Queueing theory

Queueing theory is the mathematical study of waiting lines, or

queues.[1] A queueing model is constructed so that queue lengths
and waiting time can be predicted.[1] Queueing theory is generally
considered a branch of operations research because the results are
often used when making business decisions about the resources
needed to provide a service.

Queueing theory has its origins in research by Agner Krarup

Erlang, who created models to describe the system of incoming
calls at the Copenhagen Telephone Exchange Company.[1] These
ideas have since seen applications in telecommunication, traffic
Queue networks are systems in
engineering, computing,[2] project management, and particularly which single queues are connected
industrial engineering, where they are applied in the design of by a routing network. In this image,
factories, shops, offices, and hospitals.[3][4] servers are represented by circles,
queues by a series of rectangles and
Spelling the routing network by arrows. In the
study of queue networks one
typically tries to obtain the
The spelling "queueing" over "queuing" is typically encountered in
equilibrium distribution of the
the academic research field. In fact, one of the flagship journals of network, although in many
the field is Queueing Systems. applications the study of the
transient state is fundamental.
Single queueing nodes
A queue or queueing node can be thought of as nearly a black box. Jobs (also called customers or requests,
depending on the field) arrive to the queue, possibly wait some time, take some time being processed, and
then depart from the queue.

A black box. Jobs arrive to, and depart from, the

queue.

However, the queueing node is not quite a pure black box since some information is needed about the
inside of the queuing node. The queue has one or more servers which can each be paired with an arriving
job. When the job is completed and departs, that server will again be free to be paired with another arriving
job.
 A queueing node with 3 servers. Server a is idle, and thus an arrival
is given to it to process. Server b is currently busy and will take
some time before it can complete service of its job. Server c has
just completed service of a job and thus will be next to receive an
arriving job.

An analogy often used is that of the cashier at a supermarket. (There are other models, but this one is
commonly encountered in the literature.) Customers arrive, are processed by the cashier, and depart. Each
cashier processes one customer at a time, and hence this is a queueing node with only one server. A setting
where a customer will leave immediately if the cashier is busy when the customer arrives, is referred to as a
queue with no buffer (or no waiting area). A setting with a waiting zone for up to n customers is called a
queue with a buffer of size n.

Birth-death process

The behaviour of a single queue (also called a queueing node) can be described by a birth–death process,
which describes the arrivals and departures from the queue, along with the number of jobs currently in the
system. If k denotes the number of jobs in the system (either being serviced or waiting if the queue has a
buffer of waiting jobs), then an arrival increases k by 1 and a departure decreases k by 1.

The system transitions between values of k by "births" and "deaths", which occur at the arrival rates and
the departure rates for each job . For a queue, these rates are generally considered not to vary with the
number of jobs in the queue, so a single average rate of arrivals/departures per unit time is assumed. Under
this assumption, this process has an arrival rate of and a departure rate of
.

A birth–death process. The values in the circles represent the state of the system, which evolves based on
arrival rates λi and departure rates μi.
 A queue with 1 server, arrival rate λ and
departure rate μ

Balance equations

The steady state equations for the birth-and-death process, known as the balance equations, are as follows.
Here denotes the steady state probability to be in state n.

The first two equations imply

and

By mathematical induction,

The condition leads to

which, together with the equation for , fully describes the required steady state probabilities.

Kendall's notation

Single queueing nodes are usually described using Kendall's notation in the form A/S/c where A describes
the distribution of durations between each arrival to the queue, S the distribution of service times for jobs,
and c the number of servers at the node.[5][6] For an example of the notation, the M/M/1 queue is a simple
model where a single server serves jobs that arrive according to a Poisson process (where inter-arrival
durations are exponentially distributed) and have exponentially distributed service times (the M denotes a
Markov process). In an M/G/1 queue, the G stands for "general" and indicates an arbitrary probability
distribution for service times.

