VEL TECH MULTI TECH Dr.RANAGARAJANDr.

SAKUNTHALA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

191EE721 - HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING
QUESTION BANK
PART B (Short Answers – 4 marks)
1. Construct short notes on Rod gaps as protective devices.

Rod Gap Arrester is a very simple type of lightning arrester, which consists of two 15mm rods that are bent at an
angle 90° with a gap in between them as depicted in the diagram. One end of lightning arrester connected to the
line and another end of rod connected to the earth.

2. Develop the any one of the breakdown mechanisms of vacuum dielectric material.
Vacuum Breakdown:In the Townsend type of discharge in a gas described earlier, electrons get multiplied due to
various ionization processes and an electron avalanche is formed. In a high Vacuum Breakdown, even if the
electrodes are separated by, say, a few centimetres, an electron crosses the gap without encountering any collisions.

3. Plan the necessity of cascading in the cascaded transformer.

For higher voltage greater than 700 kV` single unit constructions becomes difficult and costly due to insulation
problems. The excitation winding "3" of Transformer I supplies the primary voltage for the second transformer
unit II; both windings are dimensioned for the same low voltage, and the potential gain is fixed to the same value
V. The HV or Secondary windings "2" of both units are connected in series, so that a voltage of 2 is produced at
the output of 2 unit. The unit III is added in the same way

4. Built the different types of resistive shunts used for impulse current measurements.
There are various types of resistive shunts used in "Impulse current measurements".
Such shunts are :
Low ohmic resistive shunt
Bifilar flat-strip type resistive shunt
Co-axial Tubular / Park shunt
Co-axial squirrel cage type resistive shunt
5. Organize the aspects of insulation design and insulation co ordination adopted for EHV systems.
Nominal System Voltage is the phase to phase voltage of the system for which the system is normally designed.
Such as 11 KV, 33 KV, 132 KV, 220 KV, 400 KV systems.
 Maximum System Voltage is the maximum allowable power frequency voltage which can occurs may be for
long time during no load or low load condition of the power system. It is also measured in phase to phase
manner.
Insulation Coordination in Power System was introduced to arrange the electrical insulation levels of
different components in the electrical power system including transmission network, in such a manner, that the
failure of insulator, if occurs, confindes to the place where it would result in the least danmage of the system,
easy to repair and replace, and results least disturbance to the power supply.

PART C (Descriptive Type – 12 marks)

26.a) Inspect the mechanisms lighting strokes developed and induce over voltages on overhead power
lines? Give the mathematical models for lightening discharges.
Mathematical Model of Lightning Stroke:
During the charge formation process, the cloud may be considered to be a nonconductor. Hence, various potentials
may be assumed at different parts of the cloud. If the charging process is continued, it is probable that the gradient at
certain parts of the charged region exceeds the breakdown strength of the air or moist air in the cloud. Hence, local
breakdown takes place within the cloud. This local discharge may finally lead to a situation wherein a large reservoir
of charges involving a considerable mass of cloud hangs over the ground, with the air between the cloud and the
ground as a dielectric. When a streamer discharge occurs to ground by first a leader stroke, followed by main strokes
with considerable currents flowing, the Mathematical Model of Lightning Stroke may be thought to be a current
source of value I0 with a source impedance Z0 discharging to earth. If the stroke strikes an object of impedance Z, the
voltage built across it may be taken as The source impedance of the lightning channels are not known exactly, but it
is estimated to be about 1000 to 3000 Ω. The objects of interest to electrical engineers, namely, transmission line, etc.
have surge impedances less than 500 Ω (overhead lines 300 to 500 Ω, ground wires 100 to 150 Ω, towers 10 to 50 Ω,
etc.). Therefore, the value Z/Z0 will usually be less than 0.1 and hence can be neglected. Hence, the voltage rise of
lines, etc. may be taken to be approximately V = I0Z, where I0 is the Mathematical Model of Lightning Stroke current
and Z the line surge impedance. If a Mathematical Model of Lightning Stroke current as low as 10,000 A strikes a
line of 400 Ω surge impedance, it may cause an overvoltage of 4000 kV. This is a heavy overvoltage and causes
immediate flashover of the line conductor through its insulator strings.
L = length of line,

R0,R1 = terminating resistance

L′,C = inductance and capacitance of line per unit length (dynamic)

u’ (x,t) = voltage developed at any distance x

i’ (x,t) = current through the line at any distance x

E’ (x,h,t) = Electric field in x direction at a height h (transmission line height)

Zg = equivalent ground impedance

26.b) Survey the causes for switching, power frequency over voltages and the way it is controlled in power
system.

