EEE 2019 Principles of Electrical &

Electronic Engineering

Lecture 4: DC Circuit Theory:

Circuit Theorems

Instructor: Jerry MUWAMBA

Email: [email protected]
[email protected]

June 9, 2022
University of Zambia
School of Engineering,
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
References
Our main reference text books in this course are:
[1] William H. Roadstrum and Dan H. Wolaver, Electrical Engineering for All Engineers,
(2008), John Wiley and Sons, ISBN :10:0471271780
[2] Jimmie Cathey and Sayed Nasar, Basic Electrical Engineering, Schaum’s Outline
Series, (1996), McGraw Hill 2nd edition, ISBN -10: 0070113556
[3] Charles I. Hubert , DC/AC Electric Circuits, (1982), McGraw Hill, ISBN-10:
0070308454; ISBN-13: 978-0070308459
[4] Charles K. Alexander and Matthew N. O. Sadiku, Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, 5th
Ed., 2012, McGraw-Hill, ISBN-13: 978-0077753603
[5] Theraja B.L., Theraja A.K., Tarnekar S.G., Electrical Technology-Basic Electrical
Engineering, vol. I, 1st Multicolor Ed., 2005, S. Chand, ISBN 81-219-24405.

However, feel free to use some additional text which you might find relevant to our
course.

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4.1 Introduction
The chief advantage of analyzing circuits using Kirchhoff’s laws as we did in
Lecture 3 is that we can analyze a circuit without tampering with its original
configuration.
However, the chief disadvantage of this approach is that, for a large, complex
circuit, tedious computation is involved.
To mitigate the daunting task of analyzing complex electric circuits, engineers over
the years have developed some theorems which include Thevenin’s and Norton
theorems.
Since these theorems are applicable to linear circuits, we first discuss the concept of
circuit linearity.
Thus, we shall discuss the concept of superposition, source transformation, and
maximum power transfer.

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4.2 Linearity Property
Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear relationship between
cause (input and/or excitation) and effect (output and/or response).
By the linearity property both the homogeneity (scaling) property and the additivity
property ought to hold good.
For a resistor, for instance, Ohm’s law relates the input i to the output v , given
by the equation of the form,
v = Ri (4.1)

By the homogeneity property, if the current is increased by a constant k , then the
voltage increases correspondingly by k ; that is,
R(ki ) = kv (4.2)

By the additivity property, the response to a sum of inputs is the sum of the
responses to each input applied separately, that is, if
v1 = Ri1 and v2 = Ri2 (4.3)

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4.2 Linearity Property Cont’d
Then applying (i1 + i2 ) yields,
v = R(i1 + i2 ) = Ri1 + Ri2 = v1 + v2 (4.4)

Thus, a resistor is said to be a linear element because the voltage-current

relationship satisfies both the homogeneity and the additivity properties.
In general, a circuit is linear if and only if it is both additive and homogeneous.

A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly proportional) to
its input.

In this course the scope shall be limited to only linear circuits.
Note that since p = Ri 2 = v 2 R (making it a quadratic function rather than a
linear one), the relationship between power and voltage (or current) is nonlinear.
Therefore, the theorems which shall be covered in this course are not applicable to
power.

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[Example 4.1]
For the circuit in Figure 1, find I 0 2 8
when vs = 12 V and vs = 24 V .
vx I0

[Solution] 4 4
6 i1 i2
Applying KVL to the two loops, we
obtain, vs 3vx

12i1 − 4i2 + vs = 0; (4.1.1)

Figure 1:
−4i1 + 16i2 − 3vx − vs = 0; (4.1.2)
Substituting this in Eq. (4.1.1), we get
But vx = 2i1 , Eq. (4.1.2) gives, v
−76i2 + vs = 0; i.e., i2 = s ;
−10i1 + 16i2 − vs = 0; (4.1.3) 76
For vs = 12 V,
Adding Eqs. (4.1.1) and (4.1.3) yields
12
I 0 =i2 = A;
2i1 + 12i2 = 0; i.e., i1 = −6i2 ; 76
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[Example 4.1] [Solution] Cont’d
For vs = 24 V,
24
I 0 =i2 = A;
76
This shows the when the source value is doubled, the output I 0 also doubles.

