Int. J. Adv. Res. Biol. Sci. (2022).

9(12): 187-194

International Journal of Advanced Research in Biological Sciences

ISSN: 2348-8069
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DOI: 10.22192/ijarbs Coden: IJARQG (USA) Volume 9, Issue 12 -2022
Research Article

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.22192/ijarbs.2022.09.12.015

Aquatic animal nutrition and feeding for sustainable

aquaculture production

Dawit Adisu Tadese1,2

1
Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, National Fishery, and other Aquatic Life Research
Centre, P. O. Box 64, Sebeta, Ethiopia.
2
Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Kunming 650107, China.
Corresponding Author: Dawit Adisu Tadese
Email [email protected]
ORCID 0000-0003-0293-2760
Scopus Author ID: 57216150893

Abstract
Over the last decade, the world has witnessed spectacular growth in the aquaculture industries of many developing
countries. It is unequivocally agreed that global aquaculture production will continue to increase, and much of this
will occur in the developing countries of Asia and Africa, through the expansion of semi-intensive, small-scale pond
aquaculture. Nutrition and feeding play a central and essential role in the sustained development of aquaculture and,
therefore, feed resource continues to dominate aquaculture needs. This paper reviews a number of specific issues in
the fields of aquatic animal nutrition and feeding which are critical for sustainable aquaculture production in both
industrialized and developing countries. While discussing the nutrient requirement of fish under farming conditions,
the possibility of accessing existing databases on nutrient requirements is examined, along with their application for
establishing general nutritional principles. Particular emphasis is placed on understanding the contribution of
naturally available food in semi-intensive aquaculture and its role on the development of on-farm feed management
strategy.

Keywords: Aquaculture. Feed, Nutrition, Amino acids, Macronutrients.

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Introduction 1.1 Nutritional requirements of fish in

