Frequency Response

Techniques
Chapter - 6
 Analysis of System
System can be analyzed in two ways:
 Analyzing the system with respect to TIME
 Analyzing the system with respect to Frequency

• Since analyzing the system w.r.t time is tedious and difficult process

• We convert time domain signal to frequency domain signal

• This can be done using LAPLACE.

Analysis of System
 What is Frequency?
The rate at which something occurs over a particular period of time.
 For example:
If an object is vibrating 5 times Per second then its frequency is 5
Hertz
Frequency Response
Input : Sin wt Output : ASin (wt+ φ)

The steady state response of a system for an sinusoidal input signal is

known as the frequency response.

Here, we vary the frequency of input signal over certain range and
study the resulting response.
 Techniques of Frequency Response
 There are two techniques of Frequency Response :
1. Polar plot or (Nyquist Criterion)

2. Bode Plot
 Polar Plot
The polar plot of G(jw) is a plot of of the magnitude of G(jw) versus the
phase angle of G(jw) on polar coordinates, as ω varies in [0,∞).

Thus, the polar plot is the locus of vectors of |G(jw)| G(jw) as w varies
from zero to infinite

°
 2 °  8

°  6 °
 5

°  4 °
 8
Steps for Drawing Polar Plots
1. Substitute, s = jω in the open loop transfer function G(s).

2. Find the expressions for magnitude and the phase of G(jω).

3. Find the starting magnitude and the phase of G(jω) by substituting ω=0 and
ending magnitude and the phase of G(jω). by substituting ω = ∞.

4. Rationalize the G(jω) and separate real and imaginary part.

5. Equate the real part of G(jω) to zero to find the ω at which the polar plot intersects
the imaginary axis.

6. Equate the imaginary part of G(jω) to zero to find the ω at which the polar plot
intersects the real axis.

7. For drawing polar plot more clearly, find the magnitude and phase
of G(jω)H(jω) by considering the other value(s) of ω.
Example 1: Draw the polar plot of G(s)H(s) =
Step 1: Substitute, s = jω

Step 2: Find the expressions for magnitude and the phase of G(jω).

Step 3: Find G(jω) at ω=0 and ω = ∞.

 Example 2: Draw the polar plot of
Given:

1. Substitute, s = jω in the open loop transfer function G(s).

2. Write the expressions for magnitude and the phase of G(jω).

Magnitude of G(j ω): Angle of G(j ω):

| | ( )
|G(j ω)| = G(j ω) =
| | ( )
3. Find the starting magnitude and the phase of G(jω) by
substituting ω=0 and ending magnitude and the phase of G(jω) by
substituting ω = ∞.
4. Rationalize the G(jω) and separate real and imaginary part.
( ) ( ) ( )
G(j ω) = * * =
( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ∗
G(j ω) = -j
( ) ( )

5. Equate the real part of G(jω) to zero to find the ω at which the polar plot
intersects the imaginary axis.

( )
Re[G(j ω)] = 0 =0 ω=
( )

( ) ∗
ω= G(j ω) = -j
( ) ( )
G(jω) = 2.356 -
Equate the imaginary part of G(jω) to zero to find the ω at which the polar
plot intersects the real axis.
Im[G(j ω)] = 0
∗
=0
( )

Either = 0 or
Polar plot of

=0
=
2.35
Polar plot of Control system of different types and order
Gain Margin (GM) and phase margin (PM) on Polar Plots

What is gain and phase??

System has gain 2

 What is margin ??
Margin is the extra amount of something you can use if needed.
Gain and phase margin is the extra amount that protects us from instability.

More margin means more stable.

Less margin means less stable.

Definitions:

 Gain Margin is the change in open-loop gain, expressed in decibels (dB), required
at -180° of phase shift to make the closed-loop system unstable.

 Phase margin (PM) is the change in open-loop phase shift, required at unity gain
to make the closed-loop system unstable.
 Gain Margin (GM) and phase margin (PM) on Polar Plots

Gain Margin is the inverse of the magnitude of

G(jω) at phase crossover frequency.

 The phase crossover frequency is the frequency

at which the phase of G(j ω) is 180°.

