4.

Fourier Series

4.1. Introduction
In this section we will study periodic signals in terms of their frequency
content. Remind that a signal f (t ) is said to be periodic if

f (t + T ) = f (t ) (4.1)

for every t, where T is a number. From this definition it follows that

f (t + nT ) = f (t ) (4.2)

for every integer n, positive or negative. For example if n = 2 then

f (t + 2T ) = f ((t + T ) + T ) = f (t + T ) = f (t ) .

Similarly, for n = −1 the equation

f (t − T ) = f (t' ) = f (t' +T ) = f (t )

holds.
The smallest positive number T for which (4.1) holds is called a period.
Let us consider the well known sinusoidal function

Asin (ω0t + φ )

where A is the amplitude, ω0 is the angular frequency, and φ is the phase.

Since

Asin (ω0 (t + T ) + φ ) = Asin (ω0t + φ + ω0T )

116

and 2π is the smallest angle that satisfies the equation

sinα = sin (α + 2π )

then

2π
T= . (4.3)
ω0

Let us consider two periodic signals f 1 (t ) and f 2 (t ) with periods T1 and T2 ,

respectively. The common period of f 1 (t ) and f 2 (t ) , if it exists, is the smallest
positive number T satisfying

f 1 (t + T ) = f 1 (t ) and f 2 (t + T ) = f 2 (t ) for every t.

Observe that any T, such that f 1 (t + T ) = f 1 (t ) for all t, can be expressed in the
form T = n1T1 where n1 is an integer. Likewise any T, such that f 2 (t + T ) = f 2 (t )
for all t, can be expressed in the form T = n 2T2 , where n2 is an integer. Hence,
the condition under which the functions f 1 (t ) and f 2 (t ) have a common period
is

n1T1 = n2T2 .

The above equation states that the ratio

T1 n2
=
T2 n1

must be a rational number.

The common period is the lowest common multiple (over the positive integers
field) of T1 and T2 . If the ratio T1 T 2 is an irrational number, then f 1 (t ) and
f 2 (t ) do not have a common period. In such a case integers n1 and n2 such that
n1T1 = n2T2 do not exist.
Let h(x ) be an arbitrary function. If f (t ) is a periodic signal with period T
then the function defined by the equation

g (t ) = h( f (t ))
 117

is periodic because

g (t + T ) = h( f (t + T ) ) = h( f (t ) ) = g (t ) .

Hence, the period of g (t ) is T or less than T (see Example 2).

Example 4.1

Let us consider the sinusoidal signals

f1 (t ) = 5cos(ω0t + 60°)

f 2 (t ) = 10sin 3ω0t .

The periods of these signals are:

2π 2π
T1 = , T2 = .
ω0 3ω0

Consequently, we obtain

T1
=3
T2

thus, the ratio T1 T 2 is a rational number. Therefore, the two signals have a
common period given by
2π
T = T1 = 3T2 = .
ω0

Now we consider the signals:

g1 (t ) = 5cos(ω0t + 45°)

g 2 (t ) = 10sin 3 ω0t .

The periods of these signals are:

2π 2π
T1 = , T2 =
ω0 3 ω0

and the ratio

118

T1
= 3
T2

is an irrational number. Hence, the signals do not have any common period.

Example 4.2

Let us consider the periodic signal

f (t ) = cost

with period T1 = 2π and let h(x ) = x .

The function g (t ) = h( f (t ) ) is

g (t ) = cost .

T1
It is a periodic function with period T2 = = π (see Fig.4.1)
2
(a) f(t)

0 π 2π t

g(t)
(b)

0 π 2π t

Fig. 4.1. Plots of signals f (t ) = cos t and g (t ) = cos t

Thus, the period of g (t ) is only half that of f (t ) .

 119

4.2. Fourier series. Definition

We consider a periodic signal f (t ) with the period T. If some conditions,
which will be discussed later, are satisfied, we can express the function f (t ) as a
series of sine and cosine functions

f (t ) = a0 + a1cos ω0t + a2cos 2ω0t + +

+ b1sinω0t + b2sin 2ω0t +
or
∞
f (t ) = a0 + ∑ (a cos nω t + b sin nω t )
n =1
n 0 n 0 (4.4)

