Simple Connections for Buildings

OBJECTIVE/SCOPE

To provide an initial introduction to the various aspects of connection

design in simple steel construction.

PRE-REQUISITES

Lecture 1B.5.1: Introduction to Design of Simple Industrial Buildings

Lectures 1B.7: Introduction to Design of Multi-Storey Buildings

Lecture 3.5: Fabrication/Erection of Buildings

Lecture 11.1.1: Connections in Buildings

Lecture 11.1.2: Introduction to Connection Design

Lectures 11.2: Welded Connections

Lectures 11.3: Bolted Connections

Lectures 11.4: Analysis of Connections

RELATED LECTURES (covering specific items in greater detail)

Lecture 11.6: Moment Connections for Continuous Framing

Lecture 11.7: Partial Strength Connections for Semi-Continuous

Framing

SUMMARY

The relation between the selection of the frame model and the
connection design is first discussed. The various forms of connections
in simple buildings are identified for both the framework and the
bracing system, and the main design criteria and checking procedures
are presented. Reference is also made to the economic implications
concerning fabrication and erection. Detailed aspects of behaviour and
design are referred back to earlier lectures in the group.

1. INTRODUCTION
Simple connections are defined as joints between members that have
not been designed with the intention that they transmit significant
moments. Their purpose is to transfer load from the supported
member into the supporting member in such a way that essentially
only direct forces are involved, e.g. vertical shear in a beam to column
or beam to beam connection, axial tension or compression in a lattice
girder chord splice, column base or column splice connection. They
may, therefore, only be used in situations where sufficient bracing is
present that, when the joints are assumed to function as pins,
adequate overall structural resistance is present. Popular
arrangements include lattice girders and bracing systems or
connections between beams and columns in rectangular frames in
which lateral loadings are resisted by stiff systems of shear walls,
cores or braced bays.

Figures 1a and 1b illustrate multistorey frames in which simple

connections may be used for each of the 6 different requirements A-E
listed alongside Figure 1a. Thus the structural idealisations suitable for
determining the distribution of member forces will be as shown in
Figure 1c and 1d, with all lateral loading being resisted by the bracing
or shear wall. When considering the design of the frame to withstand
gravity loading, the assumption of pin connections makes the overall
structural analysis particularly straightforward, since loads can be
traced from floors into beams into columns and eventually into the
foundations using a simple statical process.
Simple joints also lead to easier fabrication and erection and as
explained in Lecture 11.1.1 are, therefore, likely to produce the most
cost-effective steel frames. Taking the example of a beam to column
connection, the simple joint must:

• transfer the beam reaction into the column in shear

• have sufficient flexibility not to transfer other than small
moments into the column, e.g. due to some small eccentricity in
the lines of force transfer
• possess sufficient rotation capacity to permit the beam to
develop its "simple" deflected shape.

Thus, in terms of the classification system introduced in Lecture

11.1.2., the connection should function as "nominally pinned" for both
moment capacity and rotational stiffness and the only form of load
transfer required will be the vertical shear illustrated in Figs. 9(2) and
11 of that Lecture.

Simple connections will normally be either fully bolted, e.g. the

arrangements using angle cleats of Fig. 10 of Lecture 11.1.1, or will
involve a combination of shop welding and site bolting, e.g. the fin
plate and end plate arrangements of the same Figure. Except for
connections subject to vibration, e.g. in foundations for moving
machinery or in crane support structures, untorqued bolts in clearance
holes should be used.

This lecture discusses the structural design of several examples of

each of the 6 connection arrangements listed in Figure 1. In doing this
it makes use of basic material on weld strength and bolt strength
presented in Lectures 11.2 and 11.3 respectively, as well as the
approach to the analysis of connections given in Lecture 11.4.

2. BEAM-TO-BEAM CONNECTIONS
Floor decks in buildings are usually supported by means of grids of
secondary beams and main girders simply connected to each other.