[In dB]
 Gain Margin (GM) and phase margin (PM) on Polar Plots

The phase margin is defined as, phase margin,

γ = 180° + φ𝒈𝒄 = 180° + G(jω) | ω= ω

where φ𝒈𝒄 is the phase angle of G(j ω) at gain

crossover frequency.

The gain crossover frequency is the frequency

at which the magnitude of G(j ω) is unity.

System is stable if GM and PM is positive.

Gain Margin (GM) and phase margin (PM) on Polar Plots

Stable unStable
 Example 1: Sketch the poler plot of G(s)H(s) =
Determine the phase margin and gain margin

1. Put s = jω 3. Angle of G(j ω):

G(jω)H(jω) = ( )
jω(jω )(jω ) G(j ω) =
( j ω) ( )

2. Magnitude of | G(jω)H(jω) | G(j ω) = – 90 - tan -1 (ω)- tan -1(ω/2)

| |
|G(j ω)| =
| j ω| | |

= ω → 0 G(j ω) = ∞ -
ω√( ω )√( ω )
ω → ∞ G(j ω) = 0 -
 G(j ω) = – 90 - tan -1 (ω)- tan -1(ω/2)
When ω = ω , G(j ω) =

= – 90 - tan -1 (ω )- tan -1(ω /2)

tan -1 (ω ) + tan -1(ω /2) =

On solving : ω = √2
 | |
|G(j ω)| =
| j ω| | |

When ω = ω , |G(j ω)| = 1

1=
ω √( ω )√( ω )

ω = 1.802 (Direct from calculator)

γ = 180° + φ𝒈𝒄 180° +∠ G(ω )

= 180°– 90 - tan -1 (ω )- tan -1(ω /2)

ω = √2 = 1.4
ω = 1.802

ω >ω Unstable
 Nyquist Plot
Nyquist plots are the continuation of polar plots for finding the stability
of the closed loop control systems by varying ω from −∞ to ∞.

Nyquist plots are used to draw the complete frequency response of the
open loop transfer function.

 The Nyquist stability criterion determines the stability of a closed-loop

system from its open loop frequency response.
 Why Nyquist Plot??

Characteristics equation : G(s) H(s)

Characteristics equation : 1 + G(s) H(s)

Lets, say G(s) = +3s+1 and H(s) = 1

Locate Plot poles of G(s) H(s)
Locate poles of 1 + G(s) H(s)
The location of poles are totally changed which changes the stability of
system.
Why Nyquist Plot??
But if we plot Nyquist plot of: 1 + G(s) H(s) : +3s+2
G(s) H(s): +3s+1

 Stability Analysis of open loop transfer becomes easy even when certain number
is added to the system
Mapping theory
• The heart of the Nyquist analysis is the mapping theorem, which answers the following
question:

• How do paths in the complex s-plane map into paths in the complex F-plane?
• We limit ourselves to closed clockwise (CW) paths in the s-plane, and the powerful result
of the mapping theorem is:

“Every zero of F(s) that is enclosed by a path in the s-plane generates exactly one clockwise
(CW)encirclement of the origin in the F(s) -plane. Conversely, every pole of F(s) that is
enclosed by a path in the s-plane generates exactly one counter-clockwise (CCW)
encirclement of the origin in the F(s) -plane.”
• Since CW and CCW encirclements of the origin may cancel, the relation is often written
Z−P= clockwise encirclement of origin
Cauchy’s Principle of Argument

C D(s)

 Nyquist criterion is based on the Cauchy’s Principle of Argument

 Nyquist criterion for stability (Principle of Argument)
It states that if there are P poles and Z zeros are enclosed by the ‘s’ plane closed
path, then the corresponding G(s)H(s) plane must encircle the origin Z-P times.
So, we can write the number of encirclements N as,

If N>0; Z>p : The counter will encircle the origin N times in same direction as that
of counter C

If N=0; Z=p : The counter will not encircle the origin.

If N<0; Z<p : The counter will encircle the origin N times in opposite direction as
that of counter C.
 Nyquist criterion for stability (Principle of Argument)

 The above criterion can be slightly simplified. Instead of plotting the function
D(s) = 1+G(s)H(s), we plot only the function G(s)H(s)

1+ G(S)H(S) = 0 G(S)H(S) = -1

 And count encirclement of the Nyquist plot of G(s)H(s) around the point (-1, 0), so that
the modified Nyquist criterion has the following form.

