the spread of the disease (Chang & Meyerhoefer, 2020; Many studies conclude that affective beliefs are strong predictors
Richards & Rickard, 2020; The Times of India, 2020b) and this of intentions and action than cognitive beliefs (Conner et al., 2011;
discussion clears the positive effects of the perceived benefits of Lawton et al., 2007, 2009). However, fewer studies have exam-
OFDs. OFDs are more convenient, safe and cost-effective for in- ined the relative importance of instrumental and affective beliefs
dividuals than going to hotels and restaurants. The perceived ben- in predicting observed health behaviour. From the above discus-
efits of online grocery delivery have a positive impact on purchase sions, it is clear that instrumental and affective beliefs influence
decision during COVID-19 situation and the researchers recorded the purchase decision and hypothesis below is concluded from the
it (Aldaco et al., 2020; Hobbs, 2020). OFDs have perceived ben- discussions above.
efits like contact-free delivery and e-wallet payments, which can
reduce the risk of COVID-19 spread (Nguyen & Vu, 2020). Hypothesis 3 Instrumental and affective beliefs towards OFDs posi-
Perceived barriers to taking action include perceived inconve- tively influence the customer's purchase decision.
nience, expense, danger and discomfort involved in engaging in the
behaviour (Janz & Becker, 1984). In this research, the perceived bar-
rier is not considered if customers perceive OFDs as inconvenient, 2.2.5 | Cues to action & product involvement
expensive and, risky. In this case, they will not order food items
online. However, in this study, only existing OFD customers are Champion and Skinner (2008) define cues of any action as ‘any-
considered. It becomes clear that the customers who do not have thing that triggers or reminds individuals to take action’. Studies
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F I G U R E 1   Conceptual model

classify cues into two different types namely, internal (disease 2.2.6 | Other factors
symptoms or physical changes in the body noticed by the indi-
vidual) and external (media ads and publicity, posters, government In the HBM, individual characteristics such as age, gender, race and
interventions, public health awareness, family and peer advice; educational qualification, and so forth, can affect their perceptions
Cao et al., 2014; Carpenter, 2010; Glanz et al., 1992; Janz & and behavioural change (Abraham & Sheeran, 2014; Carpenter, 2010;
Becker, 1984; Meshe et al., 2020; Rabbi et al., 2015). Studies find Rosenstock, 1990; Strecher & Rosenstock, 1997). Based on the re-
that cues of action can have a positive impact on health behaviour cent studies on COVID-19, it can be concluded that a more signifi-
(Carpenter, 2010; Jeong & Ham, 2018; Rosenstock, 1990; Tang & cant number of deaths occurred among adults aged ≥65 years with
Wong, 2004; Valeeva et al., 2011). During the nationwide lock- the highest percentage of severe outcomes among persons aged
down in India, the OFDs providers launched marketing campaigns ≥85 years. However, studies show that severe illness leading to hos-
to instil in viewers the belief that they were following all safety pitalization, including ICU admission and death with COVID-19 can
measures and prioritizing safety at each step of the delivery pro- occur in adults of any age (Bialek et al., 2020; Myers et al., 2020).
cess (Economic & Times, 2020; The Times of India, 2020b). These These kinds of external cues negatively influence the older customers'
kinds of marketing campaigns and government interventions (ex- purchase decision on OFDs. In a marketing context, many researchers
ternal cues of actions) on online deliveries encouraged customers argue that the age of the respondent is the main factor that influences
to buy food online. customer decision (Hervé & Mullet, 2009; Ketel et al., 2019; Klein
Product involvement means the extent of a customer's inter- et al., 2019; Lobb & Mazzocchi, 2006). Based on these discussions,
est in buying a particular type of product and how dedicated they the age of the respondent is considered as the main factor affecting
are to buy a specific brand (N. M. Nguyen & Nguyen,  2019; Peng the purchase decision in regard to OFDs. Grobe et al., (1999) show
et al., 2019; Zaichkowsky, 1994). Customer involvement in items that demographical factors, such as purchase frequency and age of
appears to be greater for goods that have a higher cost and are pur- the customers are essential factors that motivate their self-protective
chased after extensive research and thought (Belanche et al., 2017; behaviour. A few studies conclude that frequency of purchase influ-
Handriana & Wisandiko, 2017; Soliha & Widyasari, 2018). These ences customer decision and loyalty (Grobe & Douthitt, 1995; Grobe
above-stated marketing campaigns and government interventions et al., 1999). In particular, Chuo (2007, 2014) concludes that the self-
increase product involvement and help the customers to research protective decision is affected by the purchase frequency. When a
OFDs. Hence, this study measures these external cues of actions customer purchases a particular product more frequently, it implies
by measuring the customer product involvement. Studies argue that that it has a high level of perceived benefit than perceived barrier
higher product involvement positively influences the purchase deci- and threat (Chuo, 2007; Grobe & Douthitt, 1995; Grobe et al., 1999).
sion (Hollebeek et al., 2007; O’Cass, 2000; Prendergast et al., 2010; Based on this discussion, we take age and purchase frequency as
Shirin & Kambiz, 2011). When external cues towards a particular main demographical factors affecting the purchase decision. Based
product or service are high, they motivate individuals to try the on this discussion regarding perceived threat, the following hypoth-
product or service. It is, therefore, hypothesized that: eses are proposed (Figure 1).