2π
where ω0 = . Expression on the right hand side of (4.4) is called the
T
trigonometric Fourier series. The sum is called Fourier series and its terms are
called the harmonics. The n-th harmonic is the term

wn (t ) = an cos nω0t + bnsin nω0t =

⎛ ⎞
= an2 + bn2 ⎜ sin nω0t ⎟ .
an bn
cos nω0t +
⎜ a 2 + b2 an2 + bn2 ⎟
⎝ n n ⎠

We label

c n = a n2 + bn2 (4.5)

an − bn
cos θ n = sin θ n = (4.6)
an2 + bn2 an2 + bn2

obtaining

wn (t ) = cn (cos θ n cos ω0t − sin θ nsin nω0t ) = cn cos (nω0t + θ n ) . (4.7)

Thus, the n-th harmonic is a sinusoidal function with the amplitude c n , the phase
θ n and the angular frequency nω0 .
The first harmonic
120

w1 (t ) = a1cos ω0t + b1sin ω0t = c1cos (ω0t + θ1 )

is called the fundamental and its frequency ω0 is called the fundamental

frequency.

The constant term a 0 is the 0-th harmonic. Hence, an equivalent form of the
Fourier series

f (t ) = a0 + c1cos (ω0t + θ1 ) + c2cos (2ω0t + θ 2 ) + =

∞
(4.8)
= c0 + ∑ c cos (nω t + θ )
n =1
n 0 n

with c0 = a0 follows.
The plot of c n as a function of n is called the amplitude spectrum and the plot
of θ n as a function of n is called the phase spectrum of the signal f (t ) . Together
they are called the frequency spectra.

Example 4.3

Let us consider a periodic signal f (t ) including the following harmonics:

c0 = 2
w1 (t ) = 1.5cos (ω0t + 30°)
w3 (t ) = cos (3ω0t − 45°)
w5 (t ) = 0.5cos 5ω0t

rad
where ω0 = 1000π .
s
Figure 4.2 shows these harmonics and illustrates how the signal f (t ) is built up
from its harmonics.

(a) c0

t
 121

(b) w1(t)

(c) w3(t)

w5(t)
(d)

(e)
f (t)

Fig. 4.2. Construction of the signal f (t ) consisting of four harmonics

122

4.3. Evaluation of Fourier series coefficients

Our objective is to evaluate the a n and bn coefficients in the Fourier series
(4.4). The coefficients are called the Fourier coefficients of the signal f (t ) .
In order to determine a 0 we integrate both sides of equation (4.4) from 0 to T

T T ∞⎛ T T
⎞
∫ f (t ) dt = a0dt +
∫ ∑ ∫
⎜
⎜
n =1 ⎝
an cos nω0t dt + bn sin nω0t dt ⎟ .
∫ ⎟
(4.9)
0 0 0 0 ⎠

Let us consider the integral

T

∫ cos nω t dt .
0
0

The function cos nω0t has the period

2π
Tn =
nω0
whereas

2π
T= .
ω0

Hence, T = nTn holds. Since integral of cos nω0t over its period Tn is zero

Tn

∫ cos nω t dt = 0
0
0

then
T Tn

∫
0
∫
cos nω0t dt = n cos nω0t dt = 0 .
0
(4.10)

Similarly, we have

∫ sin nω t dt = 0 .
0
0 (4.11)
 123

Substituting (4.10) and (4.11) into (4.9) we obtain

T T

∫ f (t ) dt = a0dt = a0T
∫
0 0

or
T

∫ f (t ) dt .
1
a0 = (4.12)
T 0

Formula (4.12) can be modified by adding an arbitrary value t0 to the lower and
upper limit of integration
t 0 +T

∫ f (t ) dt .
1
a0 = (4.13)
T t0

Equation (4.13) shows that a0 is the average value of f (t ) over the period.
To compute am we multiply both sides of the Fourier series (4.9) by
cos mω0t and then integrate from 0 to T obtaining
T T

∫ f (t )cos mω0t dt = a0cosmω0t dt +

∫
0 0
(4.14)
∞ T
+ ∑ ∫ (a cos nω tcos mω t + b sin nω tcos mω t )dt .
n =1 0
n 0 0 n 0 0

As explained above, the first term on the right hand side of (4.14) is zero. To
rearrange the other terms we use the following formulas:
T

∫ sin nω tcos mω t dt = 0
0
0 0 (4.15)

T ⎧⎪ 0 if m≠n
∫0
cos nω0tcos mω0t dt = ⎨ 1
⎪⎩ 2
T if m=n
. (4.16)

Hence, we have
T T
f (t )cos mω0t dt = am cos 2 mω0t dt =
1
∫
0
∫
0
2
amT
124

or
T t0 +T

f (t ) cos mω0t dt = ∫ f (t )cos mω t dt

2 2
am =
T ∫
0
T t0
0 m = 1, 2, . (4.17)