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[Example 4.2]
Assume I 0 = 1A and use linearity to
I4 6 V2 I 2 2 V1 3
find the actual value of I 0 in the
1 I3 2 I1 I0
circuit of Figure 2.
I s = 15A 7 4 5
[Solution]
If I 0 = 1A , then Figure 2:
V1 = (3 + 5)I 0 = 8 V; Applying KCL at node 2 gives,
And I 1 = V1 4 = 2A;
I 4 = I 3 + I 2 = 5A;
Applying KCL at node 1 gives,
Therefore, I s = 5A assuming I 0 = 1A .
I 2 = I 1 + I 0 = 3A;
Vividly, the actual source current of
V2 = V1 + 2I 2 = 8 + 6 = 14 V; I s = 15A will give the actual output,
V2 I 0 = 3A;
I3 = = 2A;
7
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4.3 Superposition
If a circuit has two or more independent sources, one way to determine the value of
a specific variable (voltage or current) is to use nodal or mesh analysis as brought to
the fore in Lecture 3.
Another way is to determine the contribution of each independent source to the
variable and then add them up, which approach is known as superposition.

The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an
element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or current
through) that element due to each independent source acting alone.

Two things ought to be kept in mind when applying the superposition principle,
 We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources
are turned off. Replace every voltage source by 0 V (or short circuit), and every
current source by 0A (or an open circuit).
 Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.

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Steps to Apply Superposition

[Step 1] Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output
(voltage or current) due to that active source using techniques covered in Lectures 2
and 3.
[Step 2] Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
[Step 3] Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due
to the independent sources.

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[Example 4.3]
Use the superposition theorem to
8
find v in the circuit of Figure 3.
8
6V i1 4  v

6V 4 v 3A
(a)

Figure 3: Figure 4:
8 i2
i3
[Solution] 4 v 3A
Since there are two sources, let
v = v1 + v2 ;
(b)
Where v1 and v2 are the contributions due to
the 6V voltage source and the 3A current
source, respectively.
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[Example 4.3] [Solution] Cont’d
To obtain v1 , we set the current source to zero, as shown in Fig. 3(a)
Applying KVL to the loop in Fig. 3(a) yields,
2i1 − 6 = 0; i.e., i1 = 0.5A;
Thus,
v1 = 4i1 = 2 V;

We may also use voltage division to get v1 by writing

 4 
v1 =   (6) = 2 V;
4 + 8 
To get v2 , we set the voltage source to zero, as depicted in Fig. 3(b).
Using current division we get,
 8 
i3 =   (3) = 2A;
4 + 8 
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[Example 4.3] [Solution] Cont’d
Hence,
v2 = 4i3 = 8 V;
Therefore,
v = v1 + v2 = 2 + 8; i.e., v = 10 V;

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[Example 4.4]
Find i0 in the circuit of Fig. 5
using superposition. 2

[Solution] 3
5i0
The circuit in Fig. 5 involves a 1
dependent source, which must be 4A
i0
left intact.
5 4
We let,
i0 = i0 + i0 ; (4.4.1)
Where i0 and i0 are due to the 20V
Figure 5:
4A current source and the 20V
voltage source, respectively.
To obtain i0 , we turn off the
20V source to give the circuit
of the form of Fig. 6(a).