Some typical connections are illustrated in Figure 2. Types A and C,

which make use of web cleats bolted to both the girder and the beam,
are the most common forms. Type B with the cleats bolted to the
girder and welded to the beam, and types D and E where a flush end
plate is adopted, may cause lack-of-fit problems during erection due to
the dimensional tolerances. Connection types D and E possess some
predictable stiffness and strength, but their consequent partial
continuity is usually neglected in design.
As shown in types C and D, the beam end may be coped removing
part of one or both flanges, when the beam and girder flanges meet at
the same level. The beam is thus locally weakened. The appropriate
checks must be made as discussed below. Nevertheless, this solution
is less expensive than type E, which requires that a tee stiffener is
welded to the girder.

As a variant to A the web angles may be replaced by a fin plate, as

shown in Type F, a single plate which is shop welded to the primary
beam and site bolted to the secondary beam. A fin plate connection is
particularly simple to both fabricate and erect, but it requires careful
design if it is to function as a notional pin [1]. In particular, there is a
need to decide where the "hinge" is located as explained in Section 3
of Lecture 11.6.

For web cleated connections, it is good practice to place the angles as

close as possible to the upper flange of the girder in order to minimise
cracking of the concrete floor slab due to the beam rotation.

Bolts and welds in connections should be able to resist the beam

reaction and any relevant moment due to the eccentricity of the force
to the centerline of the connecting components as explained in Section
2 of Lecture 11.4.3.

When a beam is coped, as in connection type C, it should be verified

that no failure may occur at the section that has been weakened
(block shear) as explained in Section 2 of Lecture 11.4.3.

3. BEAM-TO-COLUMN CONNECTIONS
Several forms of simple beam-to-column connections are illustrated in
Figure 3.
Type A, which is shown as fully bolted, may also be configured by
welding the cleats to the beam end. For lightly loaded beams, a single
sided cleat may be used but the additional eccentricities must then be
allowed for when checking bolt strength, etc.

The finplate Type B requires the same form of attention when deciding
on the design model as discussed in the previous section where its use
in beam to beam situations was discussed. It is one of the few
arrangements obviously suitable for use with SHS (either RHS or CHS)
columns as no bolting to the column is necessary.

Both types A and B provide some allowance for tolerance (through the
clearance in the beam web holes) on member length. Type B permits
beams to be lifted in from one side.

Types C and D require a more strict control of beam length and of

squareness of the cross-section at the end of the beam. The flush end
plate scheme of type D is sometimes preferred to the part depth end
plate (type C) in order to reduce the chances of damage during
transportation. Partial depth endplates should not normally be less
than about 0.6 times the beam depth or the end torsional restraint to
the beam may be reduced. Figure 4 illustrates how flexibility and
rotation capacity is provided. Depending on the details, the connection
behaviour of type D could change from a notational pin; it may be
more appropriate to acknowledge this semi-rigid behaviour (see
Lecture 11.7). This may be avoided by keeping the endplate thickness
down to a maximum of 8-10 mm and making the bolt cross-centres as
large as is practical so as to ensure adequate flexibility and rotation
capacity.
As for beam-to-beam connections, the bolts and the welds should be
able to resist the beam reactions and the relevant moment due to the
eccentricity of the force to the centreline of the connecting material as
explained in Lecture 11.4.3. Since this eccentricity is relatively small
the column bending moment for such a connection is much smaller
than from a moment connection as discussed in Lecture 11.6.

Since the general approach to the design of all forms of simple

connections is essentially the same, it will be sufficient to consider only
one type in some detail. Figure 5 illustrates the 6 possible failure
modes for a finplate connection; the load carrying capacity for each
must be calculated and the lowest value compared with the design
requirements. Methods for doing this have already been presented in
Lectures 11.4. It is also necessary to ensure - usually by means of
appropriate detailing - that the connection will function in the manner
intended, i.e. will not be too stiff and will possess adequate rotation
capacity. This may be achieved by:
 • ensuring that strength is governed by a ductile mode of failure.

