Lecture 6 Wave Motion - Upto
Lecture 6 Wave Motion - Upto
One-Dimensional Waves
• Envision a disturbance ψ moving in the positive x-direction
with a constant speed v.
• It might be the vertical displacement of the string in Fig. 2.2
or the magnitude of an electric or magnetic field associated
with an electromagnetic wave (or even the quantum-
mechanical probability amplitude of a matter wave).
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One-Dimensional Waves
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One-Dimensional Waves
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One-Dimensional Waves
• For the moment we limit ourselves to a wave that does not
change its shape as it progresses through space.
• After a time t the pulse has moved along the x-axis a distance vt,
but in all other respects it remains unaltered.
• We now introduce a coordinate system S', that travels along with
the pulse (Fig. 2.3c) at the speed v.
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One-Dimensional Waves
• In this system ψ, is no longer a function of time, and as we move
along with S: we see a stationary constant profile described by Eq.
(2.2). Here, the coordinate is x' rather than x, so that
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One-Dimensional Waves
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One-Dimensional Waves
• ψ(x) = 3/[10𝑥 2 + 1] = f(x)
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One-Dimensional Waves
• ψ(x) = 3/[10𝑥 2 + 1] = f(x)
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The Differential Wave Equation
• This linear, homogeneous, second order, partial differential
equation is usually taken as the defining expression for physical
waves in a lossless medium.
• There are lots of different kinds of waves, and each is described
by its own wavefunction ψ(x).
• Some are written in terms of pressure, or displacement, while
others deal with electromagnetic fields, but remarkably all such
wavefunctions are solutions of the same differential wave
equation.
• The reason it’s a partial differential equation is that the wave
must be a function of several independent variables, namely,
those of space and time.
• A linear differential equation is essentially one consisting of two
or more terms, each composed of a constant multiplying a
function ψ(x) or its derivatives
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The Differential Wave Equation
• We now derive the one-dimensional form of the wave equation
that the most basic of waves traveling at a fixed speed requires
two constants (amplitude and frequency or wavelength) to
specify it.
• This suggests second derivatives.
• Because there are two independent variables (here, x and t) we
can take the derivative of ψ(x, t) with respect to either x or t.
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The Differential Wave Equation
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The Differential Wave Equation
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The Differential Wave Equation
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Superposition principle
• Suppose that the wavefunctions ψ1 and ψ 2 are each separate
solutions of the wave equation; it follows that (ψ1 + ψ 2 ) is also a
solution.
• This is known as the Superposition Principle
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Superposition principle
• What this means is that when two separate waves arrive at the
same place in space wherein they overlap, they will simply add to
(or subtract from) one another without permanently destroying
or disrupting either wave.
• The resulting disturbance at each point in the region of overlap is
the algebraic sum of the individual constituent waves at that
location (Fig. 2.13).
• Once having passed through the region where the two waves
coexist, each will move out and away unaffected by the
encounter.
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Superposition principle
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Superposition principle
• Developing the illustration a bit further, Fig. 2.14 shows how the
resultant arising from the superposition of two nearly equal-
amplitude waves depends on the phase-angle difference between
them.
• In Fig. 2.14a two constituent waves have the same phase; that is,
their phase-angle difference is zero, and they are said to be in-
phase; they rise and fall in-step, reinforcing each other.
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Superposition principle
• Following the sequence of the drawings, we see that the resultant
amplitude diminishes as the phase-angle difference increases until,
in Fig. 2.14d, it almost vanishes when that difference equals 𝜋.
• The waves are then said to be 180 degree out-of-phase.
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Superposition principle
• Following the sequence of the drawings, we see that the resultant
amplitude diminishes as the phase-angle difference increases until,
in Fig. 2.14d, it almost vanishes when that difference equals 𝜋.
• The waves are then said to be 180 degree out-of-phase.
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The Complex Representation
The Complex Representation
The Complex Representation
The Complex Representation
The Complex Representation
The Complex Representation
The Complex Representation
The Complex Representation
Phasors and the Addition of Waves
• Figure 2.16 depicts a harmonic wave of amplitude A traveling to the left.
• The arrow in the diagram has a length A and revolves at a constant rate such that
the changing angle it makes with the reference x-axis is 𝜔𝑡.
• This rotating arrow and its associated phase angle together constitute a phasor,
which tells us everything we need to know about the corresponding harmonic
wave.
• Its common to express a phasor in terms of its amplitude, A, and phase, ∅
Phasors and the Addition of Waves
Phasors and the Addition of Waves
Phasors and the Addition of Waves
Phasors and the Addition of Waves
• The four phasor diagrams in Fig. 2.18 correspond to the four wave
combinations taking place sequentially in Fig. 2.14.
• When the waves are in-phase (as in Fig. 2.14a), we take the phases
of both wave-1 and wave-2 to be zero (Fig. 2.18a) and position the
corresponding phasors tip-to-tail along the zero-∅ reference axis.
• When the waves differ in phase by 𝜋Τ3 (as in Fig. 2.14b), the
phasors have a relative phase (Fig. 2.18b) of 𝜋Τ3. The resultant,
which has an appropriately reduced amplitude, has a phase ∅ that
is between 0 and 𝜋Τ3, as can be seen in both Figs. 2.14b and 2.18b.
Phasors and the Addition of Waves
Phasors and the Addition of Waves
• When the two waves differ in phase by 2𝜋Τ3 (as in Fig. 2.14c), the
corresponding phasors almost form an equilateral triangle in Fig.
2.18c but for the fact that 𝐴1 > 𝐴2 ), and so A now lies between 𝐴1
and 𝐴2 .
• Finally, when the phase-angle difference for the two waves (and
the two phasors) is 𝜋 rad (i.e., 180°), they almost cancel and the
resulting amplitude is a minimum. Notice (in Fig. 2.18d) that the
resultant phasor points along the reference axis and so has the
same phase (i.e., zero) as 𝐴1 ∠∅1 . Thus it is 180 degree out-of-
phase with 𝐴2 ∠∅2 ; the same thing is true of the corresponding
waves in Fig. 2.14d.
Plane Waves
• A special case of wave or field: a physical quantity whose value,
at any moment, is constant over any plane that is perpendicular to
a fixed direction in space.
• Plane wave is a wave where the wavefronts (planes of equal
phases) are planer everywhere and wave is harmonic wave with
one single frequency.
• Wave vector (describes the propagation of plane wave) is
perpendicular to the wave fronts
Plane Wave
Plane waves in 3D
wavefront
wavefronts
Point source
wavefronts