Concepts and Importance of Research Methodology: Meaning of Research – Objectives –

Types and Importance of Research – Research Process for Applied and Basic Research

Meaning of Research
- Search for knowledge
- A scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic
- A Careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge
- Systematized effort to gain new knowledge
- A movement from the known to the unknown
- A voyage of discovery
- The inquisitiveness, mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for
obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown
- (i) Defining and redefining problems
(ii) Formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions
(iii) Collecting, organizing and evaluating data
(iv) Making deductions and reaching conclusions
(v) Carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis
- The manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend,
correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in
the practice of an art
- An original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement
- The pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment
- The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a
problem
- The systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis,
collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in
the form of solution(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for
some theoretical formulation

Objectives of Research

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (exploratory or

formulative)
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(descriptive)
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (diagnostic)
4. To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables (hypothesis - testing)

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Types of Research

1. Descriptive – Survey
2. Analytical – Facts
3. Applied – Application
4. Fundamental – Knowledge
5. Quantitative – Quantity – Variables
6. Qualitative – Quality – Human behavior
7. Conceptual – Interpretation
8. Empirical – Experimental results and observations
9. Some other type of research – Onetime research / longitudinal research; field setting
research or laboratory research or simulation research; clinical or diagnostic research;
historical research; conclusion oriented research

Research Approaches

1. Quantitative approach
a. Inferential
b. Experimental
c. Simulation
2. Qualitative Approach

Significance of Research

1. Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of
logical habits of thinking and organization
2. The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or
to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times.
3. Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
4. Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems
of business and industry.
5. Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems.

Research Methods and Methodology

Research Methods / techniques

Research Methodology

When we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider
the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are
using a particular method or technique and why we are not using other so that research results
are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.

Research Method and Scientific Method

Research Method – an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the consequences of any
particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled or
recorded just as they occur

Scientific Method – The philosophy common to all research methods and techniques, although they
may vary considerably from science to another.

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Research Process

1. Formulating the research problem

Two types of research problems
a. Those which relate to states of nature
b. Those which relate to relationships between variables
Two steps involved in formulating the research problem
i. Understanding the problem thoroughly – Discussion with others – Conceptual
literature survey and empirical literature survey – The basis outcome of this review
will be the knowledge as to what data and other materials are available for
operational purposes which will enable the researcher to specify his own research
problem in a meaningful context.
ii. Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view

2. Extensive Literature survey – thesis / synopsis – abstracting and indexing (first place)
– library

3. Developing the working hypothesis – Working hypothesis is tentative assumption

made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences – type of data
required and type of methods of data analysis – Discussion, Examination of data and
records, Review of similar studies, Exploratory personal investigation

4. Preparing the research design – State the conceptual structure within which research
would be conducted – The function of research design is to provide for the collection of
relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money
Four categories of Research purposes
a. Exploration
b. Description
c. Diagnosis
d. Experimentation
Several Research Design
i. Experimental hypothesis testing
a. Informal – before-and-after with/without control, after-only with control
b. Formal – Completely randomized design, randomized block design, Latin
square design, Simple and complex factorial design
ii. Non-experimental hypothesis testing

5. Determining sample design – sample design is a definite plan determined before any
dat are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population
Two types of samples
a. Probability samples – based on
i. Simple random sampling – Chance sampling – Lottery – 300 / 15000
ii. Systematic sampling – every 15th or 10th like this
iii. Stratified sampling – sample items are selected from each stratum (group)
iv. Cluster / area sampling – grouping the population and selecting the groups –
grouping geographical area and selecting the areas
v. Multi-stage sampling – Country – State – District – Circle – Ward – Street –
House – Person
b. Non – probability samples
i. Convenience sampling – deliberate sampling
ii. Judgment sampling – researcher’s judgement
iii. Quota sampling
The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration
the nature of the inquiry and other related factors

6. Collecting the data

a. By observation – own observation – expensive method
b. Through personal interview – ability of interviewer
c. Through telephone interview – industrial surveys
d. By mailing of Questionnaires – extensively used method in various economic and
business surveys
e. Through schedules – enumerators are trained – go to responders with schedules –
collect the data – field check

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The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into
consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial
resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy

7. Execution of the project - The project should be executed in a systematic manner and in
time – structure questionnaire can be machine processed – field check – non cooperation
of responders should be handled differently

