Periodic

Motion
CHAPTER 11
Classical Physics 1
IMPORTANT STUFF
01
PERIODIC MOTION

02
PRODUCTION AND
PROPERTIES OF WAVES
03
SOUND BASICS
PERIODIC MOTION
Periodic motion refers
to the motion that is
repeated at regular
intervals of time.
 EQUILIBRIUM
POSITION
Also known as resting
position, is the position
assumed by the body
when it is not vibrating.
RESTORING FORCE
The force that tends to
restore a body from its
displacement to its
equilibrium position.
 AMPLITUDE (A)
The amplitude (A) of vibration
is maximum displacement of
a body from its equilibrium
position.
 PERIOD (T)
The period (T) of a body in
periodic motion is the time
required to make a complete
to-and-fro motion.
 FREQUENCY (f)
The number of cycles per unit
time. Its SI unit is the hertz,
abbreviated as Hz. One hertz
is equal to one cycle per
second.
1
f= Eq. (8.1)
T
 FREQUENCY (f)
Sometimes, angular frequency
(ω) is used instead of
frequency. Angular frequency is
commonly expressed in radians
per second. The relationship
between angular frequency is
given by
2π . Eq. (8.2)
ω = 2πf or ω =
T
SIMPLE HARMONIC
MOTION
Simple Harmonic Motion
(SHM) is a type of periodic
motion where the restoring
force is proportional to the
displacement of the body
from its equilibrium position.
This restoring force acts in a
direction opposite that of the
displacement. In equation,
Fs = –kx Eq. (8.3)
SIMPLE HARMONIC
OSCILLATORS
The systems exhibiting simple
harmonic motion. The
simplest form of a simple
harmonic oscillators is a body
of mass m oscillating on one
end of an elastic spring also
known as the mass-spring
system.
SIMPLE HARMONIC
OSCILLATORS
An external force can cause
objects, like springs, to
stretch or compress by a
certain displacement x. This
force is numerically equal to
the restoring force but
opposite in direction. Thus,
F = kx. Eq. (8.4)

x=0 x=X
 Example Solution
An oscillating body takes 0.8 s (a) We are asked to determine
to complete four cycles. What the time taken to complete on
is the (a) period, (b) frequency, cycle.
(c) angular frequency of the time 0.8 s
body? T= = = 0.2 s
number of cycles 4
 Example Solution
(b) Substituting the value of T in
An oscillating body takes 0.8 s Eq. 8.1
to complete four cycles. What 1 1
f= = = 5 s–1 or 5 Hz
is the (a) period, (b) frequency, T 0.2 s
(c) angular frequency of the (c) ω = 2πf = 2π (5 Hz)
body?
ω = 2πf = 31.42 rad/s
 Example Solution
A force of 3N elongates a spring Using Eq. 8.4 and substituting
by 6 cm. (a) What is the force values,
constant of the spring? (b) How F 3N
much force is needed to a. k = x = = 50 N/m
0.06 m
elongate the spring by an
b. F = kx = (50 N/m)(0.12 m) = 6 N
additional 6 cm?
 Exercise Solution
A vertical spring has a force
constant of 125 N/m. By how
much will the spring be
compressed if a mass of 0.525
kg is placed on top of it?
ENERGY, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION
OF A SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
The total mechanical energy of a mass-spring
system is the sum of its potential and kinetic
energies. In symbols,
1 1
EM = U + K = kx2 + mv2 Eq. (8.5)
2 2
where v is its velocity at a distance x from its
equilibrium position. If there is no friction, the
total mechanical energy of the system remains
constant.
ENERGY, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION
OF A SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
When an object is at its maximum displacement
(amplitude), its velocity, and hence the kinetic
energy, is zero. In this case, displacement x is
replacement by amplitude A. The total energy will
then be
1
EM = kA2.
2
Note that the total amount of mechanical energy is
conserved. Thus,
1 kA2 = 1 kx2 1 mv2.
+ Eq. (8.6)
2 2 2
ENERGY, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION
OF A SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
Using Eq. (8.6), we can express speed as a function
of position.
k
v= (A2 – x2) Eq. (8.7)
m