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[Example 4.4] [Solution] Cont’d
2
2

3 i2
5i0 3 i4
1 5i0
4A i1 1
i0
5 i3 4 i5
i1 i0 i3 5 4

0 (a)
20V
Figure 6: (b)
Applying mesh analysis, For loop 1,
i1 = 4 A ; (4.4.2) For loop 3,
For loop 2, −5i1 − i2 + 10i3 + 5i0 = 0 ; (4.4.4)

−3i1 + 6i2 − i3 − 5i0 = 0 ; (4.4.3)

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[Example 4.4] [Solution] Cont’d
But at node 0,
i3 = i1 − i0 = 4 − i0 ; (4.4.5)
Substituting Eqs. (4.4.2) and (4.4.5) into Eqs. (4.4.3) and (4.4.4) yields two
simultaneous equations of the form,
3i2 − i0 = 8 ; (4.4.6)

i2 + 5i0 = 20 ; (4.4.7)
Solving the simultaneous equations yields,
52
i0 = A; (4.4.8)
17
To obtain i0 , we turn off the 4A current source to give the circuit of the form of
Fig. 6(b). For loop 4, KVL gives
6i4 − i5 − 5i0 = 0 ; (4.4.9)
For loop 5, −i4 + 10i5 − 20 + 5i0 = 0 ; (4.4.10)

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[Example 4.4] [Solution] Cont’d
But i5 = −i0 . Substituting this in Eqs. (4.4.9) and (4.4.10) gives,
6i4 − 4i0 = 0 ; (4.4.11)

i4 + 5i0 = −20 ; (4.4.12)

Solving the simultaneous equations yields,

60
i0 = − A ; (4.4.13)
17
Now substituting Eqs. (4.4.8) and (4.4.13) into Eq. (4.4.1) gives,
8
i0 = i0 + i0 = − A = −0.4706A ;
17

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[Example 4.5]
For the circuit in Fig. 7, use the Where i1 , i2 , and i3 are due to the
superposition theorem to find i . 12V , 24V , and 3A sources
24V respectively.
8
To get i1 , consider the circuit of the
form of Fig. 8(a).
4 4
i 8
12V 3 3A
4 4
i1
Figure 7: 12V 3

[Solution] (a)
In this case, we have three sources. Let Figure 8:
i = i1 + i2 + i3 ;
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[Example 4.5] [Solution] Cont’d
24V
8 8

ia
4 4
4 v1 4
i2 v2
i3
ib 3
3 3A

(b)
Figure 8: (c)
Performing the following reduction,
(12)(4) Applying mesh analysis to Fig. 8(b)
Req = (4 + 8) 4 = = 3 ;
16 yields,
Thus, 16ia − 4ib + 24 = 0 ; i.e.,
12 (4.5.1)
i1 = = 2A ; 4ia − ib = −6
6
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[Example 4.5] [Solution] Cont’d
And that,
7
7ia − 4ib = 0 ; i.e., ia = ib ; (4.5.2)
4
Substituting Eq. (4.5.2) into Eq. (4.5.1) gives
i2 = ib = −1A ;
Using nodal analysis in Fig. 8(c) yields,
 v2   v2 − v1 
3=  +  ; i.e., 24 = 3v2 − 2v1 ; (4.5.3)
 8   4 
 v2 − v1   v1   v1  10
  =   +   ; i.e., v2 = v1 ; (4.5.4)
 4   4   3  3
Substituting Eq. (4.5.4) into Eq. (4.5.3) yields,
v1
v1 = 3 V ; i.e., i3 = = 1A ;
3
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[Example 4.5] [Solution] Cont’d
Therfore,
i = i1 + i2 + i3 = 2 − 1 + 1 = 2A ;

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4.4 Source Transformation
We have noticed that series-parallel combination and wye-delta transformation help
simplify circuits.
Source transformation is another tool for simplifying circuits.
Fundamental to these tools is the concept of equivalence.
We recall that an equivalent circuit is one whose v -i characteristics are identical
with the original circuit.
Thus, is expedient in circuit analysis to be able to substitute a voltage source in
series with a resistor for a current source in parallel with a resistor, or vice versa, as
shown in Fig. 9. Either substitution is known as source transformation.
R
a a

vs is R

Figure 9: b b

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4.4 Source Transformation Cont’d
A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source vs in series
with a resistor R by a current source is in parallel with a resistor R , or vice
versa.