Example analysis of an M/M/1 queue

Consider a queue with one server and the following characteristics:

: the arrival rate (the reciprocal of the expected time between each customer arriving, e.g.
10 customers per second)
: the reciprocal of the mean service time (the expected number of consecutive service
completions per the same unit time, e.g. per 30 seconds)
n: the parameter characterizing the number of customers in the system
: the probability of there being n customers in the system in steady state

Further, let represent the number of times the system enters state n, and represent the number of
times the system leaves state n. Then for all n. That is, the number of times the
system leaves a state differs by at most 1 from the number of times it enters that state, since it will either
return into that state at some time in the future ( ) or not ( ).

When the system arrives at a steady state, the arrival rate should be equal to the departure rate.

Thus the balance equations

imply

The fact that leads to the geometric distribution formula

where .

Simple two-equation queue

A common basic queuing system is attributed to Erlang and is a modification of Little's Law. Given an
arrival rate λ, a dropout rate σ, and a departure rate μ, length of the queue L is defined as:

.
Assuming an exponential distribution for the rates, the waiting time W can be defined as the proportion of
arrivals that are served. This is equal to the exponential survival rate of those who do not drop out over the
waiting period, giving:

The second equation is commonly rewritten as:

The two-stage one-box model is common in epidemiology.[7]

History

In 1909, Agner Krarup Erlang, a Danish engineer who worked for the Copenhagen Telephone Exchange,
published the first paper on what would now be called queueing theory.[8][9][10] He modeled the number of
telephone calls arriving at an exchange by a Poisson process and solved the M/D/1 queue in 1917 and
M/D/k queueing model in 1920.[11] In Kendall's notation:

M stands for "Markov" or "memoryless", and means arrivals occur according to a Poisson
process
D stands for "deterministic", and means jobs arriving at the queue require a fixed amount of
service
k describes the number of servers at the queueing node (k = 1, 2, 3, ...)

If the node has more jobs than servers, then jobs will queue and wait for service.

The M/G/1 queue was solved by Felix Pollaczek in 1930,[12] a solution later recast in probabilistic terms by
Aleksandr Khinchin and now known as the Pollaczek–Khinchine formula.[11][13]

After the 1940s, queueing theory became an area of research interest to mathematicians.[13] In 1953, David
George Kendall solved the GI/M/k queue[14] and introduced the modern notation for queues, now known
as Kendall's notation. In 1957, Pollaczek studied the GI/G/1 using an integral equation.[15] John Kingman
gave a formula for the mean waiting time in a G/G/1 queue, now known as Kingman's formula.[16]

Leonard Kleinrock worked on the application of queueing theory to message switching in the early 1960s
and packet switching in the early 1970s. His initial contribution to this field was his doctoral thesis at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1962, published in book form in 1964. His theoretical work
published in the early 1970s underpinned the use of packet switching in the ARPANET, a forerunner to the
Internet.

The matrix geometric method and matrix analytic methods have allowed queues with phase-type distributed
inter-arrival and service time distributions to be considered.[17]

Systems with coupled orbits are an important part in queueing theory in the application to wireless
networks and signal processing.[18]
Modern day application of queueing theory concerns among other things product development where
(material) products have a spatiotemporal existence, in the sense that products have a certain volume and a
certain duration.[19]

Problems such as performance metrics for the M/G/k queue remain an open problem.[11][13]

Service disciplines
Various scheduling policies can be used at
queuing nodes:

First in, first out

Also called first-come, first-served
(FCFS),[20] this principle states that
customers are served one at a time
and that the customer that has been
waiting the longest is served first.[21]

Last in, first out

This principle also serves customers
one at a time, but the customer with
the shortest waiting time will be
First in first out (FIFO) queue example
served first.[21] Also known as a
stack.