1. Sudden loss of loads,

2. Disconnection of inductive loads or connection of capacitive loads,

3. Ferranti effect, unsymmetrical faults, and

4. Saturation in transformers, etc.

When voltages above the rated value are applied to transformers, their magnetizing currents (no load currents
also) increase rapidly and may be about the full rated current for 50% overvoltage. These magnetizing currents
are not sinusoidal in nature but are of a peaky waveform. The third, fifth, and seventh harmonic contents may be
65%, 35%, and 25% of the exciting current of the fundamental frequency corresponding to an overvoltage of 1.2
p.u. For third and its multiple harmonics, zero sequence impedance values are effective, and delta connected
windings suppress them. But the shunt connected capacitors and line capacitances can form resonant circuits and
cause high third harmonic overvoltages. When such overvoltages are added, the voltage rise in the lines may be
significant. For higher harmonics a series resonance between the transformer inductance and the line capacitance
can occur which may produce even higher voltages.

27.a) Analyze the ionization process with its expressions for Townsends first and second ionization
coefficient of gaseous dielectric material.
Gas ionization processes a. Ionization by simple collision b. Excitation c. Ionization by Double electron impact d.
Photo-ionization e. Electron Attachment f. Electron detachment g. Other Processes i. ion-atom collisions ii. excited
atom-molecule collisions iii. atom-atom collisions

Ionisation of Gases Electrical Insulating Materials (or Dielectrics) are materials in which electrostatic fields can
remain almost indefinitely. These materials thus offer a very high resistance to the passage of direct currents.
However, they cannot withstand an infinitely high voltage. When the applied voltage across the dielectric exceeds a
critical value the insulation will be damaged. The dielectrics may be gaseous, liquid or solid in form. Gaseous
dielectrics in practice are not free of electrically charged particles, including free electrons. The electrons, which may
be caused by irradiation or field emission, can lead to a breakdown process to be initiated. These free electrons,
however produced, on the application of an electric field are accelerated from the cathode to the anode by the electric
stress applying a force on them. They acquire a kinetic energy (½ mu2 ) as they move through the field. The energy is
usually expressed as a voltage (in electronvolt, eV, where e is the charge on an electron) as the energies involved are
extremely small. [The energy Ei = e Vi is expressed in electron volt. 1 e V = 1.6 x 10-19 J]. These free electrons,
moving towards the anode collide with the gas molecules present between the electrodes. In these collisions, part of
the kinetic energy of the electrons is lost and part is transmitted to the neutral molecule. If this molecule gains
sufficient energy (more than the energy Ei necessary for ionisation to occur), it may ionise by collision. The (mean)
number of ionising collisions by one electron per unit drift across the gap is not a constant but subject to statistical
fluctuations. The newly liberated electron and the impinging electron are then accelerated in the field and an electron
avalanche is set up. Further increase in voltage results in additional ionising processes. Ionisation increases rapidly
with voltage once these secondary processes take place, until ultimately breakdown occurs .

27.b) Dissect the different breakdown mechanisms in liquid dielectric materials.

Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics:

Liquid are used in high voltage equipment to serve the dual purpose of insulation and heat condition. They have the
advantage that a puncture path is self-healing. Temporary failures due to overvoltage are reinsulated quickly by liquid
flow to the attacked area. However, the products of the discharges may deposit on solid insulation supports and
may lead to surface breakdown over these solid supports and it is called as Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics.