Hypothesis 4 Product involvement about OFDs positively influences Hypothesis 5 Age of the respondents negatively influences the cus-
the customer's purchase decision tomer's purchase decision
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Hypothesis 6 Frequency of ordering food online before the nationwide was modified and used to fit with the current context to measure
lockdown positively influenced the customer's purchase decision the perceived benefits of OFDs. The product involvement scale
was adopted from Chuo (2007) and initially used by McQuarrie and
Munson (1992). Again, the product involvement scale was modified
3 |  M E TH O DS to the current research setting and the questions were adminis-
trated on a Likert 7-point scale ranging from ‘1 = extremely strongly
3.1 | Data collection disagree’ to ‘7 = extremely strongly agree’. The last section of the
research instrument was used to measure the perceived threat of
The OFD customers are considered as the target population in this the respondents towards OFDs. Turnšek et al. (2020) measured per-
study. The snowball sampling method is used to collect data from ceived risks with one item using seven-point scale (0 = none; 7 = very
1st April 2020 to 30th April 2020. The nationwide lockdown started high): ‘possibility of becoming sick while travelling or at destination’.
in India on 25th March 2020 to limit the movement of the popu- Chuo (2007) study used three subjective scenarios to estimate the
lation. However, the government allowed e-commerce firms to re- probability that a person will be infected with SARS. In their study,
main operational during this period. An online-based well-structured respondents were asked to rate the SARS-infected possibility (per-
questionnaire was developed using Google forms and shared with ceived threat) in one of the scenarios in terms of percentage (from ‘0’
the respondents. Online-based survey is the valid choice of data to ‘100’). Similarly, two scenarios were presented to the respondents
collection procedure during the lockdown to ensure the safety of and they were asked to select one suitable scenario, and subjectively
the respondents and researchers. A screening question was used to estimate the probability (percentage from 0 to 100) that they will
filter eligible respondents for the research and only OFDs custom- be infected with COVID-19. The scenarios were: 1. If you have or-
ers were considered for the study. The respondents were university dered food, please mention the percentage of chance of getting the
students in Bangalore city, India (including a junior college student, infection from that online food delivery. 2. If you have not ordered
undergraduates, postgraduate and doctoral students). We sent the food during this nation lockdown time yet but are thinking of placing
questionnaire through WhatsApp and official e-mail ids and invited the order then (if lockdown extended). Individual participants were
university students from different regions of Bangalore to provide asked to mention the percentage of chance that individual might get
their response. Meanwhile, we also sent the questionnaire to the infected through the online food delivery based on any one scenario.
university teachers who had cooperated with us and used their
contact network to spread the questionnaire. All the respondents
have participated voluntarily in this study and no personal informa- 4 | R E S U LT S
tion was collected in this research. Samples were collected from
Bangalore. During national-wide lockdown, many Indian state gov- The respondents’ demographical distribution patterns are shown
ernments did not allow operation of OFDs during the nationwide in Table 1. The respondents’ age ranged from 18 to 56 years, with
