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Experiment Findings · January 2023

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OBSERVING THE BEHAVIOUR OF EXISTING STRUCTURES

A Thesis Proposal

ZEP WRITING SERVICES

December 2021.
 Table of Contents

Chapter One ....................................................................................................................... 3

Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 3

Background To The Study ................................................................................................. 3

Problem Statement............................................................................................................. 4

Objectives Of The Study .................................................................................................... 6

Justification Of The Study.................................................................................................. 6

Scope Of Study................................................................................................................... 6

Chapter Two ....................................................................................................................... 8

Literature Review................................................................................................................ 8

Reinforced Concrete Structures........................................................................................ 8

Failure In Reinforced Concrete Structures....................................................................... 9

Compressive Force Path Method ................................................................................... 12

Chapter Three ................................................................................................................... 14

Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 14

T-Beam .............................................................................................................................. 14

Numerical Analysis ........................................................................................................... 14

Research Beam ................................................................................................................ 15

Loading .............................................................................................................................. 15

Analysis ............................................................................................................................. 16

Modelling ........................................................................................................................... 16

Processing ........................................................................................................................ 16

Reporting ........................................................................................................................... 16

References ........................................................................................................................ 18
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

Every building must fulfil the safety and usability criteria for its intended purpose
throughout the duration of its lifetime of use, according to the general rule of design.
In reality, however, any building has a probability of collapsing, regardless of how
many safety precautions and variables are included into its design and construction.
In addition, many civil infrastructure structures lose part of their strength and rigidity
over time due to exposure to severe operational or climatic conditions over their
service life (Wang et al., 2017). Multiple structures have collapsed due to
environmental conditions and abrupt incidents. This has caused extensive damage
and cost the building owners a great deal of money.

Nowadays, structural engineering researchers rely heavily on finite element

analysis. This technology may also be used to examine existing concrete bridges
that are very large and intricate. This is due to the fact that the finite element model
may be updated depending on measurements, and the validated model can be used
to examine structural characteristics that cannot be discovered by testing.
Experimenting with structures is the greatest approach to determine their true
functionality and dependability. Specializes in bridge and traffic structure sensors, as
well as the evaluation of selected structural components and structural joints (Dudak
et al., 2017; Parkasiewicz et al., 2017; Valluzzi et al., 2018).

Various types of analysis are often required to aid in monitoring and testing.
These activities are performed to gain knowledge, but also for technical, economic,
or capacity-related objectives. Testing the structural joints and anchors built of
precast concrete is crucial. Testing is often conducted on pre-cast concrete panel
joints or full-scale beam-to-column junctions (Dal Lago et al., 2018). Experiments
often examine the size of the anchoring, the width of the concrete members, the
position of the attachment point in the concrete member, the impact of embedment
depth on the structure, and the total load on the structure. Numerical studies may be
used to augment test programs and provide information that is difficult to quantify or
obtain from experiments by using the finite element approach (Nzabonimpa et al.,
2017; Kataoka et al., 2017).

According to Chendo and Obi (2015), a building could collapse due to human
errors such as poor design, poor construction, or the use of low-quality building
materials, as well as due to negligence, omissions, ignorance, quackery, corruption,
or sabotage, or due to natural occurrences such as floods, earthquakes, etc. All of
these factors have made it crucial to examine the structural integrity of old buildings
to determine if they can continue to function. Wang and Jiang (2015) said that it is
essential to analyse the qualities of concrete in order to identify altered regions,
manage the quality of the concrete, and determine its compressive strength.

Several existing structures were constructed according to the safety

requirements of their day. Due to this, the safety ratings of these structures vary
depending on when they were constructed. Therefore, continuing to utilize existing
buildings for the same purposes without considering the consequences of wear and
tear that have occurred over the course of their service life might be challenging or,
in the worst scenario, devastating. Accidents may increase if the condition of older
structures is not brought up to current requirements and safety standards (Fabera
and Stewart, 2003; Drukis et al., 2017).