Processor sharing
Service capacity is shared equally between customers.[21]

Priority
Customers with high priority are served first.[21] Priority queues can be of two types: non-
preemptive (where a job in service cannot be interrupted) and preemptive (where a job in
service can be interrupted by a higher-priority job). No work is lost in either model.[22]

Shortest job first

The next job to be served is the one with the smallest size.[23]

Preemptive shortest job first

The next job to be served is the one with the smallest original size.[24]

Shortest remaining processing time

The next job to serve is the one with the smallest remaining processing requirement.[25]

Service facility

Single server: customers line up and there is only one server

Several parallel servers (single queue): customers line up and there are several servers
Several parallel servers (several queues): there are many counters and customers can
decide for which to queue

Unreliable server
Server failures occur according to a stochastic (random) process (usually Poisson) and are followed by
setup periods during which the server is unavailable. The interrupted customer remains in the service area
until server is fixed.[26]

Customer waiting behavior

Balking: customers decide not to join the queue if it is too long

Jockeying: customers switch between queues if they think they will get served faster by
doing so
Reneging: customers leave the queue if they have waited too long for service

Arriving customers not served (either due to the queue having no buffer, or due to balking or reneging by
the customer) are also known as dropouts. The average rate of dropouts is a significant parameter
describing a queue.

Queueing networks
Queue networks are systems in which multiple queues are connected by customer routing. When a
customer is serviced at one node, it can join another node and queue for service, or leave the network.

For networks of m nodes, the state of the system can be described by an m–dimensional vector (x1 , x2 , ...,
xm) where xi represents the number of customers at each node.

The simplest non-trivial networks of queues are called tandem queues.[27] The first significant results in this
area were Jackson networks,[28][29] for which an efficient product-form stationary distribution exists and
the mean value analysis[30] (which allows average metrics such as throughput and sojourn times) can be
computed.[31] If the total number of customers in the network remains constant, the network is called a
closed network and has been shown to also have a product–form stationary distribution by the Gordon–
Newell theorem.[32] This result was extended to the BCMP network,[33] where a network with very
general service time, regimes, and customer routing is shown to also exhibit a product–form stationary
distribution. The normalizing constant can be calculated with the Buzen's algorithm, proposed in 1973.[34]

Networks of customers have also been investigated, such as Kelly networks, where customers of different
classes experience different priority levels at different service nodes.[35] Another type of network are G-
networks, first proposed by Erol Gelenbe in 1993:[36] these networks do not assume exponential time
distributions like the classic Jackson network.

Routing algorithms

In discrete-time networks where there is a constraint on which service nodes can be active at any time, the
max-weight scheduling algorithm chooses a service policy to give optimal throughput in the case that each
job visits only a single-person service node.[20] In the more general case where jobs can visit more than one
node, backpressure routing gives optimal throughput. A network scheduler must choose a queueing
algorithm, which affects the characteristics of the larger network.

Mean-field limits
Mean-field models consider the limiting behaviour of the empirical measure (proportion of queues in
different states) as the number of queues m approaches infinity. The impact of other queues on any given
queue in the network is approximated by a differential equation. The deterministic model converges to the
same stationary distribution as the original model.[37]

Heavy traffic/diffusion approximations

In a system with high occupancy rates (utilisation near 1), a heavy traffic approximation can be used to
approximate the queueing length process by a reflected Brownian motion,[38] Ornstein–Uhlenbeck process,
or more general diffusion process.[39] The number of dimensions of the Brownian process is equal to the
number of queueing nodes, with the diffusion restricted to the non-negative orthant.

Fluid limits

Fluid models are continuous deterministic analogs of queueing networks obtained by taking the limit when
the process is scaled in time and space, allowing heterogeneous objects. This scaled trajectory converges to
a deterministic equation which allows the stability of the system to be proven. It is known that a queueing
network can be stable but have an unstable fluid limit.[40]

See also
Ehrenfest model
Erlang unit
Line management
Network simulation
Project production management
Queue area
Queueing delay
Queue management system
Queuing Rule of Thumb
Random early detection
Renewal theory
Throughput
Scheduling (computing)
Traffic jam
Traffic generation model
Flow network