In a similar manner we find

T t 0 +T

f (t )sin mω0tdt = ∫ f (t )sin mω t dt

2 2
bm =
T ∫
0
T t0
0 m = 1, 2, . (4.18)

Example 4.4

Let us consider the periodic signal with period T=2 having the waveform shown
in Fig.4.3
f (t)

0 1 2 t

-1
Fig. 4.3. Signal f (t ) for Example 4.4

We wish to express this signal by a Fourier series. The waveform of f (t ) is

described as follows

⎧2 for 0 < t <1

f (t ) = ⎨ .
⎩− 1 for 1< t < 2

To find a 0 , we apply (4.12)

1 ⎛⎜ ⎞ 1
1 2
a0 = 2dt − dt ⎟ = .
∫ ∫
2 ⎜⎝ 0 1
⎟ 2
⎠

Next, we calculate the Fourier coefficients a m given by (4.12):

 125

2⎛ ⎞
1 2 1 2
2 1
am = ⎜ 2cos mω0t dt − cos mω0t dt ⎟ =
∫ ∫ sin mω0t − sin mω0t .
2 ⎜⎝ 0 1
⎟ mω0
⎠ 0 mω0 1

2π
Since ω0 = = π we obtain
T

am = 0 m = 1, 2 , .

To determine bm we use (4.18):

2 ⎛⎜ ⎞
1 2 1 2
bm = ∫ 2sin mω0tdt − sin mω0t dt ⎟ = 2 sin mπt dt − sin mπt dt =
∫ ∫ ∫
2 ⎜⎝ 0 1
⎟
⎠ 0 1

−2 1 2
= cos mπt +
1
cos mπt =
1
(− 2cos mπ + 2 + cos2mπ − cos mπ ) =
mπ 0 mπ 1 mπ

=
3
(1 − cos mπ ) .
mπ

Hence, it follows

⎧
⎪ 0 if m is even
⎪
bm = ⎨ m = 1, 2 , .
⎪ 6 if m is odd
⎪ mπ
⎩

Thus, the coefficients bm are

6 2 6 6
b1 = , b2 = 0, b3 = , b4 = 0, b5 = , b6 = 0, b7 = ,
π π 5π 7π

and the Fourier series has the form

f (t ) =
1 6 2 6 6
+ sinω0t + sin 3ω0t + sin 5ω0t + sin 7ω0t + .
2 π π 5π 7π
126

Since

cn = an2 + bn2 = bn

and for n odd:

an bn
cosθ n = =0 sinθ n = − = −1
an2 + bn2 an2 + bn2

π
then θ n = − for n odd.
2
The amplitude and phase spectra of the signal are shown in Fig.4.4
(a )
cn
6
2 .0
π
1 .5

1 .0
2
0 .5 π 6 6
5π 7π

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n

(b)
θn

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n
π
−
2

Fig. 4.4. Spectra of the signal for Example 4.4

4.4. Properties of Fourier series

In this section we will discuss some waveform properties of periodic
functions.
 127

A function f (t ) is said to be even if, for every t, it satisfies the condition

f (− t ) = f (t ) .

Examples of the even functions are:

cos ω0t , sinω0t , sin 2ω0t .

Note that if a function is even, its graph is symmetric in the vertical axis (see
Fig.4.5).
f (t)

T 0 T t
−
2 2
Fig. 4.5. An even function

A function f (t ) is said to be odd if, for every t, it satisfies the condition

f (− t ) = − f (t ) .

Examples of odd functions:

sin ω0t sin 3ω0t .

Note that if a function is odd, its graph is symmetric in the origin (see Fig.4.6)
f (t)

T 0 T t
−
2 2

Fig. 4.6. An odd function

128

A periodic signal f (t ) with period T is said to possess odd half-wave

symmetry if, for every t, it satisfies the condition

⎛ T⎞
f (t ) = − f ⎜ t + ⎟ .
⎝ 2⎠

Function sinω0t has this property; another example is shown in Fig.4.7.

f (t)

0 T T t
2

Fig. 4.7. A function possessing odd half-wave symmetry

Even functions

Let f (t ) be a periodic even function. Then for any t0 the equation

t0 t0

∫ f (t )dt = 2 ∫ f (t )dt
−t0 0

holds.
This equation implies

T T
2 2

∫ f (t ) dt = T ∫ f (t ) dt .
1 2
a0 = (4.19)
T T 0
−
2

If a function is even, then its Fourier series does not contain the terms
 129

bnsin nω0t n = 1, 2,

because they violate the relation f (− t ) = f (t ) . As a matter of fact

bnsin nω0 (− t ) = −bnsin nω0t .