Additionally, utilizing ancient buildings in novel ways has become crucial for the
preservation of historic structures. Consequently, this entails altering the way an
existing system operates from one method to another. Existing concrete structures
must frequently be evaluated to see if they can be used today or in the future (Wang
and Jiang, 2015). Consequently, it is crucial to conduct a thorough structural
examination of existing structures due to the difficulties that these demands provide
in the current context (Ma et al., 2012; Drukis et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2017).

Problem Statement

One of the greatest concerns in both emerging and industrialized nations is the
constant deterioration of civil engineering buildings (John et al., 2019). Concrete
constructions deteriorate too rapidly, resulting in the construction of structures that
do not function and are not as safe, sturdy, or aesthetically pleasing as they might be
(Alexander, 2018). Consequently, it is often necessary to analyse the many ways in
which actual buildings function (Norhasri et al., 2021). Throughout the years,
conventional testing procedures have been employed to determine the functionality
of concrete buildings. These techniques, however, do not permit the reuse of test
specimens or provide information on the inside of concrete buildings. They are also
insufficient to forecast how constructions would behave under adverse conditions,
such as when exposed to fire or toxins (Norhasri et al., 2021; Tsioulou et al., 2017).
As a result, people are shifting away from destructive procedures and toward non-
destructive approaches when evaluating the performance of concrete.

Loreto et al. (2018) conducted a research to determine how a reinforced

concrete bridge performs in a maritime environment. This evaluation consisted of
three parts: a visual examination of the buildings to determine which portions were
impacted by concrete degradation, on-site testing to determine the severity of the
deterioration, and laboratory testing to learn more about the deteriorated portions of
the structures. The issue with this research is that it employs coring, a destructive
testing approach that might compromise the integrity of the building. In addition, the
research solely included corrosion as a potential cause of concrete deterioration.
This reduced the number of criteria that may be examined to determine the overall
safety of the construction.

In a separate research, Aisharqawi et al. (2017) investigated the typical

evaluation methods for reinforced concrete buildings. Even if new methods for
evaluating the performance of these buildings were recommended, the research
mainly discussed visual examination as a method for evaluating reinforced concrete
structures, which can only detect external defects and deficiencies. Bossio et al.
(2018) investigated the rusting of reinforcing bars in reinforced concrete buildings in
a separate investigation.

The research discusses how reinforcing bar corrosion might undermine a

building's structure. It also described how High Performance Concrete may be used
in areas where corrosion has occurred to make buildings more resistant to collapse;
this evaluation is restricted since it provides no further information, such as how
much corrosion is acceptable or how much concrete breaks. The thesis is produced
so that a comprehensive examination of the strength of structural members made of
reinforced concrete may be conducted. This inspection will include the outside and
inside of the members. This thesis will also compare this evaluation's predictions
with those of computer software.

Objectives of the Study

The purpose of this research is to determine how existing constructions, in this

instance a "T-beam," function by using various measurement techniques, published
experimental data, and computer models. The purpose of the research is to compare
what various codes say about the behaviour of a reinforced concrete structural
element (such as a T-beam) with what the study itself concludes.

1. Using an alternate assessment approach (the compressive force path

method)
2. Developing a database of T-beams that have been tested under monotonic
static loading to date
3. Using the student edition of ABAQUS to undertake a numerical analysis.

Justification of the Study

The degradation of concrete buildings a few years after construction, which is

contrary to the intended design life of concrete structures, is one of the greatest
difficulties facing the construction industry. This is due to the use of low-quality
materials, poor craftsmanship, and inability to follow to design criteria, amongst other
factors (Balamuralikrishnan et al., 2017).

Due to the absence of building integrity assessments, infrastructures degrade

more rapidly. To evaluate the performance of existing buildings, it is essential to
include non-destructive testing techniques into the quality control process in order to
inspect reinforced T-Beams for durability, strength, and fractures using Finite
Element Analysis. These approaches not only provide information on the interior
status of a building, but they also do so without causing damage to the structure, so
enabling the structure to serve its intended purpose.