8. Analysis of data
a. Editing – the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding
b. Coding – Done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed
into symbols that may be tabulated and counted
c. Tabulation – part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in
the form of tables
The researcher can analyze the collected data with the help of various statistical measures

9. Hypothesis testing – After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypotheses – Chisquare test, t-test, F-test

10. Generalizations and interpretation

a. If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at generalization i.e., to build a theory
b. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his
findings on the basis of some theory called interpretation

11. Preparation of the report or presentation of the results

a. The layout of the report
i. The preliminary pages
1. Title and date
2. Acknowledgements
3. Foreword
4. Table of contents
5. List of tables
6. List of graphs and charts
ii. The main text
1. Introduction
2. Summary of findings
3. Main Report
4. Conclusion
iii. The end of report
b. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language
avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it seems’, ‘there may be’, and the like.
c. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly
d. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints
experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated

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Research Design: Need – Concepts related to Research Design – Different Research Designs –
Meaning – Importance and Scale Construction Techniques

Meaning of Research Design

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner
that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.

Parts of overall research design

1. The sampling design
2. The observational design
3. The statistical design
4. The operational design

Features of a research design

1. A plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research problem
2. A strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analyzing the data
3. Includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two
constraints

Need for Research Design

1. Because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations, thereby
making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money
2. It stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant
data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the
research and the availability of staff, time and money

Features of a Good Design

The design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed is
considered a good design.

Important Concepts relating to Research Design

1. Variables
a. Continuous Variable
b. Non continuous / Discrete Variable
c. Dependent Variable
d. Independent Variable
e. Extraneous Variable
2. Control – to minimize the effects of extraneous variables
3. Confounded relationship – When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables
is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s)
4. Research hypothesis
5. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research
6. Experimental and Control Groups
7. Treatments
8. Experiment – The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to
some research problem is known as an experiment
a. Absolute Experiment
b. Comparative Experiment
9. Experimental unit(s) – The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments
are used, are known as experimental units.

Different Research Designs

1. Research Design in case of Exploratory research studies
a. The survey of concerning literature
b. Experience survey
c. Analysis of insight stimulating examples
2. Research Design in case of Descriptive and Diagnostic research studies
3. Research Design in case of Hypothesis-testing research studies (Experimental studies)

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Basic Principles of Experimental Designs
1. Principle of Replication
2. Principle of Randomization
3. Principle of Local Control

Important Experimental Designs

1. Informal Experimental Design
a. Before-and-After without control Design [Y – X]
b. After-only with control Design [Y – Z]
c. Before-and-After with control Design [Y – X] – [Y – Z]
2. Formal Experimental Design
a. Completely Randomized Design (CR Design)
i. Two Group Simple Randomized Design (1 Way ANOVA)
ii. Random Replications Design (2 Way ANOVA)
b. Randomized Block Design (RB Design)
c. Latin Square Design (LS Design)
d. Factorial Design
i. Simple factorial design – Two factor factorial design
ii. Complex factorial design – Multi factor factorial design

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Sample Design: Criteria for Selecting a Good Sample Design – Random Sample – Sampling
Techniques – Probabilistic and Non-probabilistic Samples – Sample Size.

Census and Sample Survey

Universe – Population – time, money and energy – representatives – sample – n samples from N
population

Implications of a Sample Design

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population – sample size –
before data collected – researcher should select / prepare a sample design

Steps in Sampling Design

1. Type of universe – Finite or Infinite
2. Sampling unit – state or district, family or club or school, …
3. Source List – List all
4. Size of Sample – no. of items to be selected from source list – optimum
5. Parameters of interest – characteristics of selected item
6. Budgetary Constraints – cost considerations
7. Sampling Procedure – minimum sampling error

Criteria of selecting a sampling procedure

1. Inappropriate sampling frame – systematic bias – biased representative
2. Defective measuring device – biased questionnaire
3. Non-respondents – non availability or no time to interview
4. Indeterminacy principle – act differently from original unobserved time
5. Natural bias in the reporting of data – income tax, society

Characteristics of a Good Sample Design

1. Sample design must result in a truly representative sample
2. Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error
3. Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study
4. Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way
5. Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for
the universe with a reasonable level of confidence