aquaculture
Aquaculture was known in Roman Empire and
China 2000 years ago as ancient farming practice Fish diets must contain all of the essential
(Balon 1995; Dunham et al., 2000). However, in nutrients and energy required to support the
last few decades and since 1980s aquaculture physiological demands of growing fish. Amino
industry has grown and developed dramatically acids, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, and energy
into worldwide activity producing a huge quantity macronutrients are all essential elements for fish
for the market. On the other hand, marine capture (proteins, fats, and carbohydrates). Protein is
fisheries reach the plateau or decrease and the required in the diet to get amino acids, which are
population of the world is increasing) (Dunham then utilized to build new proteins or sustain
2004). The estimated number of finfish existing proteins in tissues, with surplus protein
throughout the world is about 28500 species being turned into energy. In the diet, lipids offer
inhabiting oceans, estuaries, rivers, streams, lakes necessary fatty acids as well as energy. In fish,
and ponds and about 40% of these fish are lipids are crucial structural components of
freshwater species and particularly existing in the membranes and serve as precursors of steroid
subtropical and tropical regions (Huntingford et hormones and prostaglandins. Furthermore, lipids
al., 2012). The main criterion that determines the influence the quantity of unsaturated fatty acids in
appropriateness of certain species for aquaculture fish., but their ability to use dietary carbohydrates
is the growth rate and production under rearing for energy varies depending on the species and
conditions (Pillay et al., 2005). Thus, in fish their natural diet. Carbohydrates may provide
farming (aquaculture), nutrition is critical because energy to fish, although their capacity to do so
feed typically represents approximately 50 varies depending on the species and their natural
percent of the variable production cost. Fish diet. Vitamins are chemical molecules that are
nutrition has advanced dramatically in recent essential for fish survival, growth, and
years with the development of new, balanced development. The fish are unable to produce the
commercial diets that promote optimal fish vitamins required by their diet. Minerals are
growth and health. In aquaculture, like in all classified into two types based on demand:
animal production operations, the parameters microminerals and microminerals. They are
involved in nutrition management must be crucial in the formation of functional groups of
evaluated in order to strike a balance between enzymes and hormones, as well as in the control
commercial, environmental, and quality of protein production.
considerations (FAO 2020). This industry seeks to
deliver social and economic advantages while 1.2 Digestibility of nutrients
also producing a very fresh food supply (Tadese
et al., 2021). It is critical to underline that the Nutrient digestibility in the diet can affect
growth of aquaculture activities is inextricably aquaculture, production efficiency and
linked to fish nutrition, which has a direct impact environmental impact. The bioavailability or
on product quality. In this context, aquaculture digestibility of the diet is the proportion of
necessitates nutrition optimization in order to nutrients in the food that is digested and absorbed
properly develop fish for the aim of generating by the fish. Data on digestibility and available
high-quality meals(Hasan 2001). The use of digestible energy of food ingredients in fish diets
artificial feeds in aquaculture, on the other hand, are essential for optimizing food formulations.
is dependent on an understanding of fish feeding Poorly digested foods lead to limited growth and
behavior and nutritional requirements. The high nutrient excreta, which pollute the
objective is to supply high-quality nutrients. The environment. Therefore, nutrient digestibility and
purpose is to provide fish with high-quality nutrient and waste retention potential must be
nutrients in a physically acceptable condition. considered for efficient and sustainable animal
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production when reviewing food formulations. main organic component of animals and presented
Fish have the ability to use lipids for energy, in the fish body in small quantities. This class of
saving protein for deposition and growth, so the macronutrient involves sugars (glucose) and their
inclusion of lipids in diets for fish is important for polymers (glycogen). Fish can synthesize
both growth and energy. Most commercial foods carbohydrates from AA and fatty acids (FA), so
today are formulated to increase growth they are not essential nutrients (Huntingford et al.,
performance by exploiting the effect of protein 2012).
savings by high-energy lipids, allowing most of
the dietary protein to turn into flesh. Lipids can separate into polar lipids
(phospholipids) which are played structural roles
2. Fish nutrition, feeds, and health and neutral lipids responsible for energy storage
(triacylglycerol forms) and esters. Likewise, all
Fish require organic and inorganic compounds fatty acids FA play the roles mentioned above,
which are represented by macro and meanwhile, some specific ones have important
micronutrients for their energy, maintain, growth, roles in the regulation and control of metabolism,
reproduction, immunity and so on; the and sufficient lipid/FA should be satisfied gross
macronutrients comprised proteins, carbohydrates energy and specific requirements for critical
and lipids meanwhile the micronutrients functional essential FA, sterol and phospholipids
encompass vitamins, minerals, attractants etc. (Lee 2015).
Some metabolic processes and growth depend on
fish obtaining adequate supplies of certain 3. Extruded feed
indispensable nutrients that cannot be synthesized
de novo and must be acquired from the diet. If the The extrusion processing is a combination of
diet lacks or has deficient amounts of, one or moisture, mechanical shear, pressure, and
more of the indispensable nutrients, the fish will temperature, it has been used for almost a century
exhibit some symptoms. Such some of them may in the food industry and its consequences in
include reduced FI and growth, metabolic chemical and physical changes, such as the
disorders, irregular development, body color and reduction of the size of ingredient particle,
the display of unusual behavior [4]. gelatinization of starch and enzymes inactivation
(Cheng et al., 2003). This technique of feed
2.1 The function of dietary macronutrients in production usually improves the plant proteins
fish nutrition digestibility (Srihara P, Alexander J 1984).
However, the extruded feed costs 10 to 15% more
The main component in fish feed is the protein compared to conventional pelleted feeds (Nates
because it offers the indispensable and 1984). Studies carried out to investigate the effect
dispensable (AA) to synthesize body protein and of extruded feed in the diets showed that the
in part delivers energy for maintenance (Gan et extrusion might diminish the contents of anti-
al., 2012). Besides, of important and the most nutritional factor such as lectin, cyanogenic
expensive constituent of diets for cultured species, glycosides and the inhibitors (trypsin, protease,
proteins are the building material for the fish and inhibitors) (Adamidou et al., 2009; Barrows
growth and perform a vast variety of biological 2007; Francis 2001; Drew 2007), and enhance the
functions playing a key role in virtually all the protein utilization(Gaylord2008).
biological process in the body (Cyrino2008). In
addition, they are important for the gene
expressions regulation, enzymes, and hormones
(Steffens 1988)[11]. Carbohydrates also are a