Properties of Liquid Dielectrics:

The important electrical properties of the liquid include the dielectric strength, conductivity, flash point, gas content,
viscosity, dielectric constant, dissipation factor, stability, etc. Because of their low dissipation factor and other
excellent characteristics, polybutanes are being increasingly used in the electrical industry. However, in 1970s it was
found that Askarels which more extensively used, exhibit health hazards and therefore most countries have legally
banned their production and use.Many new liquids have since been developed which have no adverse environmental
hazards. These include silicone oils, synthetic and fluorinated hydrocarbons.

Applications of Liquid Dielectrics:

In practical applications liquids are normally used at voltage stresses of about 50-60 kV/cm when the equipment is
continuously operated. On the other hand, in applications like high voltage bushings, where the liquid only fills up the
voids in the solid dielectric, it can be used at stresses as high as 100-200 kV/cm.

28.a) Defend the importance of Cockcroft-walton circuit preferred for voltage multiplier circuits with its
working condition when it is unloaded and loaded.
Derive an expression for total voltage drop and total ripple voltage of n stage voltage multiplier circuit and
hence deduce the condition for optimum number of stages.
Cockroft-Walton Voltage Multiplier Circuit

In 1932, Cockroft and Walton suggested an improvement over the circuit developed by reinacher for producing high
D.C. voltages. Fig. 3.3. Shows a multistage single phase cascade circuit of the Cockroft-Walton type. No Load
Operation: The portion ABM′MA is exactly identical to Greinarcher voltage doublers circuit and the voltage across C
becomes 2Vmax when M attains a voltage 2Vmax. A, potential of M falls and, therefore, potential of N also falls
becoming less than potential at M′ hence C2 is charged through D2. Next half cycle A becomes more positive and
potential of M and N rise thus charging C′2 throughD′2. Finally all the capacitors C′1, C′2, C′3, C1, C2, and C3 are
charged. The voltage across the column of capacitors consisting of C1, C2, C3, keeps on oscillating as the supply
voltage alternates.
. The voltages at M′, N′, and O′ are 2 Vmax 4 Vmax and 6 Vmax. Therefore, voltage across all the capacitors is 2
Vmax except for C1where it is Vmax only. The total output voltage is 2nVmax where n is the number of stages.
Thus, the use of multistage arranged in the manner shown enables very high voltage to be obtained. The equal stress
of the elements (both capacitors and diodes) used is very helpful and promotes a modular design of such generators.

NoLoad Operation:

The portion ABM′MA is exactly identical to Greinarcher voltage doublers circuit and the voltage across C becomes
2Vmaxwhen Mattains a voltage 2Vmax.During the next half cycle when B becomes positive with respect
to A, potential of M falls and, therefore, potential of N also falls becoming less than potential at M′ hence C2 is
charged throughD2. Next half cycle A becomes more positive and potential of M and N rise thus charging C
′2 throughD′2. Finally all the capacitors C′1, C′2, C′3, C, C2, and C3 are charged. The voltage across the column of
capacitors consisting of C1, C2, C3, keeps on oscillating as the supply voltage alternates. This column, therefore, is
known as oscillating column.

However, the voltage across the capacitances C′1,C′2, C′3, remains constant and is known as smoothening column.
The voltages atM′, N′, and O are 2 Vmax 4 Vmax and 6 Vmax. Therefore, voltage across all the capacitors is 2 Vmax
except for C1where it is Vmax only. The total output voltage is 2nVmax where n is the number of stages. Thus, the
use of multistage arranged in the manner shown enables very high voltage to be obtained. The equal stress of the
elements (both capacitors and diodes) used is very helpful and promotes a modular design of such generators.

 Generator Loaded:

When the generator is loaded, the output voltage will never reach the value 2n Vmax. Also, the output wave will
consist of ripples on the voltage. Thus, we have to deal with two quantities, the voltage drop V and the ripple Suppose
a charge q is transferred to the load per cycle. This charge is q = I/f = IT. The charge comes from the smoothening
column, the series connection of C′1, C′2, C′3,. If no charge were transferred during T from this stack via D1, D2,
D3, to the oscillating column, the peak to peak ripple would merely be But in practice charges are transferred.