Note that the speed is maximum when x = 0 or at

the equilibrium position.
ENERGY, VELOCITY, AND ACCELERATION
OF A SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
The acceleration of a simple harmonic oscillator as a
function of position may be obtained using
Newton’s second law of motion.
F kx
a= =– Eq. (8.7)
m m

Note that the acceleration is maximum if the

displacement x is maximum, which is equal to the
amplitude.
 Example Solution
(a) Note that velocity of the
A simple harmonic oscillator oscillator will be maximum if x = 0.
consisting of a 2.5 kg body is Manipulating Eq. 8.7 to solve for A
attached to a spring with a force and substituting values,
constant of 275 N/m. Its maximum
m 2.5 kg
speed is 0.655 m/s. Find its (a) A=v = 0.655 m/s
amplitude and (b) maximum k 275 N/m
acceleration. A = 0.062 m
 Example Solution
(b) Note that acceleration is
A simple harmonic oscillator maximum if the displacement is
consisting of a 2.5 kg body is maximum (equal to the
attached to a spring with a force amplitude). Using Eq. 8.8,

| |
constant of 275 N/m. Its maximum kx – kA
speed is 0.655 m/s. Find its (a) a=– =
m m
amplitude and (b) maximum
(275 N/m)(0.062m)
acceleration. =
2.5 kg
= 6.82 m/s2
 Example Solution
(a) To determine the velocity of
0.65 kg body when it passes its
A 0.65 kg body when attached to a
equilibrium position, we use the
spring of force constant 225 N/m
Eq. 8.7
oscillates with an amplitude of 0.15
m. Find the velocity and k
v= (A2 – x2)
acceleration of the mass when it m
passes its equilibrium position.
225 N/m
= [(0.15)2 – (0)2]
0.65 kg

v = 2.79 m/s
 Example Solution
A 0.65 kg body when attached to a (b) When the mass attached to
spring of force constant 225 N/m the spring passes its equilibrium
oscillates with an amplitude of 0.15 position, x = 0.
m. Find the velocity and
acceleration of the mass when it kx 0
passes its equilibrium position. a =– = =0
m 0.65 kg
 Example
Figure shows an object of mass, m, 0.200 v0 = 0 m/s
kg that is vibrating on a horizontal A
frictionless table. The spring has a spring
constant of k = 545 N/m. The spring is B
stretched initially to x0 = 4.50 cm and is
then released from rest (see part A of C
the drawing). Determine the final
translational speed v of the object when x = 0 cm
the final displacement of the spring is (a)
xf = 2.25 cm and (b) xf = 0 cm.
PERIOD, FREQUENCY, AND ANGULAR
FREQUENCY OF A SIMPLE HARMONIC
OSCILLATOR
Let us consider an oscillating body as a revolving
object that makes one complete revolution
equal to one period T. The speed v of this body
is the circumference of the circle divided by
time. The maximum speed is obtained when the
radius of the circle is equal to the amplitude.
Therefore,
2πA Eq. (8.9)
vmax =
T
PERIOD, FREQUENCY, AND ANGULAR
FREQUENCY OF A SIMPLE HARMONIC
OSCILLATOR
Note that the oscillating body is moving at its
maximum speed when x = 0. Therefore, from Eq.
(8.7)
vmax = A k Eq. (8.10)
m

We can solve for period by combining Eqs. (8.9)

and (8.10).
m
T = 2π Eq. (8.11)
k
PERIOD, FREQUENCY, AND ANGULAR
FREQUENCY OF A SIMPLE HARMONIC
OSCILLATOR
Since frequency is the reciprocal of period,
1 k .
f= Eq. (8.12)
2π m
From equations (8.2) and (8.12), the angular
frequency can be expressed as