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4. Amino acids energy requirements of the liver, meanwhile the

branched chain of some other AA is mainly
All proteins contain groupings of the same set of transaminated in skeletal muscle and The AA
20 AA, most of which have little or no inherent oxidation is determined by habitual protein intake
biological activity in their free form. Of the 20 and slightly changed with intake alteration
amino acids found in proteins, (in some species), (Bender 2012).
10 are not synthesized by animals and so must be
acquired via the diet (Huntingford et al., 2012). 4.2 The function of amino acids

4.1 Utilization of amino acids Besides the main function as a required

component for the polypeptides and other
The AA utilization can be affected by several nitrogenous substances synthesis, they have five
factors, such as the chemical structure of the AA, essential roles in the regulation and nutrition of
biological factors and diet composition (NRC the animals; these major roles can be played in the
2011). The availability of AA and especially cell signaling, antioxidative defense, chemical
when it provides jointly with carbohydrate sensing, epigenetic regulation and transcription
regulates and gives a greater increase in the and protein modifications, in addition, these
synthesis of proteins (Bender 2012). The fish nutrients play other roles in the growth,
feeding behaviors are categorized mainly by development, survival, disease prevention, and
alerting, appetitive and consummatory phase, the some disorders treatment (digestive, muscular,
latter phase consisting food intake and either reproductive and cardiovascular systems) (Wu G
rejection or ingestion and the AA are efficient 2013). Likewise, organisms can synthesize from
stimulants for each of these phases (Houlihan amino acids important biologic products such as
2001). The main substances can be produced after feathers, scales, antibodies, enzymes, and
catabolism processes of amino acids by animals hormones (Lee 2015). Fafournoux, Bruhat(2000)
are rather simple organic compounds such as stated that the amino acids could play clearly,
nitrate, nitrite, urea, uric acid, ammonium salts jointly with hormones, a key role in the control
and purines) and the excess of AA during the fed and modification of gene expressions at the levels
state for proteins synthesis requirements are not of transcription and stability of mRNA. They are
stored but are catabolized (Lovell 1989). The essential for fish as energy substrates, for and
deamination of the most amino acids takes place metabolic pathways regulation (Andersen et al.,
in the liver and their carbon skeletons are used for 2016). In the following figure (Fig 1-1), Wu
ketogenesis and gluconeogenesis or to meet the (2009) summarized the possible roles of amino
acids.

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Fig. 1-1 AA functions in growth, development, and health of fish, adopted from adopted from Li, Mai
(2008).

4.3 Essential amino acids (EAA) requirement 10%) with significant exceptions for
of fish phenylalanine and histidine and cannot be
assumed equal for all AA (Acton 2013).
The studies carried out to grasp the requirement
estimation of fish on 10 indispensable amino 4.4 Limiting amino acids
acids revealed varied significant findings because
of the experimental design, scope and Limiting AA of proteins are EAA present in the
methodological approaches used, whether for low amount compared to the requirement for
freshwater species such as tilapia, common carp, protein total utilization for tissue protein
channel catfish, salmon, Indian major carp, synthesis. In general, legumes and animal proteins
rainbow trout and so on or marine species such as, are limited by their content of methionine and
sea bream, sea bass, flounder, turbot and cysteine, while the cereal proteins are limited by
others(NRC 2011). Cowey (1994) stated that the their content of lysine (Bender 2012). EAA
important particular factor in the studies of amino synthesized from aspartate and required in non-
acids requirement. The maintenance requirements ruminant animal diets are lysine, methionine, and
estimated by “A nonlinear mixed modeling threonine and the major crops such as soybean,
approach” for the majority of EAA represent a corn, and rice are low in at least one of this three
small proportion of global requirements (less than AA (Singh 1999).