The process is explained with the help of circuits in Fig. 3.4 (a) and (b).Fig. 3.4 (a) shows arrangement when point A
is more positive with reference to B and charging of smoothing column takes place and Fig. 3.4 (b) shows the
arrangement when in the next half cycle Becomes positive with reference to A and charging of oscillating column
takes place. Refer to Fig. 3.4(a). Say the potential of point O′ is now 6 Vmax. This discharges through the load
resistance and say the charge lost is q = IT over the cycle. This must be regained during the charging cycle (Fig. 3.4
(a)) for stable operation of the generator.

28.a)Recommend the van de graff generator for the necessity of generating high DC voltages with a neat
sketch.

The Van De Graaff generator works simply on the principle of static electricity. All matter, as we know is made up of
atoms which further constituted of electrons, neutrons and protons. Electrons carry negative charge whereas protons
are considered to be positively charged. When the number of electrons and protons remain the same, the matter is
considered to be neutral in charge. A negatively charged matter has more number of electrons than protons while the
opposite holds true for a positively charged matter. Electrons can flow from one matter to another.
A Van de Graaff generator creates static electricity. The current generated by a Van De Graaff generator remains the
same, while the voltage changes according to the applied load. A very simple Van De Graaff generator is made of the
following:

 A motor
 Rollers, two in number

 Insulated belt

 Brush assemblies, two in number

 Metal sphere as the output terminal

The motor is required to turn the belt at a constant speed around the two rollers. The lower roller is built of a material
that has a stronger triboelectric property. Now when the motor starts turning the belt around the lower roller,
electrons are captured from the insulated belt onto the lower roller. Slowly more and more charge becomes
concentrated on the roller. The upper roller is made from or coated with a material that is higher up in the
triboelectric series such as nylon due to which it tries to repel the positive charge on the belt. The upper brush is
directly connected to the inside of the output terminal or sphere at one end and almost touches the upper roller and
belt at the other. The electrons in the brush become attracted to the positive charges on the belt. The air particles
break down too and the free electrons move towards the belt. The sphere takes up all of the charge and the excess
charge gets spread to the outside of the terminal output or sphere.

It is this simple electrostatic effect that allows the Van De Graaff generator to output very high voltages continuously.

Uses of Van De Graff Generators

In modern times, the application of Van De Graff generators is largely limited to academic purposes to demonstrate
the practical aspects and concepts of electrostatic behavior of particles. Primarily designed as a particle accelerator,
the Van De Graaff generators are used in laboratories for demonstration purposes only. However, it must be noted
that Van de Graaff generators were one of the first methods used to study nuclear physics before the advent of better
methods to accelerate particles. Though the use of Van De Graaff generators are limited in today's world, they mark a
very important milestone in the study of particles in the history of nuclear physics.

29.a)Develop the procedure for measurement of impulse voltage using standard sphere gap. List the factors
that influence the sphere gap measurement.

sphere Gaps are used to measure Voltage Measurement – A uniform field spark gap will always have a
sparkover voltage within a known tolerance under constant atmospheric conditions. Hence a spark gap can be used
for measurement of the peak value of the voltage, if the gap distance is known. A sparkover voltage of 30 kV (peak)
at 1 cm spacing in air at 20°C and 760 ton pressure occurs for a Sphere Gap Measurement or any uniform field gap. 