ω= k .
m Eq. (8.13)
 Example Solution
When a 2.5 kg object is suspended (a) Manipulating Eq. 8.4 to solve
from a spring, the spring stretches for k and substituting values,
by 0.05 m (a) What is its force
constant? (b) If the suspended F mg (2.5 kg)(9.8 m/s2)
mass is set into vibrations, what will k= x = =
x 0.05 m
be its frequency?
k = 490 N/m.
 Example Solution
When a 2.5 kg object is suspended
from a spring, the spring stretches (b) Using Eq. 8.12,
by 0.05 m (a) What is its force
constant? (b) If the suspended
1 k 490 N/m = 2.23 Hz
mass is set into vibrations, what will f= = 1
2π m 2π 2.5 kg
be its frequency?
 Example Solution
In the laboratory, you attach a 300 We have the mass of an object that
g object to a spring of negligible is 300 g and a period of oscillation
mass and start oscillating it. The that is 2 s. And to determine the
elapsed time from when the object force constant of the spring, we
first moves through the equilibrium use Eq. 8.11
position to the second time it
moves through that point is 2 s. m
Find the force constant of the T = 2π
k
spring.
 Example Solution
In the laboratory, you attach a 300 By manipulating the formula, we
g object to a spring of negligible obtain
mass and start oscillating it. The
4π2m
elapsed time from when the object k=
T2
first moves through the equilibrium
And substituting the given values,
position to the second time it
we have
moves through that point is 2 s.
Find the force constant of the 4π2(0.3 kg)
k= = 2.96 N/m
spring. (2 s)2
 CLASSIFICATION OF
WAVES
Mechanical waves require a
medium to propagate. They
cannot travel in a vacuum. On
the other hand, electromagnetic
waves can travel in a vacuum.
 TRANSVERSE WAVE
One in which the particles of
the medium are vibrating
perpendicularly to the direction
of wave propagation
Crest

Direction of Travel
One Wavelength

Amplitude

Trough

(a)
LONGITUDINAL WAVE
One in which the particles of the
medium vibrate parallel to the
direction of wave propagation

Compression Rarefaction

(b)
BASIC WAVE RELATION
All waves follow the basic relation:
v = fλ Eq. (8.14)
where v is the speed of the wave
in meters per seconds, f is the
frequency in hertz, and λ is the
wavelength in meters. The
equation shows that given a
constant speed, the higher the
frequency, the shorter the
wavelength, and vice versa.
 WAVELENGTH
The distance between two
consecutive points in a wave
train which are in phase with
each other. Two points are in
phase with each other if they
have the same mode of
vibration. Otherwise, then points
are out of phase.
λ
4 10

3 5 9 11

2 6 8 12
7
1 13
λ
 WAVELENGTH
In terms of longitudinal waves,
wavelength is the distance
between any two consecutive
rarefactions or any two
consecutive compressions.
λ
Rarefaction Rarefaction Rarefaction

Compression Compression Compression

λ
SPEED OF TRANSVERSE
WAVE IN A STRING
The speed of a transverse wave in
a string varies directly to the
square root of the tension in the
string and it varies inversely to
the square root of its linear mass
density. In equation form,

T
v= Eq. (8.15)
μ
where T is the tension in N, μ is its
linear mass density in kg/m, and
v is speed in m/s.
LINEAR MASS DENSITY
(μ)
The mass of the string divided by
its length. It may be obtained by
multiplying the mass density ρ by
the cross-sectional area A of the
string.
m
μ= = ρA = ρπr2
l
Therefore,

T
v= Eq. (8.16)
ρπr2
 Example Solution
What is the speed of the wave in a First, we must solve for the linear
guitar string with a length of 0.65 m mass density.
and a mass of 3.5 g when
subjected to a tension of 250 N?
m 0.0035 kg
μ= =
l 0.65 m
= 5.38 × 10–3 kg/m
 Example Solution
What is the speed of the wave in a Using Eq. 8.15 and substituting values,
guitar string with a length of 0.65 m
and a mass of 3.5 g when
subjected to a tension of 250 N? T 250 N
v= =
μ 5.38 × 10–3 kg/m

