System Transfer Function

and
Responses

Prepared by Radhika Kumari Sah

Transfer function

Representation of this block

 Transfer function
• It represent the relationship between the output signal and the input
signal of a control system, for all possible input values.

 The ratio of the Laplace transform of the output variable to Laplace

transform of the input variable assuming all initial conditions to be
zero.
Basic Elements of Block Diagram
1. a block,
2. the summing point and
3. the take-off point.

Fig: block diagram of a closed loop control system

 Block
 The transfer function of a component is represented by a block.

 Block has single input and single output.

 The following figure shows a block having input X(s), output Y(s) and the transfer
function G(s)
Summing Point
 Take-off Point

 The take-off point is a point from which the

same input signal can be passed through
more than one branch.

 Or, the take-off point is used to connect

the output C(s), as one of the inputs to
the summing point.
Basic Connections for Blocks:
1. Series connection/cascade connection

Y(s) = G2(s)Z(s) Where, Z(s)=G1(s)X(s)

Y(s) = G2(s)[G1(s)X(s)]
= G1(s)G2(s)X(s)
Y(s) = [G1(s)G2(s)] X(s)

Compare this equation with the standard form of the output equation, Y(s)=G(s)X(s)

G(s) = G1(s)G2(s)
 2. Parallel Connection
The two blocks are said to be in parallel
if they have the same input, two transfer
functions and the outputs of these two
blocks are connected to the summing
point.

Y(s)=Y1(s)+Y2(s)
Where, Y1(s)=G1(s)X(s)
and Y2(s)=G2(s)X(s)
Y(s)=G1(s)X(s)+G2(s)X(s)= [G1(s)+G2(s)] X(s)
Compare this equation with the standard form of the output equation, Y(s)=G(s)X(s)

We get G(s)=G1(s)+G2(s)
 3. Feedback Connection: Positive feedback and negative feedback

Similarly, you can represent the positive

E(s) = X(s)−H(s)Y(s) feedback connection of two blocks with
The output Y(s): Y(s) = E(s)G(s) a single block (CW)

Y(s) = [X(s)−H(s)Y(s)] G(s)

Y(s) [1+G(s)H(s)] = X(s)G(s)}

Y(s) G(s)
=
X(s) 1+G(s)H(s)
Consider a closed-loop system shown here and find the transfer
function of the system
Now reducing the two blocks in series:
Block Diagram Algebra
1. Shifting summing point after the block

Y(s) = G(s) [R(s)+X(s)]

Y(s) = G(s)R(s)+X(s)
2. Shifting summing point before the block

Y(s)=G(s)R(s)+X(s)

Y(S) = G(s)R(s) + G(s)X(s)

3. Shifting Take-off Point After the Block

X(s)=R(s) G(s)

X(s) = R(s)
4. Shifting Take-off Point Before the Block

X(s) = R(s)
X(s)=G(s)R(s)

X(s)=G(s)R(s)
Interchange of the summing point Splitting/ combining the summing
point
5. Shifting Take-off Point Before the summing point
6. Shifting Take-off Point after the summing point
Summary
Example 1
Parallel
blocks
Series
block
Negative
Feedback
loop
Example 2

1
we have to draw the block diagram after each step.

The block diagram reduction process takes more time

for complicated systems.

So, to overcome this drawback, use signal flow

graphs.

A simple method was developed by Mason known as

signal flow graph
Signal Flow Graph (SFG)
• Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of algebraic equations.

• Basic Elements of Signal Flow Graph : Nodes and branches

• Node is a point which represents either a variable or a signal

• Input Node − It is a node, which has only outgoing branches.
• Output Node − It is a node, which has only incoming branches.
• Mixed Node − It is a node, which has both incoming and outgoing
branches.
Node
Input
node Output
node

Mixed nodes
 Branch

Branch is a line segment which joins two nodes.