 The number of unstable closed-loop poles (Z) is equal to the number of unstable open-
loop poles (P) plus the number of encirclements (N) of the point (-1, 0) of the Nyquist
plot of G(s)H(s), that is
Z=P+N
Possibilities of stability of linear control systems using
the Nyquist stability criterion
1. There is no encirclement of the (–1+j0) point.
This implies that the system is stable if there are no poles of G(s)H(s) in the right-
half of s- plane (N=Z-P);
otherwise, the system is unstable.

2. There are one or more counterclockwise encirclements of the (–1+j0)

point.
In this case the system is stable if the number of counterclockwise encirclements is
the same as the number of poles of G(s)H(s) in the right-half of s- plane (N=Z-P);
otherwise, the system is unstable.

3. There are one or more clockwise encirclements of the (–1+j0) point. In

this case the system is unstable.
Procedure to plot Nyquist Plot
1. Nyquist counter
2. Polar Plot
3. Nyquist criterion for stability
Nyquist Path or Nyquist counter

jω

σ
 Steps for Nyquist Plot
1. Draw a Nyquist counter.

2. Nyquist plot of G(s)H(s) [Similar to polar plot].

3. Nyquist plot is symmetrical about real axis, so draw mirror image about real axis.

4. Join two ends (if any) of plot by hypothetical curve of radius R =∞.

5. Count Number of encirclement about (-1+j0) (N).

6. Plot poles in s plane and find out how many poles are in right half of s plane.

7. Find out how many zeros are in right half plane from formula (N=Z-P).

8. If Z>0 system is unstable.

 Example 1:
Find the closed loop stability of control system whose open loop transfer
function is given using Nyquist Plot.
Solution:
2. Nyquist Plot (Similar to polar plot)
1

N=0
P=0
N = Z-P
Z=0
Means number of zeros in right half plane is zeros thus system is stable
 Example 1:
2. Nyquist Plot 3. Plot poles
1.
N=0
P=0
Z=0
No zeros in right half
plane system is stable
 Assignment

Hasan Saeed Example 5.41 to 5.52

Bode plot
The Bode plot or the Bode diagram consists of two plots −
Magnitude plot
Phase plot

In both the plots, x-axis represents angular frequency (logarithmic scale).

Whereas, y-axis represents the magnitude of open loop transfer function in

the magnitude plot and the phase angle of the open loop transfer function
in the phase plot.

The major advantage is that the multiplication of magnitude is converted

into addition.
 Bode Plot Construction with Example

1. Firstly, write the given transfer function in the time constant form.

2. Identify the factors k, type of system and corner frequency. Remember

ω
ω ω should be considered in ascending order
3. Put s = j ω
G(j ω ω
( )

4. Starting frequency = 1 decade before 1st corner frequency

i.e. = ω
Type of system (𝒔𝑵 ) magnitude
0 0dB/decade 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝐾)
5. Starting magnitude = 20 log ( ) 1/s (−) -20dB/decade 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝐾/ω)
1/𝒔𝟐 -40dB/decade 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝐾/ω )
where, ω = starting frequency
= 26 1/𝒔𝑵 -20*N dB/decade 20𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝐾/ω )

Type of system (𝒔𝑵 )

0 0dB/decade
s (+) 20dB/decade
𝒔𝟐 (++) 40dB/decade
4. Arrange the (1+ order of ‘a’ as shown in table

Terms Corner frequency(w) Starting slope Final Slope

Low(-) -
From starting -20 db/decade (type1) -20dB/decade
magnitude

𝑗𝑤 -20dB/decade -40 dB/ decade

[(1+ )]
2 2(-)

𝑗𝑤 -20 dB/ decade -60dB/decade

[(1+ )]
25 25(-)

 From starting magnitude to next corner frequency, the slope will be the final slope of first column.
 From 2 to next corner frequency, slope will be -40dB/decade.
 From 25 to further slope will be -60dB/decade
magnitude
- 6𝟎𝒅𝑩/𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒅𝒆

- 4𝟎𝒅𝑩/𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒅𝒆
−𝟐𝟎𝒅𝑩/𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒅𝒆

60dB

40dB
−20𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒
20dB
- 40𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒
0 dB

0.1 0.2 ......... 1 10 - 60𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒

100
Phase plot
G(j ω) H(jω) =
( )

= 0 – 90 - tan -1 ( )- tan -1( )

𝜔 ∠ G(j ω) H(jω) = – 90 - tan -1 ( )- tan -1( )
0.1 -93°
0.2 -96°
1 -118.8°
2 -139.5
5 -169.5
10 -190
20 -212.9
100 -254.8
 angle

−90°

−120°

−150°

−180°

−210°

−240°

−270°

𝑤
0.1 0.2 ......... 1 10 100
 Gain Margin and Phase Margin
The formula for Gain Margin (GM) can be
expressed as:

Where G is the gain. This is the magnitude (in

dB) as read from the vertical axis of the
magnitude plot at the phase crossover
frequency.

The formula for Phase Margin (PM) can

be expressed as:

Where is the phase lag (a number less

than 0). This is the phase as read from the
vertical axis of the phase plot at the gain
crossover frequency.
If the gain margin and phase margin are positive, the system is
stable.

If both the gain margin GM and the phase margin PM are equal to
zero, then the control system is marginally stable.

If the gain margin GM and / or the phase margin PM are/is negative,
then the control system is unstable.
Draw bode plot of:
Assignment

Example 4.9-4.15
Hasan Saeed
 Stability in frequency response
Stability

Absolute Stability Relative Stability

(stable or not) (Degree of stability)

• In time domain relative stability is measured by maximum overshoot

and damping ratio.

• In frequency domain, relative stability is measured by resonant peak

(
Resonant peak magnitude ( and resonant peak
frequency ( r )
The closed-loop transfer function is:

The closed-loop frequency response is Where

ζ - damping ratio
ωn - undamped natural frequency
Resonant peak magnitude ( and resonant peak
frequency ( r )
the maximum value of M occurs when r,
Where,

Putting the value of r

Where, Mr is defined as the resonant peak magnitude.

 The magnitude of the resonant peak gives an indication of the relative
stability.

 A large 𝒓 indicates the presence of a pair of dominant closed-loop poles

with small damping ratio,
 which will yield an undesirable transient response.

 A smaller 𝒓 indicates the absence of a pair of dominant closed-loop

poles with small damping ratio,
 meaning that the system is well damped.

Note: ωr is real only if ζ < 0.707.

Thus, there is no closed-loop resonance if ζ > 0.707.
 Bandwidth, Cut-off frequency, Cut off rate
Bandwidth is the range of frequencies up to
the cutoff frequency beyond which the
magnitude (M) drops down by 3 dB (0.707)
below zero frequency level.

Cut off frequency is the frequency at which

the magnitude below the zero dB ( 𝒃 )

 Cut off rate is the slope of the log

magnitude curve near the cut of frequency
• Cut off frequency is also
called break frequency or
corner frequency.

• In an electronics system the

cut-off frequency either
below or above which the
power output of a circuit has
fallen to a given proportion of
the power in the pass band.
Ex- 1: The closed loop frequency response magnitude versus frequency of a
second order system is shown in figure. Find %M , (maximum overshoot) and
peak time.
Solution:
From M =14 &, r 3 rad/sec.
We know that,
Ex- 2: The magnitude plot of the open loop transfer function of a certain
system is shown in the Fig. Find G(s)

Starting slope is 0 dB/decade system is type 0

a. At ω = 5 rad/sec.
slope changes to -20 db/decade indicating
term denominator.

b. At ω = 40,
slope changes from -20 to -60 db/decade
indicating a term(1+ ) in denominator

c. At ω =100,
slope changes to -80 db/decade, indicating the
term (1+ ) in denominator
 Ex- 3Find the transfer function of the system from the data given on
Bode diagram
Starting slope is -20 dB/decade
system is type 1 starting at ω = 0.1
We know,
20
ω
K = 10
At ω = 2 slope changes from -20 to -
60 db/decade indicating term second
order system having 𝒓 = 4 dB at ω
= 2 At ω = 2, -60dB to 40 dB, indicate term
M=2ζ
1+ numerator
4 dB = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2ζ
ζ = 0.316 At ω = 3, -40dB to -60 dB, indicate term
When, ω = 𝜔𝒏 = √2, M = 4 dB 1+ denominator
• G(s)=
[ (ω ) ζω ]

• =
[ . . ]