The expression for am can be reduced as follows:

T
t0 +T 2

∫ f (t ) cos mω t dt = T ∫ f (t ) cos mω t dt .
2 2
am = 0 0
T t0 T
−
2

Since both f (t ) and cos mω0t are even, then

f (t ) cos mω0t = f (− t ) cos mω0 (− t ) .

Consequently, we have

T T
2 2
2 f (t ) cos mω0t dt = ∫ f (t )cos mω t dt
2 4
am =
T 0∫ T 0
0 m = 1, 2 , . (4.20)

Summarizing, we state that the Fourier series of an even periodic signal contains
only a0 and cosine terms.

Odd functions

For an odd function f (t ) and any t0 the equation

t0

∫ f (t )dt = 0
−t0

holds; hence, we conclude that a0 = 0 .

If a function is odd then its Fourier series does not contain the terms

a0 and an cos nω0t n = 1, 2,

because they violate the relation f (− t ) = − f (t ) .

130

Similarly as previously, it can be proved that the formula for bm can be

simplified and has the form

T
2

∫ f (t )sin mω t dt .
4
bm = 0 (4.21)
T 0

Thus, the Fourier series of an odd periodic signal contains only sine terms.

Odd half-wave symmetry functions

In the case of odd half-wave symmetry the constant term a0 and all even
⎛ T⎞
harmonics cannot exist because they violate the condition f (t ) = − f ⎜ t + ⎟ , i.e.
⎝ 2⎠

a0 = 0 am = bm = 0 for m even .

The coefficients am and bm for m odd are given by:

T
2

∫ f (t )cos mω t dt
4
am = 0 (4.22)
T 0

T
2

∫ f (t )sin mω t dt .
4
bm = 0 (4.23)
T 0

The above formulas can be derived using the following relationships for m odd:

⎛ T⎞ ⎛ T⎞
f ⎜ t + ⎟ cos mω0 ⎜ t + ⎟ = − f (t ) cos(mω0t + mπ ) = f (t ) cos mω0t
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

⎛ T⎞ ⎛ T⎞
f ⎜ t + ⎟ sin mω0 ⎜ t + ⎟ = − f (t ) sin (mω0t + mπ ) = f (t ) sin mω0t .
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

Using these expressions we can reduce the interval of integration twice and
obtain formulas (4.22) and (4.23).
 131

The advantages of the symmetry properties of periodic functions are as follows:

(i) We know in advance what coefficients will be zero; consequently, we do not
waste time to compute them.
(ii) The other coefficients can be obtained using simplified expressions.

4.5. Exponential Fourier series

We consider the trigonometric Fourier series
∞
f (t ) = a0 + ∑ (a cos nω t + b sin nω t )
n =1
n 0 n 0 (4.24)

and substitute:

cos nω0t =
2
e (
1 jnω 0 t
+ e − jnω 0 t )
sin nω0t =
2j
e (
1 jnω 0 t
− e − jnω 0 t . )
As a result, we obtain

∑ ⎜⎜⎝ 2 (e ) ( )⎞⎟⎟ =
∞
⎛ an
f (t ) = a0 + jnω 0 t bn jnω 0 t
+ e − jnω 0 t + e − e − jnω 0 t
n =1 2j ⎠
∞
(4.25)
⎛ an − jbn jnω 0 t an + jbn − jnω 0 t ⎞
= a0 + ∑
n =1
⎜
⎝ 2
e +
2
e ⎟.
⎠

Let

c~0 = a0 (4.26)

c~n = (a n − jbn )
1
(4.27)
2
then we have

c~− n = (a − n − jb− n ) .
1
2

Since a− n = an and b− n = −bn (see (4.17) and (4.18))

132

c~− n = (a n + jbn ) = c~n∗

1
(4.28)
2

Hence, we conclude that c~n and c~− n form a pair of complex conjugate numbers.
Inserting (4.26), (4.27) and (4.28) into (4.25) yields

∞ ∞
f (t ) = ~
c0 + ∑ c~ e
n =1
n
jnω 0 t
+ ∑ c~
n =1
− ne
− jnω 0 t
. (4.29)

The third term on the right hand side of (4.29) can be rearranged as follows

∞ −∞

∑
n =1
c~− n e − jnω 0 t = ∑ ~c e
n = −1
n
jnω 0 t
. (4.30)

Using (4.30) we rewrite (4.29) in the compact form

∞
f (t ) = ∑ ~c e
n = −∞
n
jnω 0 t
(4.31)

called the exponential Fourier series.