Different Types of Sample Designs

1. Non – Probability Sampling
a. Quota Sampling
b. Convenience Sampling
c. Judgment Sampling

2. Probability Sampling
a. How to select a Random Sample – Equal probability
b. Random Sample from an Infinite Universe
c. Complex Random Sampling Designs
i. Systematic Sampling

ii. Stratified Sampling : ni = =

iii. Cluster Sampling

iv. Area Sampling
v. Multi-Stage Sampling
vi. Sampling with probability proportional to size
vii. Sequential Sampling – According to Mathematical decision rules

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Data Collection: Collection of Data – Primary and Secondary Sources – Selection of Appropriate
Methods – Guidelines for Questionnaire Design and Successful Interviewing

Primary Data
Secondary Data
Collection of Primary Data
1. Observation Method
a. Structured Observation
b. Unstructured observation
c. Participant Observation
d. Non-participant Observation
e. Disguised Observation
f. Controlled Observation
g. Uncontrolled Observation

2. Interview Method
a. Personal Interview
i. Direct personal investigation
ii. Indirect Oral Examination
iii. Structured Interview
iv. Unstructured Interview
v. Focused Interview
vi. Clinical Interview
vii. Non-Directive Interview
b. Telephone Interview

3. Through Questionnaires
Merits
Demerits
Main aspects of a questionnaire
a. General Form
i. Structured questionnaire
ii. Non-structured questionnaire
b. Question sequence
c. Question formulation and wording

4. Through Schedules
a. Difference between Questionnaires and Schedules
5. Other Methods
a. Warranty cards
b. Distributor or Store Audits
c. Pantry Audits
d. Consumer Panels
e. Using Mechanical Devices
i. Eye camera
ii. Pupilometric Camera
iii. Psychogalvanometer
iv. Motion Picture Camere
v. Audiometer
f. Through Projective techniques
i. Word Association Tests
ii. Sentence Completion Tests
iii. Story Completion Tests
iv. Verbal Projection Tests
v. Pictorial Techniques
1. Thematic apperception Test
2. Rosenzweig Test
3. Rorschach Test
4. Holtzman Inkblot Test
5. Tomkins – Horn Picture arrangement Test
vi. Play Techniques
vii. Quizzes, Tests and examinations

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 viii. Sociometry
g. Depth Interviews
h. Content Analysis

Collection of Secondary Data

1. Reliability of Data
2. Suitability of Data
3. Adequacy of Data

Selection of appropriate Methods for data collection

1. Nature, scope and object of enquiry
2. Availability of funds
3. Time Factor
4. Precision required

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Research Report: Basic Concepts and Procedure – Report Writing – The Role of Computers in
Research – Use of Internet

Different steps in Writing Report

1. Logical Analysis of the subject matter
2. Preparation of the final outline
3. Preparation of rough draft
4. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft
5. Preparation of the final bibliography
6. Writing the final draft

Layout of the Research Report

1. Preliminary Pages
2. The Main Text
a. Introduction
b. Statement of findings and recommendation
c. The results
d. The implications drawn from the results
e. The summary
3. The End Matter

Types of Reports
1. Business firms – one or two pages
2. Banks, insurance organizations and financial institutions – short balance sheet type of
tabulation for their annual reports to their customers and shareholders
3. Mathematicians – algebraic notations
4. Chemists – symbols and formulae
5. Literature students – long reports
6. Education and psychology – results of experimentation accompanied by the detailed
statistical tabulations
7. Clinical psychologists and social pathologists – case history form
8. Daily papers – news items

Major Types of Reports

1. Technical Report
a. Summary of results
b. Nature of study
c. Methods employed
d. Data
e. Analysis of Data and presentation of findings
f. Conclusion
g. Bibliography
h. Technical appendices
i. Index
2. Popular Report
a. The findings and their implications
b. Recommendations for action
c. Objective of the study
d. Methods employed
e. Results
f. Technical appendices
3. Article
4. Monograph
5. Oral Presentation

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Mechanics of writing a Research Report
1. Size and physical design
2. Procedure
3. Layout
4. Treatment of quotations
5. The footnotes
6. Documentation style
a. Regarding the single volume reference
b. Regarding multivolumed reference
c. Regarding works arranged alphabetically
d. Regarding periodicals reference
e. Regarding anthologies and collections references
f. Regarding second hand quotations reference
g. Case of multiple authorship
7. Punctuation and abbreviations in footnotes
8. Use of statistics, charts and graphs
9. The final draft
10. Bibliography
11. Preparation of the index

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