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The requirement of fish for lysine is ranging from information related to the effective use of
40-50 g/kg dietary protein of most fish species, vaccines and/or chemotherapy.Additionally,
for the methionine the value is ranging from 20 to boosting health via good diet would not only
30 g/kg dietary protein and for threonine in the lessen the need for chemotherapy but would also
range of 20-50 g/kg dietary protein, and it’s assist in the avoidance of catastrophic disease
difficult to offer any explanation of the lack of outbreaks.
agreement on these requirement values (D'Mello
2003). Toxic and antinutritional factors (blocking
effective nutrient assimilation) found in plant
4.5 Efficiency of dietary crystalline amino acids ingredients, nutritional imbalances in formulated
(CAA) utilization feed, adventitious toxic factors, toxic compounds
formed during feed storage and processing, and
The addition of CAA in the diets are directly other factors can all have a negative impact on the
absorbed by the small intestine; and the findings health of cultured species and increase
of some studies have been carried out with human susceptibility to disease. Although this
and animals such as pigs, chicken and rats information is documented, and adequate
indicated that the CAA acids have high nutritional measures during feed formulation and processing
values when they are supplemented to deficient can reduce the risk (Devresse et al., 1997), further
diet on those amino acids, on the other hand, the study is needed to create better techniques to
supplementation of the latter with the appropriate reduce such adverse consequences.
amount is safe for the animal in general (Wu G
2013). The CAA utilization in the aquafeed Conclusion
becomes more and more important because of the
cost of the latter which is reduced with Many developing countries' aquaculture industries
biotechnology progress and the huge production have expanded considerably in the recent decade.
and availability and secondly, they can meet the Aquaculture has so made significant contributions
requirement of EAA profiles when they added to to food security and poverty alleviation. Global
others proteins sources in the diets for fish and aquaculture production is predicted to increase
shrimp in the case of fishmeal substitution (NRC further, adding to these demands. Feed supplies
2011). continue to dominate aquaculture needs since
nutrition and feeding are so crucial to successful
Nutrition and health aquaculture. Much of the increased aquaculture
production in Asia and Africa will very definitely
Several research studies have been conducted to be achieved through the expansion of semi-
determine the nutritional requirements of fish and intensive, small-scale pond culture; hence, feed
shellfish (Elfina Azwar et al., 2022; C. Silva et resource availability and cost may be significant
al., 2012; Nina et al., 2014). Another area of study restrictions for such development. In the near
in aquaculture nutrition that has garnered future, fish meal will remain the primary
substantial interest is the use of plant and animal component in intensive aquaculture of marine
by-products as fishmeal alternatives in fish feed carnivorous species, although there may be
(Kathryn et al., 2004). Unfortunately, the primary potential for limited use of animal by-products as
focus of these research was on improving growth, alternate protein sources. As intensive aquaculture
feed efficiency, and overall health. increases, aquaculturists must carefully analyze
the impact of nutrient loading on the aquatic
Before adopting new immunostimulant environment and use both science and judgment
techniques, there is a clear need to improve the to prevent such issues. Furthermore, a careful
stability of immunostimulants, micronutrients, balance should be maintained between the
and oral vaccines, particularly under subtropical environment, health/disease resistance, and feed
and tropical conditions, as well as nutritional
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How to cite this article:

Dawit Adisu Tadese. (2022). Aquatic animal nutrition and feeding for sustainable aquaculture
production. Int. J. Adv. Res. Biol. Sci. 9(12): 187-194.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.22192/ijarbs.2022.09.12.015

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