The coefficients c~n are given by (4.27) where an and bn are specified by (4.17)
and (4.18) repeated below:

t0 +T

∫ f (t )cos nω t dt
2
an = 0
T t0

t0 +T

∫ f (t )sin nω t dt .
2
bn = 0
T t0

Hence, it follows

1 2 ⎛⎜ ⎞
t0 +T t0 +T

c~n = ∫ f (t ) cos nω0t dt − j ∫ f (t )sin nω0t dt ⎟ =

2T⎜ ⎟
⎝ t0 t0 ⎠
t 0 +T

∫ f (t )(cos nω t − jsin nω t ) dt .
1
= 0 0
T t0
 133

Using Euler’s formula e jα = cosα + jsin α , we obtain

t 0 +T

∫ f (t ) e
1 − jnω 0 t
c~n = dt n = 1, 2, . (4.32)
T t0

T
Usually we set t0 = − or t0 = 0 , then c~n is
2
T
2 T

∫ f (t ) e ∫ f (t ) e
1 − jn ω 0 t 1 − jnω 0 t
c~n = dt = dt n = 1, 2, . (4.33)
T T
T 0
−
2

The coefficients c~n are generally complex and can be expressed in the polar form

c~n = c~n e jφ n n = 1, 2 , . (4.34)

Using (4.28) we obtain the relationships: ~

c− n = c~n and φ− n = −φn .
The plot of c~n versus n is called the amplitude spectrum and the plot of φn
versus n is called the phase spectrum.
Note that for n = 0
t 0 +T

∫ f (t ) dt = a
1
c~0 = 0 . (4.35)
T t0

Since
−1 bn
a − jbn 1 2 − jtan
c~n = n = an + bn2 e an
2 2

then, using (4.5) and (4.6), we can express c~n in terms of cn and θ n

1
c~n = cn e jθ n . (4.36)
2
Assuming an arbitrary integer n = n̂ in the exponential Fourier series, we prove
that the sum of two terms corresponding to n = n̂ and n = − n̂ gives the n-th
harmonic:
134

c~n̂ e jn̂ω 0 t + c~− n̂ e − jn̂ω 0 t = ~

cn̂ e jn̂ω 0 t + ~ (
cn̂∗ e jn̂ω 0 t ) = 2Re(c~ e ) =
∗
n̂
jn̂ω 0 t

⎛1 ⎞
= 2Re⎜ cn̂ e j(n̂ω 0 t +θn̂ ) ⎟ = cn̂ cos (n̂ω0t + θ n̂ ) .
⎝2 ⎠

To derive the above relation, equations (4.28) and (4.36) have been applied.

Example 4.5

Let us consider a periodic function f (t ) , shown in Fig.4.8, specified by the

equation

f (t ) = Asin ω0t
1
for 0≤t ≤T
2

2π
where ω0 = . For this function we find the coefficients c~n .
T

f(t)