Scope of Study

This research examines the evaluation of the load-carrying capacity, location,

and modes of failure of reinforced concrete structural components by comparing the
predictions of conventional codes (British Standard and Eurocode) with an
alternative assessment approach (compressive force path method). It also included
comparing the predictions provided by the codes with published experimental data
and the outcomes of computer software's numerical projections. This study also
provides an overview of previous research and an assessment of the long-lasting
reinforced concrete buildings that were predicted following extensive research.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Reinforced Concrete Structures

The ability to construct with concrete has existed for a very long period.
Concrete is the most popular material used to construct structures such as buildings,
bridges, dams, and foundations, etc (Krishna et al., 2016). This is because
constructing with concrete is inexpensive, durable, adaptable, practical, and readily
available (Fapohunda, 2019; Gupta, 2018; Norhasri et al., 2021). Concrete is a
durable construction material produced by combining cement, fine and coarse
aggregates, and water in the proper proportions.

In terms of load resistance, unreinforced concrete is strong when compressed

but very weak when stretched. Tensile strength accounts for just 10% of concrete's
compressive strength (Rodrigues, 2014). Consequently, ordinary concrete can
support only a limited amount of weight (Fapohunda, 2019). When loads or
shrinkage produce tensile tension, plain concrete fractures. When fractures occur in
a simple concrete construction, it collapses entirely and swiftly. The usage of
reinforced concrete was initiated to address the shortcomings of plain concrete.

A reinforced concrete structure is a composite construction composed of

concrete and steel reinforcing bars. It derives its strength from reinforcing bars
placed in places where tensile stresses are exerted and from concrete in regions
where compression forces are applied (Aylie et al., 2015; Hammarstrom, 2019).
When constructed correctly, reinforced concrete buildings can withstand large loads
(concrete carries the compressive and shear loads, while reinforcing steel carries the
tensile loads, distributes cracks, and limits the width of the cracks). Obviously, this
makes the building more durable (Krishna et al., 2016; Slowik, 2018; Tantawi, 2015).

Due to the link between the reinforcing steel and the concrete in a reinforced
concrete structure, this is conceivable. This connection allows compression and
tension forces to be transferred from steel to concrete (Rodrigues, 2014). In further
detail, the rigidity of a reinforced concrete structure is determined by the concrete
between fractures. Because concrete and reinforcing steel join together, this is the
case (Gil Martin et al., 2015). According to Olanitori et al. (2016), the strength of
every reinforced structural component is dependent on how it interfaces with other
structural elements.

According to them, the most significant aspect of this boundary condition is how
it modifies the transmission of internal forces between structural elements. Due to
the great compressive strength of concrete and the high tensile strength of
reinforcing steel, reinforced concrete is often used for a variety of structural
engineering applications, including arches, beams, bridge decks, columns,
foundations, piles, shells, slabs, staircases, etc (Fapohunda, 2019; Venkatesh and
Alapati, 2017). However, if the building is excessively heavy or not constructed
according to the blueprints, it might partly or entirely collapse (Nwaigwe et al., 2019).

Failure in Reinforced Concrete Structures

A major concern is the pace at which civil engineering structures degrade and
fall apart (John et al., 2019). This deterioration results in constructions that cannot be
used due to their poor appearance, durability, safety, and stability. (Alexander,
2018). Loreto et al. (2018) said that the deterioration of reinforced concrete buildings
in coastal locations was due to corrosion induced by chloride attack. According to the
research, concrete deterioration manifests as cracks, spalling of the concrete cover,
loss of reinforcement in the concrete's cross-section, and loss of bonding between
the steel and concrete components of a reinforced concrete structure. Because of
this, the structure's capacity to support weight is diminished, and the structure may
eventually disintegrate.