References
1. Sundarapandian, V. (2009). "7. Queueing Theory". Probability, Statistics and Queueing
Theory. PHI Learning. ISBN 978-8120338449.
2. Lawrence W. Dowdy, Virgilio A.F. Almeida, Daniel A. Menasce. "Performance by Design:
Computer Capacity Planning by Example" (http://www.cs.gmu.edu/~menasce/perfbyd/).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160506025515/http://cs.gmu.edu/~menasce/perfby
d/) from the original on 2016-05-06. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
 3. Schlechter, Kira (March 2, 2009). "Hershey Medical Center to open redesigned emergency
room" (http://www.pennlive.com/midstate/index.ssf/2009/03/hershey_med_to_open_redesig
ned.html). The Patriot-News. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160629151917/http://
www.pennlive.com/midstate/index.ssf/2009/03/hershey_med_to_open_redesigned.html)
from the original on June 29, 2016. Retrieved March 12, 2009.
4. Mayhew, Les; Smith, David (December 2006). Using queuing theory to analyse completion
times in accident and emergency departments in the light of the Government 4-hour target (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20210907100556/https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/2309/).
Cass Business School. ISBN 978-1-905752-06-5. Archived from the original (https://openac
cess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/2309/) on September 7, 2021. Retrieved 2008-05-20.
5. Tijms, H.C, Algorithmic Analysis of Queues, Chapter 9 in A First Course in Stochastic
Models, Wiley, Chichester, 2003
6. Kendall, D. G. (1953). "Stochastic Processes Occurring in the Theory of Queues and their
Analysis by the Method of the Imbedded Markov Chain" (https://doi.org/10.1214%2Faoms%
2F1177728975). The Annals of Mathematical Statistics. 24 (3): 338–354.
doi:10.1214/aoms/1177728975 (https://doi.org/10.1214%2Faoms%2F1177728975).
JSTOR 2236285 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2236285).
7. Hernández-Suarez, Carlos (2010). "An application of queuing theory to SIS and SEIS
epidemic models" (https://doi.org/10.3934%2Fmbe.2010.7.809). Math. Biosci. 7 (4): 809–
823. doi:10.3934/mbe.2010.7.809 (https://doi.org/10.3934%2Fmbe.2010.7.809).
PMID 21077709 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21077709).
8. "Agner Krarup Erlang (1878-1929) | plus.maths.org" (http://pass.maths.org.uk/issue2/erlang/i
ndex.html). Pass.maths.org.uk. 1997-04-30. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20081007
225944/http://pass.maths.org.uk/issue2/erlang/index.html) from the original on 2008-10-07.
Retrieved 2013-04-22.
9. Asmussen, S. R.; Boxma, O. J. (2009). "Editorial introduction". Queueing Systems. 63 (1–4):
1–2. doi:10.1007/s11134-009-9151-8 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11134-009-9151-8).
S2CID 45664707 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:45664707).
10. Erlang, Agner Krarup (1909). "The theory of probabilities and telephone conversations" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20111001212934/http://oldwww.com.dtu.dk/teletraffic/erlangbook/pp
s131-137.pdf) (PDF). Nyt Tidsskrift for Matematik B. 20: 33–39. Archived from the original (ht
tp://oldwww.com.dtu.dk/teletraffic/erlangbook/pps131-137.pdf) (PDF) on 2011-10-01.
11. Kingman, J. F. C. (2009). "The first Erlang century—and the next". Queueing Systems. 63
(1–4): 3–4. doi:10.1007/s11134-009-9147-4 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11134-009-9147-
4). S2CID 38588726 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38588726).
12. Pollaczek, F., Ueber eine Aufgabe der Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie, Math. Z. 1930
13. Whittle, P. (2002). "Applied Probability in Great Britain" (https://doi.org/10.1287%2Fopre.50.
1.227.17792). Operations Research. 50 (1): 227–239. doi:10.1287/opre.50.1.227.17792 (http
s://doi.org/10.1287%2Fopre.50.1.227.17792). JSTOR 3088474 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/
3088474).
14. Kendall, D.G.:Stochastic processes occurring in the theory of queues and their analysis by
the method of the imbedded Markov chain, Ann. Math. Stat. 1953
15. Pollaczek, F., Problèmes Stochastiques posés par le phénomène de formation d'une queue
16. Kingman, J. F. C.; Atiyah (October 1961). "The single server queue in heavy traffic".
Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 57 (4): 902.
Bibcode:1961PCPS...57..902K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1961PCPS...57..902K).
doi:10.1017/S0305004100036094 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0305004100036094).
JSTOR 2984229 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2984229). S2CID 62590290 (https://api.seman
ticscholar.org/CorpusID:62590290).
17. Ramaswami, V. (1988). "A stable recursion for the steady state vector in markov chains of
m/g/1 type". Communications in Statistics. Stochastic Models. 4: 183–188.
doi:10.1080/15326348808807077 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15326348808807077).
18. Morozov, E. (2017). "Stability analysis of a multiclass retrial system withcoupled orbit
queues". Proceedings of 14th European Workshop. Lecture Notes in Computer Science.
Vol. 17. pp. 85–98. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-66583-2_6 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319
-66583-2_6). ISBN 978-3-319-66582-5.
19. "Simulation and queueing network modeling of single-product production campaigns" (http
s://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0098135492800185). ScienceDirect.
20. Manuel, Laguna (2011). Business Process Modeling, Simulation and Design (https://books.
google.com/books?id=d-V8c8YRJikC&q=%22First-come%2C+first-served%22+business&p
g=PA178). Pearson Education India. p. 178. ISBN 9788131761359. Retrieved 6 October
2017.
21. Penttinen A., Chapter 8 – Queueing Systems, Lecture Notes: S-38.145 - Introduction to
Teletraffic Theory.
22. Harchol-Balter, M. (2012). "Scheduling: Non-Preemptive, Size-Based Policies".
Performance Modeling and Design of Computer Systems. pp. 499–507.