 It has both gain and direction.
Construction of Signal Flow Graph
Y1 = input node
Y2 = output nodes

There will be six nodes (y1, y2, y3, y4, y5 and y6)

Step 1: Draw the nodes

. . . . . .
y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6

Step 2: Draw SFG for equation 1

• Step3: y3=a23y2+a53y5:

• Step 4 : y4=a34y3

• step 5: for y5=a45y4+a35y3

• Step6: y6=a56y5

• Signal flow graph of overall system is shown

Conversion of Block Diagrams into Signal Flow Graphs: Steps
1. Represent variables, summing points and take-off points of as nodes.
2. Connect the nodes as per the block diagram.
3. Represent the blocks as branches gain in signal flow graph (‘+’ as +H/
‘-’ as -H).
Note:
1. If summing point is placed after takeoff point in direction of signal flow,
then both are represented by same node.
2. If summing point is placed before takeoff point in direction of signal
flow, then both are represented by separate node
 Separate node
Single node

?
?
1 1 5
2 4

3
Some Important Terminologies
Forward path: It is a path from the input node to the output node.

Loop: It is a path which originates and terminates at the same node.

Non-touching loops: Loops are said to be non-touching if they do not possess any
common node.

Forward path gain & Loop gain: It is the product of the branch gain encountered
in traversing a forward path or loop respectively.

Transmittance: It is the gain between two nodes. It is generally written on the

branch near the arrow.
 Forward Path1
g1 = G12-G23-G34-
G45

Forward Path2
g2 = G12-G23-G35
Loop: 5 loops
 L1 = G23-G32
 L2 = G23-G34-G42
 L3 = G44
 L4 = G23-G34-G45-G52
 L5 = G23-G35-G52

• Non-touching loops:
 L13 = G23-G32 & G44
 L35 = G23-G35-G52 & G44
The Mason's Gain Rule:
(A technique to reduce a signal-flow graph to a single transfer)

Transfer function, C(s)/R(s), : ∆1 = 1 − 0

g
G(s) =
∆2 = 1 − G44

Where,
 k = number of forward path
 g = the kth forward path gain
 = 1 - (Σ loop gains) + (Σ non-touching loop gains taken two at a time) (non-
touching loop gains taken three at a time)+ so on.
 k = 1 - (loop-gain which does not touch the forward path)
Finding Transfer Function of previous question
G(s) =

= where, 1 = 1 - 0 & 2 = 1- G44

=
Find Transfer function of following block diagram using mason gain formula (signal
flow diagram)
 ( ) ∑ ∗∆
G(s) =
( ) ∆
∗∆ ∗∆
= where, 1 = 1 - 0 & 2 = 1- loop gain not
∆
touching path 2
Forward path gain: G1G2G3 & G4
Individual loop gain:
L1= -G₁H₁;
L2 = -G₂H2;
L3 = - G3H3;
L4 = - G4H3H2H1

Two non-touching loops with loop gain product L₁3 = G₁H₁G₂Hз

2 = 1- loop gain not touching path 2 = 1-(- G₂H2) = 1+ G₂H2

a
 Time Response Analysis
If the output of control system for an input varies with respect to time,
then it is called the time response of the control system.

The time response consists of two parts.

1. Transient response
2. Steady state response
 Output of CS takes certain time to reach steady state.

 So, the output will be in transient state till it goes to a

steady state.

 Therefore, the response of the control system during

the transient state is known as transient response.
Transient response and Steady state response
Example:
c(t)=10+5

steady Transient
state terms state term

• The first term 10 remains even as t

approaches infinity. So, this is the steady
state term.
• Here, the second term 5 will be zero
as t denotes infinity and 5 as t is zero. So,
this is the transient term.
Standard Test Signals
The standard test signals are:
1. impulse,
2. step,
3. ramp
4. parabolic.