lockdown, many well-established OFDs services like Zomato and a mean of 27.81 years and standard deviation of 8.7 years. Similar
Swiggy were fully operational in Bangalore, a city with people from findings were recorded by several researchers, particularly in e-
diverse backgrounds. Bangalore city has an adequate representation commerce-based research (Ha, 2012; Ladhari et al., 2019; Lissitsa
of the robust Indian population and includes young paying guests & Kol, 2019). In India, online food ordering and delivery service was
and working professionals. The city is, therefore, ideal setting for introduced in 2014. Several OFD start-ups rose in 2015 with a focus
the context of our study. In total, we received 600 samples during on mobile apps. Over the last decade, the rate of internet access and
the data collection period in which 138 respondents were not OFDs online shopping increased continuously across all generations. Most
customers and only 462 were found valid for further analysis, result- of the customers of e-commerce belonged to the age group of Gen Y
ing in a response rate of 77%. Therefore, the final sample consisted and Gen Z. The market for Gen X is not too big and along with Baby
of 462 respondents, all of whom indicated that they had previous Boomers, they are considered secondary targets. These age groups
experience with OFDs. consist either of customers who are too old to recognize the new
technology and e-commerce, making them a low purchasing power
customer group (Bresman & Rao, 2017).
3.2 | Instrument development This age-wise classification clears that mostly young generations
prefer to buy food through OFDs. About 44.2% of the total respon-
The well-structured questionnaire consisted of three sections. The dents were female, whereas the remaining 55.8% were male. The
first section had questions on demographical details of the respond- frequency of ordering food through OFDs before nationwide lock-
ents, respondents’ patronage frequency before the lockdown and down (last month before the lockdown) ranged from 0 to 18 times
purchase decision during the lockdown. The second section ques- with a mean of 4.49 and a standard deviation of 3.75. The perceived
tions were asked to measure the respondents’ opinions about the threat of the respondents ranged from 0% to 100% with a mean
perceived benefit of OFDs and product involvement with OFDs. of 45.5% and a standard deviation of 28.95%. Most of the respon-
The perceived benefit scale developed by Forsythe et al. (2006) dents (64.5%) had master's degree and 31.4% of the respondents
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TA B L E 1   Characteristics of the respondents The confirmatory factor analysis was used to test the reliabil-
ity and validity of the constructs by developing a measurement
Demographic factor Count %
model. The construct validity of the instrument was explained by
Age
convergent validity and discriminant validity. The convergent valid-
Less than 20 years old 20 4.3
ity was assessed using Cronbach's alpha (α), Composite reliability
Between 21 and 30 years old 332 71.9 (CR), Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and statistical significance
Between 31 and 40 years old 54 11.7 of the item factor loadings (β; Hair et al., 2010). Results provided
Between 41 and 50 years old 45 9.7 in Table 2 show that item factor loadings (β) were higher than 0.5
Above 50 years old 11 2.4 and that no items were deleted in this study. Cronbach alpha co-
Gender efficients obtained from all the dimensions range from 0.883 to
Male 258 55.8 0.939. The Average Variance Extracted for all dimensions varied
Female 204 44.2 from 0.567 to 0.693. The composite reliability ranged from 0.883