v = 215.57 m/s
 Example Solution
A rope has a density of 7.5 g/cm3 We have the following given,
and a cross-sectional area of 2 Density: ρ = 7.5 g/cm3 = 7500 kg/m3
cm2. When the rope is subjected to
Area: A = 2 cm2 = 0.0002 m2
a tension of 100 N, and one end is
vibrated up and down with a We now substitute the converted
frequency of 25 Hz, what is the (a) values to obtained μ,
velocity of the transverse wave in
μ = ρA
the rope and (b) wavelength in the
rope? μ = (7500 kg/m3)(0.0002 m2)
μ = 1.5 kg/m
 Example Solution
A rope has a density of 7.5 g/cm3 (a) Using Eq. 8.15
and a cross-sectional area of 2 100 N = 8.17 m/s
v= T =
cm2. When the rope is subjected to μ 1.5 kg/m
a tension of 100 N, and one end is
vibrated up and down with a
(b) And to solve for the
frequency of 25 Hz, what is the (a)
velocity of the transverse wave in wavelength in the rope, we use Eq.
the rope and (b) wavelength in the 8.14
v 8.17 m/s
rope? λ= = = 3.27
f 25 Hz
 SPEED OF
LONGITUDINAL WAVE
Elastic modulus refers to the ratio
of force applied to an object that
measures the object’s resistance
from being deformed elastically.
The speed of a longitudinal wave
is given by the equation
E
v= ρ

where E is the elastic modulus of

the medium in N/m2 and ρ its
density in kg/m3.
 SPEED OF
LONGITUDINAL WAVE
Specifically, for solids,

Y
v= ρ Eq. (8.17)

where Y is the Young’s modulus

of the solid and ρ is its density.
 SPEED OF
LONGITUDINAL WAVE
For fluids,

β
v= ρ Eq. (8.18)

where β is the bulk modulus of

the fluid and ρ is its density.
 SPEED OF
LONGITUDINAL WAVE
For gases, it can be shown that β
= γP, where P, is the pressure in
N/m2 and γ is the ratio of the
specific heat of gas at constant
pressure to its specific heat at
constant volume. Thus,
γP
v= Eq. (8.19)
ρ
 SPEED OF
LONGITUDINAL WAVE
If the gas is ideal,
γRT
v= Eq. (8.19)
M
where R is the universal gas constant
equal to 8.314 J/mol∙K, T is the
temperature in kelvin, and M is the
molar mass in kg/mol. γ has an
approximate value of 1.40 for air and
other atomic gases. It is
approximately equal to 1.66 for
monoatomic gases.
 Example Solution
A dynamite explodes, and its sound In seawater,
propagates through the sea where the
temperature is 25oC. The sound of the
β 2 × 109 N/m2
v= ρ =
explosion also propagates through air 1025 kg/m3
at a temperature of 25oC. What will be
the difference in the time of arrivals
= 1.39 × 103 m/s.
between the two signals at a station And so,
that is 5 km away? (bulk modulus of d 5000 m
seawater = 2 × 109 N/m2; density of t= = = 3.59 s
water = 1,025 kg/m3; molar mass of air
v 1.39 × 103 m/s
= 0.029 kg/mol)
 Example Solution
A dynamite explodes, and its sound In air,
propagates through the sea where the
temperature is 25oC. The sound of the v= γRT
explosion also propagates through air M
at a temperature of 25oC. What will be
the difference in the time of arrivals (1.40)(8.314 J/mol·K)(298.15 K)
=
between the two signals at a station 0.029 kg/mol
that is 5 km away? (bulk modulus of
seawater = 2 × 109 N/m2; density of = 345.93 m/s
water = 1,025 kg/m3; molar mass of air d 5000 m
And so, t = =
= 0.029 kg/mol) v 345.93 m/s
= 14.45 s
 Example Solution
A dynamite explodes, and its sound
propagates through the sea where the
temperature is 25oC. The sound of the
explosion also propagates through air We, then, now compute the time
at a temperature of 25oC. What will be difference
the difference in the time of arrivals
between the two signals at a station = 14.45 s – 3.59 s = 10.86 s.
that is 5 km away? (bulk modulus of
Therefore, the time of their arrivals
seawater = 2 × 109 N/m2; density of
water = 1,025 kg/m3; molar mass of air
differs by 10.86 s.
= 0.029 kg/mol)
 Example Solution
What is the ratio of the velocity of
sound in helium gas to that in air
at the same pressure and γRT (1.66)RT
temperature? Based on your vHe = = (1)
M 0.004 kg/mol
answer, can you explain why you
will sound funny if you happen to
inhale helium gas and speak? γRT (1.40)RT
vair = = (2)
M 0.029 kg/mol
 Example Solution
What is the ratio of the velocity of Divide (1) by (2) to get the ratio of
sound in helium gas to that in air vHe to vair,
at the same pressure and
temperature? Based on your (1.66)RT
answer, can you explain why you vHe 0.004 kg/mol
will sound funny if you happen to =
vair
inhale helium gas and speak? (1.40)RT
0.029 kg/mol
vHe
= 2.93
vair
 SPEED OF SOUND
The speed of sound in a medium like
solid, or gas can be determined using
Eqs. (8.17) to (8.19). The effect of
temperature on the speed of sound in
solids and liquids is negligible but not
for gases. Air is common medium
where sound travels. The speed of
sound in air as a function of
temperature was determined by Isaac
Newton and is given by Eq. (8.20),