These signals are used to know the performance of the control systems
using time response of the output.
Unit Impulse Signal
A unit impulse signal [δ(t)] is defined as:

δ(t)=0 for t≠0

δ(t)dt = 1 for t=0

Unit Step Signal

A unit step signal, u(t) is defined as:
u(t) = 1 ;t≥0
= 0 ;t<0
Unit Ramp Signal
A unit ramp signal, r(t) is defined as
r(t) = t ;t≥0
= 0 ;t<0
We can write unit ramp signal, r(t) in terms of unit step signal, r(t) = tu(t)

Unit Parabolic Signal

A unit parabolic signal, p(t) is defined as:
Control System
• First order
• Second order
• Third order

First order Control system:

• It is defined as a type of control system whose input-output relationship is a
first-order differential equation.
Where:
• K is the DC Gain (DC gain of the system ratio between the input signal and
the steady-state value of output)
• T is the time constant of the system (the time constant is a measure of how
quickly a first-order system responds to a unit step input)
 Order of Control System
Remember:
The order a differential equation is the order of the highest order
derivative present in the equation.
We evaluate this with respect to s.

Since here highest power of s is , the transfer function above is a first-

order differential equation.
This equation is second order.
Time response of the first order system
Consider a closed loop
control system.
 Here, an open loop transfer
function is
It is connected with a unity
negative feedback.
 • Where,
• C(s) is the Laplace transform of the output signal c(t),
• R(s) is the Laplace transform of the input signal r(t), and
• T is the time constant.

Steps to get the response (output) of the 1st order system in the time domain

1. Take the Laplace transform of the input signal r(t).

2. Consider the equation, C(s)=( )R(s)

sT+1

3. Substitute R(s) value in the above equation.

4. Do partial fractions of C(s) if required.

5. Apply inverse Laplace transform to C(s).

Laplace Transform
 Impulse Response of First Order System
Consider the unit impulse signal as an input to the first order system.
 r(t) = δ(t)
 Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.
 R(s) = 1
 We Know that …………. 1st order CS

Substitute, R (s) = 1 in the above equation.

First order
Control
Rearrange the above equation in one of the standard forms of Laplace transforms. system

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both sides.

 Step Response of First Order System
r(t) = u(t) = 1
Apply Laplace transform on both the sides

1st Order
Control
 We Know that …………. 1st order CS System

Substitute, R(s) = in the above equation

Taking partial fractions of C(s)

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides

Ramp Response of First Order System
r(t) = t u(t)
 Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.

 We Know that

 Substitute, R(s) in the above equation.

Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

 Taking partial fractions of C(s)

The unit ramp response, c(t) has both the transient and
the steady state terms
Control System
of 1st order
Parabolic Response of First Order System
 On simplifying
 r(t) = u(t)
1 = A +(AT+B)s + (BT+C)𝑠 + (CT+D) 𝑠
Apply Laplace transfor  Comparing constant

A=1 AT +B = 0 BT +C = 0 (CT+D) = 0
T +B = 0 (-T) T +C = 0 𝑇 T + D = 0
B = -T B= D=𝑇

Substitute R(s)=in the above equation.

 Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.

Taking partial fractions of C(s)

Lesson
From these responses, we can conclude that:
 the first order control systems are not stable with:
the ramp inputs
parabolic inputs
Because these responses go on increasing even at infinite amount of
time.
The first order control systems are stable with impulse and step inputs.
 Because these responses have bounded output.
The impulse response doesn’t have steady state term. So, the step
signal is widely used in the time domain for analyzing the control
systems from their responses.
Second order Control system: Terms
Natural frequency (ωn )
the frequency with which the system
would oscillate if there were no
damping.
Damping ratio (ξ):
a measure describing how rapidly the
oscillations decay from one bounce to
the next.
Damping frequency (ω )
The damped natural frequency is
written as:
ω = ω n √(1- ξ ^2)
 The open-loop gain of the second-order system is given as:
 Response of Second Order System
The characteristic equation is:
 +2ξω n s+ ω n =0
The roots of characteristic equation are:

 the closed-loop transfer function is:

 Practically for a system, the value of
numerator can be a constant or
polynomial other than ωn2. However, in
the denominator, the middle and the last
term coefficients must be as it is.