Educational qualification to 0.940. All these measures were above the recommended levels
(i.e., 0.7 for Cronbach's alpha, 0.7 for composite reliability and 0.5
Basic school 19 4.1
for Average Variance Extracted), indicating acceptable levels for the
Bachelor's degree 145 31.4
reliability of constructs (Hair et al., 2014; Kahle & Malhotra, 1994;
Master's degree 298 64.5
Nunnally, 1975) and supporting the convergent validity. Discriminant
Monthly income
validity is inferred when measures of each construct converge on
Less than Rs. 20,000 263 56.9
their respective true scores, which are unique from the scores of
Between Rs. 20,001 and 40,000 59 12.8 other constructs (Churchill, 1979). AVE and the square root of AVE
Between Rs. 40,001 and 60,000 49 10.6 were higher than inter-construct correlations and AVE values were
Between Rs. 60,001 and 100,000 57 12.3 larger than Maximum Shared Variance (MSV), which support the dis-
Above Rs. 100,000 34 7.4 criminant validity of the constructs and show that each construct
Frequency of ordering food online before lockdown in this research is unique (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 2014).
Less than 5 times 344 74.5 Based on results in Tables 2 and 3, we can conclude that the con-

Between 6 and 10 times 90 19.5 structs are free from construct validity issues.
The measurement models show an adequate fit because
Between 11 and 15 times 15 3.2
χ2/df = 3.193 [χ2 = 482.11; df = 151] is between the cut of range 1–5.
Between 16 and 20 times 11 2.4
Also, studies by Hair et al. (2014) and Hu and Bentler (1999) conclude
Above 20 times 2 0.4
that for the model fit, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Goodness
Purchase decision
Fit Index (GFI) and Adjusted Good Fit Index (AGFI) should be closer
Do not order 317 68.6
to one; and RMSEA and Root Mean Square Residual (RMR) values
Ordered 145 31.4 should be near to zero; GFI = 0.903; AGFI = 0.865; CFI = 0.954. In
Source: The authors. this study, SRMR = 0.059 and RMSEA = 0.069 and all these values
show a reasonable model fit.
had bachelor's degree, only 4.1% respondents had basic school level To test the research objective, the binary logistic regression
educational qualification and 56.9% of the respondent's monthly in- was done. Table 4 summarizes the binary logistic regression re-
come was less than Rs.20000. sults. In the present study, whether or not the respondents or-
Exploratory factor analysis was used to check the factor structure dered food through online food delivery services (OFDs) during
of the research items. The sample adequacy was tested using Kaiser– the COVID-19 outbreak was taken as the dependent variable (0-
Meyer–Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett‘s test of sphericity. The KMO (0.948) do not order; 1-ordered); Age of the respondents, frequency of
value was large and Bartlett's test of sphericity (χ2 = 7,307.56; df = 190; purchase of OFDs, before the nationwide lockdown (last month),
p < .001) was significant, implying that the present research has an ad- respondents affective and instrumental beliefs to buy food from
equate sample size and correlations among at least some of the items. OFDs, respondents’ perceived threat about COVID-19 through
The rotated component matrix was used from these 20 items; three OFDs, perceived benefits of OFDs and respondents’ level of
components were extracted and they were able to capture 70.9% of the product involvement about OFDs were taken to be the predictor
variability in the data. The first component, perceived benefits of OFDs
consisted of seven items and explained 27.75% of variance and the variables.
second component, affective and instrumental beliefs towards OFDs, The values of the regression coefficients and their statistical
consisted of four items and explained 26.23% of the variance. The last significance obtained by ‘Enter logistical regression method’ were
component, named as OFDs product involvement, consisted of nine included in Table 4. Likelihood ratio (LR) chi-square test is one
items and accounted for 16.96% of the variance. In the final analysis, way of evaluating the overall model fit. Significant likelihood ratio
only items with a factor load above 0.6 were retained. chi-square test indicates the model containing the predictors is a
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TA B L E 2   Result of the exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis

Perceived Affective &

Items benefit instrumental beliefs Product Involvement β

I do not have to leave home 0.818 0.790

Can order whenever I want 0.822 0.830
Can save the effort of visiting hotels 0.778 0.843
Can order easily 0.805 0.883
Can get useful product information 0.613 0.830
online
Can access a broader selection of food 0.727 0.838
products
Access to many hotels 0.775 0.811
To try a new experience 0.654 0.797
Exciting to receive food items 0.677 0.854
Can buy on impulse in response to ads 0.753 0.810
Can buy customized food items 0.735 0.773
I usually pay attention to safety ads by 0.608 0.730
online food retailers
I read customer reports articles about 0.718 0.753
online food safety
I have compared online food retailers 0.75 0.787
based on the safety level
I usually talk about safety of online food 0.784 0.784
retailers with other people
I am interested in reading about safety 0.818 0.808
aspects of online food retailers
I usually spend a lot of time selecting 0.729 0.743
which online food safe to visit
I usually take customer rating into 0.713 0.775
account before patronage
I usually take safety into account before 0.641 0.677
patronage
I usually seek safety advice from others 0.683 0.713
before patronage
% Variance explained 27.75% 26.23% 16.95%
Eigenvalue 5.55 5.245 3.38
Mean (Standard Deviation) 5.24 (1.49) 4.54 (1.61) 4.60 (1.42)

significant improvement in the fit over the intercept-only model (De (age, purchase frequency, affective and instrumental beliefs, per-
La Viña & Ford, 2001; Galbraith et al., 2007; Pituch, 2015; Zewude & ceived benefits, perceived threat and product involvement) could
Ashine, 2016). Based on the LR chi-square test, we infer that the full explain 58.5% of the variance in respondents purchase decision on
model represents a significant improvement in fit relative to the null OFDs selection. The Hosmer and Lemeshow test is another way
model, LR χ2(6) = 248.855, p=.001. of testing for the overall model fit (Tab achnick & Fidell, 2013). A
The logistic regression could use two indicators, such as Cox nonsignificant test result indicates a good fitting model. Here, we
and Snell R 2 (R 2 = 0.416) and Nagelkerke R 2 (R 2 = 0.585), the same see that the test is nonsignificant, χ2(8) = 13.513, p = .095––sug-
2
as for coefficient R from linear regression that estimates the gesting a good fitting model.
contribution of predictor variable to the variability of the depen- Table 4 also provides information on the impact of the inde-
dent variable. We used the Nagelkerke R 2 indicator to analyse the pendent variables considered in determining the purchasing de-
contribution of all the six predictor variables to the variability of cision through OFDs (see odds ratio [OR]). The regression slope
the dependent variable. It has been unanimously recognized that for purchase frequency (b = 0.477, p  < .01), perceived benefits
Cox and Snell R 2 indicator underestimates the real value (De La (b = 0.275, p < .05) and product involvement (b = 0.297, p < .05)
Viña & Ford, 2001; Galbraith et al., 2007; Pituch, 2015; Zewude & are positive and statistically significant indicating that the proba-
Ashine, 2016). The test results based on the six predictor variables bility of a respondent who likes to order food through online food
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TA B L E 3   Reliability and validity results

Cronbach's Composite Average Variance Maximum Shared

Factors alpha reliability Extracted Variance 1 2 3

1. Perceived benefit 0.939 0.940 0.693 0.641 0.833

2. Product Involvement 0.924 0.922 0.567 0.480 0.628 0.753
3. Affective & 0.883 0.883 0.655 0.641 0.801 0.693 0.809
instrumental beliefs

TA B L E 4   Results of logistic regression analysis

Ratio of
Coefficient Standard probability
Predictors estimate error Wald p value OR changes

Age 0.016 0.018 0.861 0.353 1.017 2%

Purchase frequency 0.447 0.048 87.639 0.000** 1.564 56%
Perceived threat −0.031 0.005 32.952 0.000** 0.970 −3%
Perceived benefit 0.275 0.138 3.974 0.046* 1.317 32%
Affective & instrumental belief 0.066 0.148 0.201 0.654 1.069 7%
Product involvement 0.297 0.147 4.064 0.044* 1.345 35%
Diagnostics
(LR) Chi-square 248.855 0.000**
Hosmer & Lemeshow test 13.513 0.095