Vividly, the two circuits in Fig. 9 are equivalent provided they have the same
voltage-current relation at terminals a -b .
Proof is easy!
If the sources are turned off, the equivalent resistance at terminals a -b in both
circuits is R.
Also, when terminals a -b are short-circuited, the short-circuit current flowing from
a to b is isc = vs R in the circuit on the left-hand side and isc = is in the circuit
on the right-hand side.
Thus, vs R = is in order for the two circuits to be equivalent.
It follows that source transformations dictates that,

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4.4 Source Transformation Cont’d
It follows that source transformations dictates that,
vs
vs = is R ; or is = ; (4.5)
R
It is worth noting that source transformation applies to dependent sources, provided
we carefully handle the dependent variable as illustrated in Fig. 10.

R
a a

vs is R

b b
Figure 10:

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4.4 Source Transformation Cont’d

Nonetheless, when applying source transformation we ought to keep the following

points in mind.
 Note from Fig. 9 (or Fig. 10) that the arrow of the current source is directed toward
the positive terminal of the voltage source.
 Note from Eq. (4.5) that source transformation is not possible when R = 0 , which
is the case with an ideal voltage. However, for a practical, nonideal voltage source,
R  0 . Similarly, an ideal current source with R =  cannot be replaced by a finite
voltage source.

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[Example 4.6]
Use source transformation to find Combining the 4  and 2
v 0 in the circuit of Fig. 11. resistors in series and transforming the
12V voltage source gives us Fig.
2 3 12(b).
We now combine the 3 and 6
4 3A 8 v0 12 V resistors in parallel to get 2 .
We also combine the 2A and 4A
current sources to get a 2A source.
Figure 11:

[Solution] 4 2

We first transform the current 12 V 8 v0 3 4A

and voltage source to obtain
the circuit of the form of Fig. Figure 12: (a)
12(a).

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[Example 4.6] [Solution] Cont’d

2A 6 8 v0 3 4A i
8 v0 2 2A
(b)

Figure 12: (c)

Thus, by repeatedly applying source transformations, we obtain the circuit in Fig.

12(c).
Using current division in Fig. 12(c) yields,
 2 
i=  (2) = 0.4 A ; i.e., v 0 = 8i = 8(0.4) = 3.2 V ;
2 + 8 
Alternatively,
(8)(2) 
v 0 = (8  2 )(2A)i =   (2) ; i.e., v 0 = 3.2 V ;
 10 
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[Example 4.7]
Find vx in Fig. 13 using source We transform this dependent current
transformation. source as well as the 6V independent
4 voltage source a shown in Fig. 14(a).
The 18 V voltage source is not
0.25vx transformed because it is not connected in
2
series with any resistor.
The two 2 resistors in parallel
6V 2 vx 18V
combine to give a 1 ., which is in
parallel with the 3A current source.
Figure 13: The current source is transformed to a
voltage source as shown in Fig. 14(b).
[Solution]  Notice that the terminals for vx are
intact.
The circuit in Fig. 13 involves a Applying KVL around the loop in Fig.
voltage-controlled dependent current 14(b) yields,
source.
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[Example 4.7] [Solution] Cont’d
vx Substituting Eq. (4.7.2) into Eq.
4
(4.7.1), we obtain
3A 2 2 vx 18V 15 + 5i + 3 − i = 0 ; i.e.,
i = −4.5A ;
(a)

Figure 14: 1 4
vx

−3 + 5i + vx + 18 = 0 ; (4.7.1)
3V vx i 18V
Applying KVL to the loop
containing only the
voltage source, the 1 (b)
resistor, and vx yields, Alternatively,
−3 + i + vx = 0 ; i.e., −vx + 4i + vx + 18 = 0 ; i.e., i = −4.5A
vx = 3 − i ; (4.7.2)  vx = 3 − i = 7.5 V ;

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End of Lecture 4

Thank you for your attention!

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