Bearing of the bolts in either the finplate or the beam web is usually
arranged to form the governing condition. When performing the
structural checks it is necessary to be consistent in the assumption of
the location of the line of shear transfer, i.e. the "hinge" line. One
approach (1) that removes the need for a decision is to design both
the bolt group and the welds for the combination of shear and
eccentricity moment. Alternatively, the location can be chosen as the
bolt group for the stiff support arrangement illustrated in Figure 5 or
the weld if the support is more flexible as would be the case, for
example, if a RHS column were used (due to bending of the column
face as a plate).

4. COLUMN SPLICES
In simple frames columns are predominantly stressed in compression.
In theory no splice connection is required, since the compression force
is transmittable by direct bearing. Due to the presence of geometric
imperfections (lack of straightness of the column) as well as of
unavoidable eccentricities, and to the fact that even carefully
machined surfaces will never assure full contact, connections have to
be provided. They should be designed to resist the internal forces
(other than compression) determined in the column at the point where
they are located.

Even when the column is subject to simple compression, and full

contact in bearing is assumed, codes specify stiffness and strength
requirements to be fulfilled. Eurocode 3 prescribes that the splice
should provide continuity of flexural stiffness about both axes, and
should be able to carry a force, acting at the abutting ends in any
direction perpendicular to the axis of the member, not less than 2,5%
of the compression.

The location of the splice should be selected so that any adverse effect
on column stability is avoided, i.e. the distance of the connection from
the floor level should be kept as low as possible. A limit of 1/5th of the
storey height is usually accepted. If this requirement cannot be
fulfilled, account should be taken of the (second order) moment
induced by member imperfections.

More significant bending resistance may be required in splices when

columns are subject to primary moments, as in a frame model
assuming hinges at, or outside, the column outer face. In addition, in
columns acting as chords of cantilever bracing trusses, tensile forces
may arise (uplift) in some loading conditions, which must be
transmitted by splices.

Typical column splices suitable for use in simply designed frames are
shown in Figure 6. They are of two basic types: A, B and C all transmit
the whole of the force through the cover plates, whilst D-G rely on
direct bearing.
When a bolted solution is adopted (types A, B and C), both flanges and
the web are usually connected. Type A uses a double cover plate,
whilst type C uses single cover plates for the flanges. These may be
positioned on the outside faces of the flanges so as to reduce the plan
area occupied by the splice. Forces are distributed among the
connecting plates in proportion to the stress resultant in the cross-
sectional elements, e.g. for simple compression in proportion to the
areas of the flanges and of the web. Differences in column flange
thickness may be accommodated by the use of packs.

When the surfaces of the end cross-sections of the two column shapes
are sawn and considered to be flat, and squareness between these
surfaces and the member axis is guaranteed, the axial force may be
assumed to be transmitted by bearing. Fillet welds (type D) or light
cover plates (type E) are provided to resist possible secondary shear
force and bending moment when the upper and lower columns differ in
serial size. A plate may be interposed, and welded to both column
sections as in connection type F, or, alternatively, two welded plates
bolted to each other may be used (type G). Plates are flattened by
presses in the range of thicknesses up to 50m, and machined by
planing for thicknesses greater than 100mm. For intermediate
thicknesses either working process may be selected.

Where there is a significant variation of cross-sectional dimensions in

the arrangement of type F, the plate(s) must be checked for bending
resistance. A possible conservative model assumes the plate is a
cantilever of breadth equal to the width of, and clamped to, the upper
column flange. The axial force, which is transmitted between the
corresponding column flanges, is applied as an external load at the
mean plane of the flange of the lower column.

Full details of this approach are presented in ref. 2, from which it is

clear that if plate thicknesses are to remain reasonable, then only
moderate offsets of the order of the column flange thickness are
possible. For larger differences in column size, a short vertical stiffener
may be located directly below the flange(s) of the upper column to
directly assist in transferring the locally high force.