Normally, only sphere gaps are used for voltage measurements. In certain cases uniform field gaps and rod
gaps are also used, but their accuracy is less. The spark gap breakdown, especially the sphere gap breakdown, is
independent of the voltage waveform and hence is highly suitable for all types of waveforms from d.c. to impulse
voltages of short rise times (rise time ≥ 0.5 μs). As such, Sphere Gaps are used to measure radio frequency a.c.
voltage peak measurements also (up to 1 MHz).
29.b)Construct the electrostatic voltmeter with neat diagram and principle of operation. Advantages and
limitations

where,

V = applied voltage between plates,

C = capacitance between the plates,

A = area of cross-section of the plates,

d = diameter of plates
s = separation between the plates,

ε0 = permittivity of the medium (air or free space), and

Ws = work done in displacing a plate

When one of the electrodes is free to move, the force on the plate can be measured by controlling it by a spring or
balancing it with a counter weight. For high voltage measurements, a small displacement of one of the electrodes by a
fraction of a millimeter to a few millimeters is usually sufficient for voltage measurements. As the  force is
proportional to the square of the applied voltage, the measurement can be made for a.c. or d.c. voltages.

Electrostatic Voltmeters Construction:

Electrostatic voltmeters are made with parallel plate configuration using guard rings to avoid corona and field
fringing at the edges. An absolute voltmeter is made by balancing the plate with a counter weight and is calibrated in
terms of a small weight. Usually the electrostatic voltmeters have a small, capacitance (5 to 50 pF) and high
insulation resistance (R ≥ 1013 Ω). Hence they are considered as devices with high input impedance. The upper
frequency limit for a.c. applications is determined from the following considerations:

 natural frequency of the moving system,

 resonant frequency of the lead and stray inductances with meter capacitance, and
 the R-C behavior of the retaining or control spring (due to the frictional resistance and elastance).
An upper frequency limit of about one MHz is achieved in careful designs. The accuracy for a.c. voltage
measurements is better than ± 0.25%, and for d.c. voltage measurements it may be ± 0.1% or less.

Merits of Electrostatic Voltmeter :

Low loading effect as only electric fields are required to be set up.
Due to high resistances of the medium between plates, the active power loss negligibly small.
Can be used for high frequency 
Used for measurement of AC and DC voltages.
Demerits of Electrostatic Voltmeter :
Not used for small voltage as operating force becomes less.
Expensive, larger size, not robust.
Non uniform scale.
Humidity effects on resistance and consumption increase.
Not suitable for very high frequency above few MHz.
30.a) Examine the methods of impulse testing of high voltage transformer and the procdure adopted for
locating the failure.

Impulse Testing These are done as tests on sample of apparatus. The impulse test level is determined by the operating
level (4 to 5 times the normal operating value ) Apply on to the sample a certain number (say 10) positive impulse
and 10 negative impulses of this particular value. They should withstand this voltage without any destruction. To test
the ultimate impulse strength, apply increasing amounts of impulse voltage until destruction occurs; during the tests it
is necessary to see whether there is any damage.

The damage may not be immediately visible, so we have it on a high frequency ( single sweep and high speed )
oscilloscope. In the event of complete damage, breakdown of the insulator due to the application of the impulse
voltage will be indicated as in (i). If the insulator has suffered only a minor damage the wave form would show no
distortion , but would show as in (ii). If there is no damage caused due to the impulse, the waveform will be complete
and undistorted as in (iii). In testing high voltage insulators whose actual breakdown is in air

(i.e flashover takes place before breakdown of insulator) the porcelain itself can be tested by immersing the whole
insulator in liquid of high permeability so that there would be no outside flashover, and actual breakdown of the
insulator would occur.

30.b)Categorize the different power frequency test done on insulators?

Testing Of Insulators

Following are the different types of tests that are carried out on overhead line insulators.

1. Flashover tests
2. Performance tests
3. Routine tests

Flashover Tests Of Insulators

Three types of flashover tests are conducted before the insulator is said to have passed the flashover test.

1. Power frequency dry flashover test

2. Power frequency wet flashover test
3. Impulse frequency flashover test

Power Frequency Dry Flashover Test

The insulator to be tested is mounted in the same manner in which it is to be used. Then, a variable voltage source of
power frequency is connected between the electrodes of the insulator. The voltage is gradually increased up to the
specified voltage. This specified voltage is less than the minimum flashover voltage. The voltage at which
surrounding air of the insulator breaks down and become conductive is known as flashover voltage. The insulator
must be capable of withstanding the specified voltage for one minute without flashover.