**p < .05;
**p < .01.

delivery services was higher for those who have higher purchase The classification table summarizes that 100 cases were cor-
frequency, perceived benefits and product involvement. The odds rectly predicted to be in the group where respondents ordered food
ratio for the predictor indicates that the odds of a respondent on OFDs and 45 were wrongly predicted. Out of the 317 respon-
who likes to order food through OFDs change by a factor of 1.564 dents who did not order food through OFDs during the pandemic,
with each raw score increment on purchase frequency, 1.317 with 299 cases were correctly predicted and 18 cases were incorrectly
raw score increment on perceived benefit and 1.345 on product predicted. From these values, it can be observed that 86.4% (Hit ra
involvement. tio  = (299 + 100)/462 = 86.36%) of data were correctly classified
The regression slope for the perceived threat was negative and this hit ratio indicates a good predictive capacity, as is shown
(b = −0.03, p < .01) and statistically significant indicating that a re- in Table 5.
spondent with a high perceived threat on OFDs was less likely to
order food from OFDs. The odds ratio for the predictor indicates
that the odds of a respondent who likes to order food through OFDs 5 | D I S CU S S I O N A N D I M PLI C ATI O N S
change by a factor of 0.97 with each raw score decrease on the per-
ceived threat of OFDs. In this study, we developed a successful regression function to dif-
Increasing purchase frequency (56%), perceived benefits (32%) ferentiate the personal characteristics of OFDs customers who did
and product involvement (35%) were associated with an increased and did not order food through OFDs during the COVID-19 outbreak
likelihood of respondents who purchase food through online food period in India. This study concludes that among the five personal
delivery services, but increasing perceived threat (−3%) was associ- characteristics, frequency of purchase, perceived threat, perceived
ated with a reduction in the likelihood of respondents who purchase benefit and product involvement were the contributing factors of
food through online food delivery services. However, age, affective the inter-group differences. In other words, the customers who pur-
and instrumental beliefs did not significantly influence the respon- chased food online through OFDs during the COVID-19 outbreak
dents’ purchase decision. Thus, H1, H2, H4 and H6 are supported. were linked with less perceived threat and customers who pur-
Respondents’ age (H5) and perceived benefit (H2) were not signif- chased food online through OFDs during the COVID-19 outbreak
icant predictors of respondents’ decision towards ordering food were associated with a high level of purchase pattern, high perceived
through OFDs during the pandemic and national-wide lockdown; benefits and high product involvement. Since the above binary lo-
thus, H3 and H5 are not supported. gistic regression has around 58.5% of the variance in the dependent
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TA B L E 5   Classification results positively influence the external cues (product involvement). This
would further increase the perceived benefits in terms of conve-
Predicted
nience, enjoyment and also increase the value associated with the
Observed Do not ordered Ordered services. Online retailing is emerging in India and the prevalence of
Do not ordered 299 (94.3%) 18 (5.7%) OFD services is proliferating. To face potential uncertainty in the
Ordered 45 (31.03%) 100 (68.97%) future, this problem needs to be expertly examined and effective
crisis management tools based on collaborative frameworks by in-
dustry respondents and government bodies have to be developed.
variable, we can explore some substantial marketing implications OFDs companies are taking all reasonable efforts and best practice
from the results. measures to comply with the safety & health standards/guidelines
Studies conducted by Aucote et al. (2010), Seabra et al. (2014) issued by the Government of India amid COVID-19 to eliminate all
and Jeong and Ham (2018) show that perceived threat positively risks in their services.
influences the buying decision. However, the present study is Restaurants and hotels can include hygiene ratings on their OFD
negatively consistent with the study in OFDs, where high product apps. The OFD service provider can make such ratings mandatory
involvement leads to positive purchase intentions and high-per- for all restaurants along with the presence of a food supervisor to
ceived threat on COVI-19 leads to negative purchase intentions monitor compliance of food regulation and ensure the safety of food
towards OFDs. In disease-based outbreak, perception of threat is served. This practice will reduce the level of a perceived threat of
very high in OFDs, since the chances of disease spreading are higher OFDs and influence more respondents to opt for OFDs. Many OFD