5. BRACING CONNECTIONS
Connections within the bracing system or between the bracing system
and the main framing have to transfer forces between a number of
differently oriented members. Since the triangulated bracing
arrangement will have been designed on the basis that each member
carries only axial forces (apart from any relatively small bending
effects due to non-coincidence of centroidal axes), the design
requirement for the bracing connections is essentially the transfer of
direct forces between a number of differently oriented members.

Two basic arrangements are illustrated in Figure 7: Type A attaches

the bracing to the main framing, Type B is an internal bracing
connection. Types C and D combine both functions by making the
beams part of the bracing system. Details of the design considerations
and the calculations necessary to effect these have already been
provided in Section 1.3 of Lecture 11.4.3.
6. COLUMN BASES
A column base connection always consists of a plate welded to the foot
of the column and bolted down to the foundations. A second, usually
rather thicker, steel plate is normally incorporated into the top of the
foundation, as illustrated in Figure 8. It helps both to locate the foot of
the column accurately and in spreading the load into the weaker
(concrete or masonry) foundation material.

Baseplate connections in simple construction are generally modelled as

pins, and designed to transfer either concentric force (compression or
tension) or a combination of axial and shear force (usually when the
column is part of the bracing system (Figure 8c)). In some instances
they may, however, be designed to transmit also bending moments
due to moderate load eccentricity, or for erection stability.
The plate is always attached to the column by means of fillet welds.
However, if the column carries only compression loads, direct bearing
may be assumed, provided that the contact surfaces are machined or
can be considered to be flat. No verification of the welds is then
required. Machining may be omitted if loads are relatively small.

Where there are moderate tension forces or no net tension the holding
down bolts are usually cast into the foundation (Figure 9). They anchor
the baseplate by bonding (Figure 9a), by bonding and bearing (Figure
9 b, c), or by bearing (Figure 9d).

When tensile forces are significant, it is necessary to provide

appropriate anchorage to the bolts. For example threaded bolts may
be used in conjunction with channel sections embedded in the
concrete.

In tension connections the baseplate thickness is often dictated by the

bending moments produced by the holding down bolts. The bending
moments may require the use of stiffeners (Figures 8c and 8d). Such
an arrangement significantly increases the fabrication content and
therefore the cost of the column base as compared with the "simple"
case.
7. BEAM-TO-CONCRETE WALL CONNECTIONS
In high-rise buildings it may be convenient to combine the steel
structure resisting gravity loads with a concrete core resisting
horizontal forces.

Attaching the steel frame to a concrete core is mainly a practical

problem, since the two systems are built with dimensional tolerances
of a different order of magnitude. Special care should be taken to
account for the relative sequence of erection of the concrete and steel
system, the method of construction of the core (on which concrete
tolerances also depend), as well as the feasibility of compensating for
misalignments.

The connection should be able to transfer to the core vertical forces, V,

due to loads applied to the beam, and horizontal forces, H, due to wind
and frame geometrical imperfections (lack of verticality). Some
connection types are illustrated in Figure 10. It is important to stress
that the details in the concrete wall must be suitably designed to
disperse connection forces safely. In particular the details are
especially important when deep beams are required to transmit high
vertical loads.
The type shown in Figure 10a, with pockets in the wall, is convenient
for ease of adjustment, but complex in terms of core erection. Types
illustrated in Figures 10b to 10h where part of the connection is
encased in the core wall during concrete pouring, may be preferable.

The steel plate may be flush with the wall surface, as in types b-f, or
extended outwards as in types g and h. In the first case, which is
usually the more convenient because the steel plate can be supported
on the inside face of the formwork, a single web plate is welded on site
to which the steel beam is then attached. In the latter case the beam
can be connected directly to the encased plate. Reinforcing bars
(rebars) and/or headed studs can be used in order to transmit both
components of the beam action. Full penetration welds are preferred
when the rebars are connected directly to the flush plate (Figure 10d),
so that eccentricity of the force with respect to the weldment is
avoided (Figure10c).