doi:10.1017/CBO9781139226424.039 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139226424.03
9). ISBN 9781139226424.
23. Andrew S. Tanenbaum; Herbert Bos (2015). Modern Operating Systems (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=9gqnngEACAAJ). Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-359162-0.
24. Harchol-Balter, M. (2012). "Scheduling: Preemptive, Size-Based Policies". Performance
Modeling and Design of Computer Systems. pp. 508–517.
doi:10.1017/CBO9781139226424.040 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139226424.04
0). ISBN 9781139226424.
25. Harchol-Balter, M. (2012). "Scheduling: SRPT and Fairness". Performance Modeling and
Design of Computer Systems. pp. 518–530. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139226424.041 (https://d
oi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139226424.041). ISBN 9781139226424.
26. Dimitriou, I. (2019). "A Multiclass Retrial System With Coupled Orbits And Service
Interruptions: Verification of Stability Conditions". Proceedings of FRUCT 24. 7: 75–82.
27. "Archived copy" (http://www.stats.ox.ac.uk/~winkel/bs3a07l13-14.pdf#page=4) (PDF).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170329085928/http://www.stats.ox.ac.uk/~winkel/b
s3a07l13-14.pdf#page=4) (PDF) from the original on 2017-03-29. Retrieved 2018-08-02.
28. Jackson, J. R. (1957). "Networks of Waiting Lines". Operations Research. 5 (4): 518–521.
doi:10.1287/opre.5.4.518 (https://doi.org/10.1287%2Fopre.5.4.518). JSTOR 167249 (https://
www.jstor.org/stable/167249).
29. Jackson, James R. (Oct 1963). "Jobshop-like Queueing Systems". Management Science. 10
(1): 131–142. doi:10.1287/mnsc.1040.0268 (https://doi.org/10.1287%2Fmnsc.1040.0268).
JSTOR 2627213 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2627213).
30. Reiser, M.; Lavenberg, S. S. (1980). "Mean-Value Analysis of Closed Multichain Queuing
Networks". Journal of the ACM. 27 (2): 313. doi:10.1145/322186.322195 (https://doi.org/10.1
145%2F322186.322195). S2CID 8694947 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86949
47).
31. Van Dijk, N. M. (1993). "On the arrival theorem for communication networks" (https://researc
h.vu.nl/ws/files/73611045/Scanjob%20199100081). Computer Networks and ISDN
Systems. 25 (10): 1135–2013. doi:10.1016/0169-7552(93)90073-D (https://doi.org/10.1016%
2F0169-7552%2893%2990073-D). S2CID 45218280 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpu
sID:45218280). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190924062816/https://research.vu.
nl/ws/files/73611045/Scanjob%2520199100081) from the original on 2019-09-24. Retrieved
2019-09-24.
32. Gordon, W. J.; Newell, G. F. (1967). "Closed Queuing Systems with Exponential Servers".
Operations Research. 15 (2): 254. doi:10.1287/opre.15.2.254 (https://doi.org/10.1287%2Fopr
e.15.2.254). JSTOR 168557 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/168557).
33. Baskett, F.; Chandy, K. Mani; Muntz, R.R.; Palacios, F.G. (1975). "Open, closed and mixed
networks of queues with different classes of customers". Journal of the ACM. 22 (2): 248–
260. doi:10.1145/321879.321887 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F321879.321887).
S2CID 15204199 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15204199).
34. Buzen, J. P. (1973). "Computational algorithms for closed queueing networks with
exponential servers" (http://www-unix.ecs.umass.edu/~krishna/ece673/buzen.pdf) (PDF).
Communications of the ACM. 16 (9): 527–531. doi:10.1145/362342.362345 (https://doi.org/1
0.1145%2F362342.362345). S2CID 10702 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1070
2). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160513192804/http://www-unix.ecs.umass.edu/
~krishna/ece673/buzen.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2016-05-13. Retrieved 2015-09-01.
35. Kelly, F. P. (1975). "Networks of Queues with Customers of Different Types". Journal of
Applied Probability. 12 (3): 542–554. doi:10.2307/3212869 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3212
869). JSTOR 3212869 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3212869). S2CID 51917794 (https://api.s
emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51917794).
36. Gelenbe, Erol (Sep 1993). "G-Networks with Triggered Customer Movement". Journal of
Applied Probability. 30 (3): 742–748. doi:10.2307/3214781 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3214
781). JSTOR 3214781 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3214781). S2CID 121673725 (https://api.
semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121673725).
37. Bobbio, A.; Gribaudo, M.; Telek, M. S. (2008). "Analysis of Large Scale Interacting Systems
by Mean Field Method". 2008 Fifth International Conference on Quantitative Evaluation of
Systems. p. 215. doi:10.1109/QEST.2008.47 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FQEST.2008.47).
ISBN 978-0-7695-3360-5. S2CID 2714909 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27149
09).
38. Chen, H.; Whitt, W. (1993). "Diffusion approximations for open queueing networks with
service interruptions". Queueing Systems. 13 (4): 335. doi:10.1007/BF01149260 (https://doi.
org/10.1007%2FBF01149260). S2CID 1180930 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1
180930).
39. Yamada, K. (1995). "Diffusion Approximation for Open State-Dependent Queueing Networks
in the Heavy Traffic Situation" (https://doi.org/10.1214%2Faoap%2F1177004602). The
Annals of Applied Probability. 5 (4): 958–982. doi:10.1214/aoap/1177004602 (https://doi.org/
10.1214%2Faoap%2F1177004602). JSTOR 2245101 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/224510
1).
40. Bramson, M. (1999). "A stable queueing network with unstable fluid model" (https://doi.org/1
0.1214%2Faoap%2F1029962815). The Annals of Applied Probability. 9 (3): 818–853.
doi:10.1214/aoap/1029962815 (https://doi.org/10.1214%2Faoap%2F1029962815).
JSTOR 2667284 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2667284).