Structural failure is the inability of a structure to perform its intended function

within the parameters defined by standard codes. In other words, reinforced concrete
structures are said to have failed when they can no longer be relied upon to perform
their primary functions (Nwaigwe et al., 2019). When a structure is overloaded, its
stability and strength may be compromised, leading to structural collapse.
(Jamaluddin et al., 2016). Alogla et al. (2016) investigated a phenomenon known as
"progressive collapse," which is another means through which a reinforced concrete
building might fail. This kind of collapse occurs when there is insufficient continuous
reinforcement and a limited portion of the structure collapses simultaneously with the
structural parts becoming less stiff.

The collapse of adjacent portions of a building before the whole structure

collapses. Fractures in the reinforcing bars at the point where the beam met the
column, crushing of the concrete in the compression zone during flexure, and broad
cracks at crucial places where the concrete and reinforcing bars moved significantly
indicated the failure of the samples utilized in the research.

Structures in civil engineering may fail for a variety of causes. These include
wear and tear, environmental effects, mistakes in design calculations, overuse, poor
design and workmanship, incorrect reinforcement spacing, incorrect assignment of
loading condition, incorrect type and size of aggregate, incorrect procedure work,
lack of integrity checks on existing buildings, load exceeding design, not building
according to the contractor's drawing and specifications, inadequate and
inconsiderate lap length in structural members, unsuitable materials, and poo
(Alsharqawi et al., 2017; Chatterjee et al., 2017; Erhimona and Andrew, 2019;
Ganasan et al., 2020; Krishna et al., 2016; Nwaigwe et al., 2019; Rucka, 2020).
According to Jamaluddin et al. (2016), a reinforced concrete structure crumbled due
to poor construction and weak structural elements.

In reinforced concrete structures, there are typically three forms of failure: bond
splitting failure, flexural failure, and shear failure. Bond splitting failure is a kind of
bond failure that often occurs when individuals are not constrained. Bond splitting,
according to Alabduljabbar et al. (2020), occurs when reinforcing bars are linked by
lap splicing. This occurs when fragments of concrete break off between the ribs of
the reinforcing bars, causing the link between the concrete and reinforcing bars to
fail. According to the research, the bond strength between concrete and reinforcing
bars is dependent on anchoring length, bar diameter, concrete cover, presence of
transverse reinforcements, concrete strength, etc.

According to a separate research by Bossio et al. (2018), corrosion and a

reduction in the cross-section of the reinforcing bars degrade the connection
between the concrete and the reinforcing bars. This weakens the structure's integrity.
Slowik (2018) investigated why the reinforced concrete structure failed and
concluded that shear failure in buildings is caused by diagonal fractures in reinforced
concrete structures that lack transverse reinforcement. According to Dogan and
Arslan (2016), shear failure in reinforced concrete structures occurs when the
structure's tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength of the concrete.

Rapid shear failure has been identified as the leading cause of reinforced
concrete structure failure (Olanitori et al., 2016). Columns are an excellent illustration
of the flexural failure mechanism in reinforced concrete buildings, according to
Dogan and Arslan (2016). According to them, the concrete fails when it achieves its
deformation limit (due to axial loading and bending moment) before the longitudinal
reinforcing bars in the tension zone fail.

Lu et al. (2019) examined how the corrosion of the stirrup led to the failure of
the reinforced concrete beam. They divided the specimens into three categories:
shear failure with stirrup, flexural failure, and shear-compression failure. According to
them, shear-compression failure in corroded reinforced concrete is the result of a low
stirrup corrosion loss ratio (less than 20%) and a high concrete strength. Conversely,
corroded reinforced concrete collapses by shear because to the low concrete
strength and high stirrup corrosion loss ratio.

Limit State Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures

It is dangerous when a structure breaks or collapses, or when it does not fulfil

the serviceability criteria for cracking, corrosion, deflection, durability, fatigue, fire
resistance, and specific situations such as earthquake resistance, vibrations, etc
(Fapohunda, 2019). Fit indicates that a building meets all safety and usability
standards for the duration of its design life.