Checking of the various components within the connection should be

conducted in a consistent manner, ensuring that the principles of
connection design, e.g. the assumed distribution of forces satisfies
equilibrium, are observed. As an illustration of this, consider the
structural requirements for the arrangement of Figure 10h. Assuming
that the shear transfer plane, ie. the "hinge" location of the simple
connection, is the mid-plane of the wall, then the set of headed studs
must resist only shear. Alternatively, if the "hinge" is assumed as the
wall face, then the studs should be designed to resist a combination of
shear and moment. This general requirement for a consistent
approach to modelling the force transfers is further explained in Figure
11, which details the load transfer for the arrangement of case 10e.
The shear force V is assumed to be resisted entirely by the shear
studs, whilst the moment M is carried by a couple consisting of tension
in the upper rebars and compression transmitted by contact stresses
between the concrete and the steel plate. Whichever arrangement is
adopted, however, the main requirement is to ensure a proper
dispersion of forces into the core wall.
8. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
• Simple connections should be designed to transfer loads from
the supported member into the supporting member as directly
as possible. Apart from small moments arising from non-
coincidence of certain lines of force transfer, no significant
bending actions are involved.
• Simple connections are suitable for the 6 different tasks
identified in Figure 1.
• Their structural design should be undertaken using the methods
of Lecture 11.4.3 - specifically the sections dealing with
connections to gusset plates and transfer of shear forces.
 • When connecting a steel frame to concrete - either at a column
base or to a core - care must be taken to avoid overstressing the
weaker concrete. Load spreading using steel plates for
compressive forces and proper transfer using anchored rebars,
holding down bolts, shear studs or anchored plates for tensile
forces must be considered.

9. REFERENCES
[1]. BCSA/SCI "Joints in Simple Construction", Volume 1: Design

Methods (2nd edition) 1993 pp 81/94

Provides an explanation of basic behaviour, suggested proportions for

the key components and detailed rules for checking the structural
adequacy of beam to beam, beam to column, column splice and
column base connections.

[2] Ballio, G. and Mazzolani, F.M., "Theory and design of steel

structures", Chapman and Hall, London 1983.

Comprehensive text on theory and design of steel structures. Deals

extensively with connections.

10. ADDITIONAL READING

1. Hayward, A. and Weare, F., "Steel Detailers Manual", BSP
Professional Books, Oxford, England, 1988.

General problems of welding and bolting as well as detailing

practice are extensively covered. Basic design guidance and
examples of different types of structures ranging from buildings
to towers and bridges are also given.

2. Hart, F., Henn, W. and Sontag, H., "Stahlbau Atlas -

Geschossbauten", Internationale Architektur Dokumentation,
Munich, 1982.

This book presents a wide range of practical solutions for

connections in steel and composite buildings. It is available in
four different European languages (French, English, Dutch and
Italian).
 3. Connection between steel, concrete and masonry. The Steel
Construction Institute 1994.

Describes a variety of practical connections between steel,

concrete and masonry, including column bases and connections
to existing concrete and masonry for refurbishment projects.

4. Hogan, T.J. and Firkins, A., "Standardised structural

connections", Australian Institute of Steel Construction, 1981.

Presents design models and resistance tables for the main

connection types.

5. Blodgett, O.W., "Design of welded structures", James F Lincoln

Arc Welding Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio, USA, 1972.

Informative and well illustrated reference manual covering all

aspects of welded design and construction.

6. ENV 1993: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures, Part 1:

General rules and rules for buildings, 1992.

Chapter 6 covers the design of fasteners, and of connection

components. Appendices J and L deal with the design of beam-
to-column and column base connections respectively.

7. 7.. Kulak, G.L., Fisher, J.W. and Struik, J.H.A., "Guide to design
criteria for bolted and riveted joints", Wiley & Sons, New York,
1987.

Gives a comprehensive appraisal of the behaviour of bolted joints, and

reviews in detail methods for design analysis.