 Thus to have the values of ωn and ξ, the

denominator of the transfer function must
be compared with the standard form.
This is the transfer function of a standard 2nd order system
 • Let us first find the roots of characteristic equation:
• +2ξω n s+ ω n = 0

• Roots:

Further if ξ = 1

1. If ξ = 0
For, ξ = 1, the roots are purely real.
And such a system is critically
damped

 So, for ξ = 0, the roots are purely imaginary

 ξ = 0 :- undamped system
Furthermore if 0 < ξ < 1 ξ = 1 :- critically damped system
ξ > 1 :- overdamped system
0 < ξ < 1 :- underdamped system

Where,

For ξ > 1

 In this condition, the system

is said to be overdamped.
Follow these steps to get the response (output) of the second order system
in the time domain.

 Take Laplace transform of the input signal, r(t).

 Consider the equation, C(s) of second order.

 Substitute R(s) value in the above equation.

 Take partial fractions of C(s) if required.

 Apply inverse Laplace transform to C(s)

Time Response of Second-Order system with Unit Step
Input [for undamped (ξ = 0) second-order system]
1. We know that for unit step signal, r(t) = u(t) for t ≥ 0
Therefore,
2. Transfer function of the undamped system will be given as:

3. On substituting

4. Taking partial fraction

On simplifying
Taking Inverse Laplace
transform of c(s)

Put s = 0

 Comparing the coefficient of s2

 Comparing the coefficient of s

 Substituting the values in the partial fraction, we will get

Time Response of Second-Order system with Unit Step
Input [for critically damped(ξ = 1) second-order system]
Taking partial fraction
For ξ = 1,

1. unit step signal, r(t) = u(t) for t ≥ 0

Thus,

2.

3. On substituting Comparing the constant

Comparing the coefficients of s2 Thus, we will get

Further comparing the coefficient of s

Now on substituting the values in partial fraction

Taking inverse Laplace transform

Time Response of Second-Order system with Unit Step Input
 C(s) of second order system is:

 Laplace transform of step input is:

 Putting value of R(s) in C(s) Laplace transform

of 𝑠 +2ξω n s+ Convert it in
ω n 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚? (s+a) form
No
 This equation can also be written as

Now taking the inverse Laplace of above equation:

Steady state error: e = input-output
 Transient response specification of second order system (step input)

2-5% of steady
Maximum Overshoot state value
Tolerance
t
Amplitude

0.5
Damped Oscillation

Time (second)
Transient response specification of second order system

The performance of the control system are expressed in terms of transient

response to a unit step input.

Following are the common transient response characteristics:

1.Delay Time ( ).
2.Rise Time( ).
3.Peak Time( ).
4.Maximum Peak( ).
5.Settling Time( ).
6.Steady State error .
Definitions
1. Delay Time
The time required for the response to reach 50% of the final value in the first time
is called the delay time.

2. Rise Time
The time required for response to rising from 10% to 90% of final value, for an
overdamped system and 0 to 100% for an underdamped system is called the rise
time of the system.

3. Peak Time
The time required for the response to reach the 1st peak of the time response or 1st
peak overshoot is called the Peak time.
4. Maximum overshoot
The difference between the peak of 1st time and steady output is called the maximum
overshoot. It is defined by:
-

5. Settling Time (ts)

The time that is required for the response to reach and stay within the specified range
(2% to 5%) of its final value is called the settling time.

6. Steady State Error (ess)

The difference between actual output and desired output as time' tends to infinity is
called the steady state error of the system.
Q.1 Find transfer function of the following
system.

Given:
Mp = 1.09 -1 = 0.09
ts = 4 sec

We know that:
Find the impulse response of the given circuit.

𝑉2 1 /
=
𝑉1 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1

𝐶(𝑠) 1 Saeed Hasan: chapter 2: example 2.2 – 2.25

=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1 (pg107) + question bank solve
After reading steady state error
 Input = 10 lb
Step input= 10 u(t)

𝑋(𝑆) 1
=
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑀𝑠 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐾
𝑋(𝑆) 1/𝑀
=
𝐹(𝑠) (𝑠 + 𝐵 𝑠 + 𝐾 ) ωn
𝑀 𝑀