through delivery partners, which suggests that respondents think service agents are following contact-free delivery options. In some
about the uncertainty involved in their purchase (Addo et al., 2020; developing countries, OFDs have implemented the contactless grab
Chuo, 2007, 2014; Guan et al., 2020). Even though the possibil- transaction for which delivery workers leave the meals at the desig-
ity of COVID-19 spread was very less through OFDs, but lack of nated position, standing 2 meters away to await customers (Nguyen
awareness resulted in high-perceived threat, creating uncertainty & Vu, 2020). Indian OFD service agents can follow a similar delivery
around the purchase, thus, affecting the purchase decision. Mäser model, instead of ‘leave at my door delivery’, which will increase trust
and Weiermair (1998) conclude that higher the perceived risk felt by among the customers and increase product involvement. Delivery
the customers, the less they buy and become more irrational in their agents should wear new face masks and gloves and frequently apply
decision-making process. Also, current results are consistent with hand sanitizers to minimize contamination with diseases (Nguyen &
Forsythe et al. (2006), who show that more frequent purchasers are Vu, 2020). OFDs should encourage their customers not to take the
highly motivated towards particular products than the less frequent delivery if the delivery agent is not using self-protective measures.
purchasers. Frequency of purchases will determine customer de- The use of e-Wallet and digital payments saw an increase during
cision making. Perceived benefit is the sum of benefits an individ- the pandemic. In developing countries, digital payment or credit
ual expects to attain on following a behaviour (Gabriel et al., 2019; card payment is encouraged to limit contact with delivery partners
Tweneboah-Koduah, 2018). The present study result is consistent (Nguyen & Vu, 2020). OFDs can provide attractive cashback offers
with previous studies (Carico et al., 2020; Gabriel et al., 2019; Janz or reward points, for digital payments, which motivates customers
& Becker, 1984). For example, a person who stays at home during to use e-Wallet and digital payments and increase the perceived
COVID-19 pandemic and orders food through OFDs, not only safe- benefits of OFDs usage. There is currently no evidence of COVID-
guard themselves from the disease, but also save in terms of expen- 19 transmission from food. COVID-19 is particularly troubling
diture on travelling. The level of product involvement and the risk because it can live on surfaces for extended periods of time, in-
perceived by the customer throughout the purchasing process is cluding the two most commonly used in food delivery: paper bags
demonstrated to assess the depth, complexity and degree of cogni- and cardboard boxes. The risk of transmission from food packag-
tive and behavioural processes during the customer decision process ing is extremely low (Food & Drug Administration, 2020). The best
and our analysis also concludes the same. practice is to transfer the food out of the packaging, dispose of
From these findings, we can propose managerial implications to the packaging and thoroughly wash hands. Finally, clean the area
OFDs. Many OFDs are using their mobile apps to create COVID-19 where the bag or packaging was resting and this awareness needs
awareness; however, this is not enough. The customers are curious to be created by ODFs (Nguyen & Vu,  2020). The most compe-
and give attention to news and reports related to COVID-19. OFDs tent practices followed by the restaurant staff and delivery agents
can, therefore, use mass media advertisements to create more re- should be monitored regularly and proper training should also be
liable communication channels. Coca-Cola (Erdman et al., 2017) given to them on how to maintain hygiene standards at restau-
and Nestle (Dhanesh & Sriramesh,  2018) followed a similar strat- rants and during the delivery process.
egy of mass communications to maintain their brand image during Moreover, governments should encourage citizens to fol-
the allegation crisis. This approach would advise customers to re- low social distancing and not go out for unnecessary activities.
duce any spill-over effects and correct any perceptions that may OFDs can use this advice to promote their services by delivering
be misleading about perceived disease threats, which would again essential products along with their food items. This activity can
MEHROLIA et al.
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encourage individuals to follow social distancing. More custom- Ajzen, I. (2012). The theory of planned behavior. Handbook of Theories
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expand their reach. The OFDs can invest a significant amount of J., Kahhat, R., Villanueva-Rey, P., Bala, A., Batlle-Bayer, L., Fullana-
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