Prior to the introduction of Limit State Design in 1970, "Allowable Stress

Design" was used to examine and determine how buildings bend and shear. The
Limit State Design was developed to address the restrictions of the Allowable Stress
Design, which prohibits load transfer between members (Mohan et al., 2018). Mohan
et al. (2018) refer to limit states as instances in which a structure is considered to
have "failed to meet its objectives." In other words, limit states are the circumstances
or states that a structure must attain prior to being unusable (Fapohunda, 2019).
 Mohan et al. (2018) devised three limit states for design: fatigue limit state,
serviceability limit state (unfactored loads are utilized to establish if the structure is
adequate), and ultimate limit state (the maximum load capacity of a structure is
determined using factored loads). But according to Fapohunda (2019), the
serviceability limit state of cracking, the condition of deflection, and the ultimate limit
state are all required for design calculations in reinforced concrete buildings. The
serviceability limit states illustrate the behaviour of the structural part when exposed
to the working load. The ultimate limit state, on the other hand, describes the
behaviour of the member after it has broken due to bending, compression, shear, or
tension (Fapohunda, 2019).

Compressive Force Path Method

The concept behind the compressive force path approach is that the capacity of
a reinforced concrete element to withstand shear relies on the concrete's strength in
the region that includes the compressive route strength takes as it travels to the
supports. Shear failure of a member is influenced by the area's tensile stress build-
up (Ayub and Khan, 2017). In other words, according to the compressive force path
technique, tensile loads caused shear failure at locations where the shear span-to-
depth ratio of a structural element was high (Ahmad et al., 2018).

In a research conducted by Ayub and Khan (2017), the behaviour of four

beams was examined using the compressive force path approach and compared to
the ACI code method. They discovered that the compressive force path approach
was superior to the ACI code method for measuring the shear resistance of
reinforced concrete buildings. In addition, the approach may properly forecast
theoretical loads; nevertheless, for shear and serviceability, beams must have a
shear span-to-depth ratio of less than 4.44. Ahmad et al. (2018) extended to this
argument by stating that the compressive force path technique might provide
predictions near to the load-bearing capacity, causes, and failures of reinforced
concrete structures. In another research by Ahmad et al. (2018), shear failure in
reinforced concrete beams or columns occurs when one of the following three
circumstances is considered.
1. When the shear span-to-depth ratio, av/d, is less than 1. Shear failure occurs
when the shear force exceeds VIV = Mf/av, where Mf is the moment capacity
of the beam's cross-flexural section.
2. The ratio of shear span to depth is more than one but less than two and a
half. Shear failure occurs when the cross-section at a distance equal to the
shear span, av, from the point of contraflexure or the nearest support has a
bending moment that exceeds MIII = MII + (Mf - MII)(2.5 - av) (1.5d), where
MII is the bending that develops along the length of the reinforced concrete
beam at failure.
3. Shear failure occurs when the shear force at a point of contraflexure or 2.5d
distant from the support reaches VII, 1 = 0.5ftbd, where b is the beam width
and d is the effective depth.
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

T-Beam

T-beams may support a substantial amount of weight due to their resistance or

built-in reinforcements. In some aspects, the T-beam predates the first bridge that
humans constructed, which consisted of a foundation and a platform. It resembles a
column with a flat bed at the top or bottom. A flange is the flat portion of the beam
that supports the compression load. A stem is the upright, tension-supporting portion
of a plant. Although the materials have evolved through time, the structure has
remained unchanged.

However, there are issues with the T-Beam. The T-beam is defective because
it lacks a bottom flange. In addition, since the weaker side lacks a flange, the beam
has a lower tensile strength, rendering it less usable. Because of this, T-shaped
concrete beams are often put into the slab to unite it. The slab portion of these
beams supports compressive stresses, while the reinforcing bars at the bottom
support tension loads. Typically, a T-stem beam is narrower than a rectangular
beam. Therefore, ancient structures with T-beams must be evaluated using
numerical analysis to determine their safety.