Further reading
Gross, Donald; Carl M. Harris (1998). Fundamentals of Queueing Theory. Wiley. ISBN 978-
0-471-32812-4. Online (https://books.google.com/books?id=K3lQGeCtAJgC)
Zukerman, Moshe (2013). Introduction to Queueing Theory and Stochastic Teletraffic
Models (http://www.ee.cityu.edu.hk/~zukerman/classnotes.pdf) (PDF). arXiv:1307.2968 (http
s://arxiv.org/abs/1307.2968).
Deitel, Harvey M. (1984) [1982]. An introduction to operating systems (https://archive.org/det
ails/introductiontoopdeit00deit/page/673) (revisited first ed.). Addison-Wesley. p. 673 (https://
archive.org/details/introductiontoopdeit00deit/page/673). ISBN 978-0-201-14502-1. chap.15,
pp. 380–412
 Gelenbe, Erol; Isi Mitrani (2010). Analysis and Synthesis of Computer Systems (https://www.
researchgate.net/publication/345903225). World Scientific 2nd Edition. ISBN 978-1-908978-
42-4.
Newell, Gordron F. (1 June 1971). Applications of Queueing Theory. Chapman and Hall.
Leonard Kleinrock, Information Flow in Large Communication Nets (http://www.lk.cs.ucla.ed
u/bibliography-public_reports.html), (MIT, Cambridge, May 31, 1961) Proposal for a Ph.D.
Thesis
Leonard Kleinrock. Information Flow in Large Communication Nets (RLE Quarterly Progress
Report, July 1961)
Leonard Kleinrock. Communication Nets: Stochastic Message Flow and Delay (McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1964)
Kleinrock, Leonard (2 January 1975). Queueing Systems: Volume I – Theory (https://archive.
org/details/queueingsystems02klei). New York: Wiley Interscience. pp. 417 (https://archive.o
rg/details/queueingsystems02klei/page/417). ISBN 978-0471491101.
Kleinrock, Leonard (22 April 1976). Queueing Systems: Volume II – Computer Applications
(https://archive.org/details/queueingsystems00klei/page/576). New York: Wiley Interscience.
pp. 576 (https://archive.org/details/queueingsystems00klei/page/576). ISBN 978-
0471491118.
Lazowska, Edward D.; John Zahorjan; G. Scott Graham; Kenneth C. Sevcik (1984).
Quantitative System Performance: Computer System Analysis Using Queueing Network
Models (https://archive.org/details/quantitativesyst00lazo). Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 978-0-
13-746975-8.
Jon Kleinberg; Éva Tardos (30 June 2013). Algorithm Design (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=ROiUngEACAAJ). Pearson. ISBN 978-1-292-02394-6.