v = 331 m/s + (0.6 m/s ∙ oC)Tc. Eq. (8.20)

 SPEED OF SOUND
The speed of sound in a medium like
solid, or gas can be determined using
Eqs. (8.17) to (8.19). The effect of
temperature on the speed of sound in
solids and liquids is negligible but not
for gases. Air is common medium
where sound travels. The speed of
sound in air as a function of
temperature was determined by Isaac
Newton and is given by Eq. (8.20),

v = 331 m/s + (0.6 m/s ∙ oC)Tc. Eq. (8.20)

 PITCH
Pitch refers to the highness or
lowness of a sound.
 LOUDNESS
Loudness of sound is strongly
associated with intensity. Sound
intensity is perceived by the
human ear as loudness. Greater
intensity means louder sound. The
human ear can tolerate a wide
range of intensities. The faintest
sound that we can hear is called
threshold of hearing and has
intensity of 10–12 W/m2. The loudest
tolerable but painful sound has an
intensity of 1 W/m2. This intensity is
called the threshold of pain.
 LOUDNESS
Intensities of sound are
oftentimes compared on a
logarithmic scale. The unit of
sound intensity level β on this scale
is defined by Eq. (8.21). The unit of
intensity level in this scale is
decibel, abbreviated as dB.
I
β = 10 log Eq. (8.21)
I0
where I0 is the threshold of
hearing equal to 1 × 10–12 W/m2.
 QUALITY
Quality or timbre is a property
of a tone that distinguishes it
from another tone of the same
pitch and intensity produced
by a different instrument.
 Example Solution
Given the threshold of human We determine the sound level of
hearing is 10-12 W/m2, what is the sound with intensity 10-10 W/m2
sound level in decibels of a sound using Eq. 8.21.
with intensity 10-10 W/m2? β = 10 log I
I0
Then, substituting the given values
we now have
1 × 10-10 W/m2
β = 10 log
1 × 10–12 W/m2
= 10 (2) = 20 dB
 Example Solution
At a busy street corner, the sound To determine the intensity, I, we
level is 75 dB. What is the intensity use Eq. 8.21. Substituting the
of sound there? values, we obtain
I
75 dB = 10 log
I0
Dividing both sides by 10 and
converting log expression to
exponential form, we obtain
I I
7.5 dB = log → 107.5 =
I0 I0
 Example Solution
At a busy street corner, the sound Since I0 is the threshold of hearing
level is 75 dB. What is the intensity equal to 1 × 10–12 W/m2, then
of sound there?
I
107.5 =
1 × 10–12 W/m2
107.5 (1 × 10–12 W/m2) = I
3.16 × 10–5 W/m2 = I