Numerical Analysis

By creating a mesh, finite element analysis (FEA) disassembles a structure into

tens of thousands or even millions of smaller components. Thus, a three-dimensional
object is converted into a mathematically comprehensible grid of points.
Mathematical equations are employed to predict the behaviour of each component.
These computations are then combined to form the structure's final form. Numerous
applications of FEA include structural analysis, heat transfer, mass movement, and
electromagnetic potential. When designing or constructing anything, you should
consider its behaviour in a variety of conditions, both those that can be anticipated
and those that cannot.
 Even natural calamities such as earthquakes and tsunamis are considered
when determining if something may break, wear out, or be damaged in some
manner. The unit load and moment distribution approach and the strain energy
formula are often used to predict the behaviour of basic constructions (supported
beams, trusses). For non-standard objects, you must conduct a comprehensive
analysis using structural codes. Rather than depending on costly laboratory studies
to determine how a building should respond during construction when there are
earthquakes or severe winds, these standards for more accurate and less costly
testing.

Earthquakes and other natural catastrophes pose significant challenges to

structural engineering, in part because many structures were not constructed
according to code and in part because it is difficult to forecast what would occur in
these types of calamities. In this research, we will utilize the Abaqus FEA software to
execute FEA simulations on three distinct types of T-beams.

Research Beam

Below are the several beams that will be evaluated for the load. Each beam
utilizes stirrups.

1. 100 mm x 150 mm x 1000 mm with 2Y10 B/S and T/S. Y8 links @ 100 mm
c/c.
2. 100 mm x 150 mm x 1000 mm with 2Y12 B/S and T/S, Y8 links @ 100 mm
c/c.
3. 100 mm x 150 mm x 1000 mm with 2Y8 B/S and T/S. Y8 links @ 100 mm
c/c.

Loading

You can differentiate between several types of loads. Dead load, Live load, and
Impact load are the various forms of design loads that operate on previously
constructed buildings. The wind load, longitudinal forces, erection stresses,
centrifugal forces, buoyancy effect, deformation effect, and temperature effect all
contribute to a structure's performance. However, not every lead will be considered
for this study. This analysis takes into consideration the dead load, the live load, the
impact load, and the wind load. The loads will be simulated using Abaqus. The
structure will be loaded until fractures occur. This will demonstrate the stress
tolerance of the structure.

Analysis

The many metrics measured include bending moment, shear force, and strain.

Modelling

During the modelling phase, initial data cleansing occurs. At this point, the input
file is created, which instructs the computer on the kind of analysis to do and the
solution to use. This research used an iterative linear equation solution. You may
use the iterative solver in to discover the solutions to a linear system of equations. It
may begin with a static, quasi-static, geostatic, pore fluid diffusion, or heat transfer
study. Since the approach is iterative, convergence cannot be guaranteed for a given
system of linear equations. However, it is one of the most efficient systems due to
the possibility of modifying the model to increase its convergence.

In this phase, the beams are designed, which include determining their
dimensions, materials, and other specifics. At this point, the outlines are divided so
that the density may be altered, and then the T-beam mesh is created. In addition to
the boundary criteria, the T-material Beam's qualities are also predetermined. Also
planned are the loading conditions and the number of components.

Processing

Based on the model's solver, we must process the data to do the real analysis.
The design is utilized to derive the FEA equations, which are subsequently solved at
various phases. The stiffness matrix and the forces at each of the T-Beam element's
nodes are computed. Combining and solving the equations yields a nice linear
solution. This solution generates output files that display the findings visually.

Reporting

Finally, the findings are presented in an understandable fashion. The outcomes

are shown as images, animations, charts, and reports. The findings are shown, and
the properties of the T-output Beam, such as bending moment, shear force, and
strain, are determined.
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