External links
Queueing theory calculator (http://www.supositorio.com/rcalc/rcalclite.htm)
Teknomo's Queueing theory tutorial and calculators (http://people.revoledu.com/kardi/tutoria
l/Queuing/index.html)
Office Fire Emergency Evacuation Simulation (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=st8HRgH
OErw) on YouTube
Virtamo's Queueing Theory Course (http://www.netlab.tkk.fi/opetus/s383143/kalvot/english.s
html)
Myron Hlynka's Queueing Theory Page (http://web2.uwindsor.ca/math/hlynka/queue.html)
Queueing Theory Basics (https://virtuaq.com/blog/2017-11-23-basics-of-queuing-theory)
A free online tool to solve some classical queueing systems (https://web.archive.org/web/20
111207044006/http://queueing-systems.ens-lyon.fr/)
JMT: an open source graphical environment for queueing theory (http://jmt.sf.net/)
LINE: a general-purpose engine to solve queueing models (http://line-solver.sf.net)
What You Hate Most About Waiting in Line: (It’s not the length of the wait.) (http://www.slate.c
om/articles/business/operations/2012/06/queueing_theory_what_people_hate_most_about
_waiting_in_line_.html), by Seth Stevenson, Slate, 2012 – popular introduction

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Queueing_theory&oldid=1150630805"