0 T 2T t

Fig. 4.8. Periodic function for Example 4.5

To determine c~n we use (4.27). Since f (t ) is even then bn = 0 and formula

(4.27) reduces to

1
c~n = an (4.37)
2

where an is specified by (4.20) repeated below for convenience

T
2

∫ f (t )cos nω t dt
4
an = 0 n = 1, 2 , .
T 0
 135

Hence, we have

T
2
4A 1
an =
T 0∫sin ω0tcos nω0t dt
2
n = 1, 2,

and apply the trigonometric identity

sinαcosβ =
1
(sin(α − β ) + sin(α + β ) )
2

finding

⎛T ⎞
2 A ⎜⎜ ⎛ ⎟
2
1 1 ⎞ ⎟
an =
T ⎜0⎝ ∫ ⎜ sin( ω0 − nω0 )t + sin( ω0 + nω0 )t ⎟ dt =
2 2 ⎠ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
T
⎡ ⎤2
2A ⎢ −1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎥
= ⎢1 cos ⎜ ω0 − nω0 ⎟ t − cos ⎜ ω0 + nω0 ⎟ t ⎥ =
T ⎢ ω − nω ⎝2 ⎠ 1
ω 0 + nω 0 ⎝2 ⎠ ⎥
⎣2 ⎦0
0 0
2
⎡ ⎛1 ⎞ T ⎛1 ⎞ T ⎤
⎢ cos ⎜ − n ⎟ω0 cos ⎜ + n ⎟ω0 ⎥
− 2A ⎝2 ⎠ 2 − 1 ⎝2 ⎠ 2 − 1
= ⎢ + ⎥.
T ⎢ ⎛1 ⎞ 1
ω0 − nω0 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1
ω0 + nω0 ⎥
⎢ ⎜⎝ 2 − n ⎟⎠ω0 ⎜ + n ⎟ω0
⎝ ⎠ ⎥
⎣ 2 2 2 ⎦

T
Since ω0 = π and ω0T = 2π , then
2

⎛ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞ ⎞
⎜ cos ⎜ − n ⎟π cos ⎜ + n ⎟π ⎟
− 2A ⎜ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 1 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 1 ⎟
an = − + − =
2π ⎜ 1 1 1 1 ⎟
⎜ − n − n + n + n ⎟
⎝ 2 2 2 2 ⎠
⎛ ⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞ ⎞
⎜ cos ⎜ nπ − ⎟ cos ⎜ nπ + ⎟ ⎟
=
A⎜ ⎝ 2⎠
−
1
− ⎝ 2⎠
+
1 ⎟
.
π⎜ −
1
−
1
+
1
+
1⎟
⎜ n n n n ⎟
⎝ 2 2 2 2⎠
136

Next we use (4.37) and calculate:

~ 1 2A
c1 = a1 = −
2 3π

1 2A
c~2 = a2 = −
2 15π

1 2A
c~3 = a3 = −
2 35π
………………… .

To find c~0 = a 0 we apply equation (4.12)

T
1
T T cos ω0t
f (t ) dt =
1 A 1 A 2A
c~0 = a0 =
T ∫
0
T 0 ∫
sin ω0t dt = −
2 T 1ω
2 =
π
.
0
2 0

Example 4.6

Let us consider a rectangular-wave signal f (t ) indicated in Fig.4.9.

f (t)

0 T T t
2

-1

Fig. 4.9. Rectangular-wave signal f (t ) for Example 4.6

To find the coefficients c~n , we apply (4.33) repeated below

∫ f (t ) e
1 − jnω 0 t
c~n = dt
T 0

where
 137

T
⎧1 for 0<t <
f (t ) = ⎨ 2
⎩− 1 for T
<t <T
2
2π
and ω 0 = . Hence, we have
T
T
2 T
1 − jnω 0 t 1 − jnω 0 t
c~n =
T 0
e ∫ dt −
TT
e ∫ dt =

2
T
T
1⎛ 1 ⎞ − jnω 0 t 2 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ − jnω 0 t
= ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ e − ⎜⎜ − ⎟e .
T ⎝ jnω0 ⎠ T ⎝ jnω0 ⎟⎠ T
0
2

Using relationship ω0T = 2π we obtain after simple rearrangements

c~n =
j
2πn
(
2e − jnπ − 1 − e − jn 2π , ) n = ±1, ± 2, . (4.38)

Note that the signal f (t ) is odd and has odd half-wave symmetry property;
hence, c~0 = a 0 = 0 as well as a n = 0 and for every n bn = 0 for an even n.
Consequently c~n = 0 for an even n. Taking into account the above statements
and relationships (4.38) and (4.28) we obtain:

π π
2 2 −j 2 2 j
c~1 = − j = e 2 c~−1 = c~1∗ = j = e 2
π π π π

c~2 = 0 c~− 2 = c~2∗ = 0

π π
2 2 −j2 2 2 j2
c~3 = − j = e c3∗ = j
c~− 3 = ~ = e
3π 3π 3π 3π

c~4 = 0 c~− 4 = c~4∗ = 0

π π
2 2 −j2 2 2 j2
c~5 = − j = e c5∗ = j
c~− 5 = ~ = e
5π 5π 5π 5π
…………………… …………………… .
138

Thus, the exponential Fourier series expansion of f (t ) is

2⎛ ⎞
f (t ) = j ⎜
1 1 1 1
+ e − j5ω 0 t + e − j3ω 0 t + e − jω 0 t − e jω 0 t − e j3ω 0 t − e j5ω 0 t − ⎟.
π⎝ 5 3 3 5 ⎠

The amplitude and phase spectra are indicated in Figs.4.10 and 4.11
~
c n

2 2
π π 2
2
π
5π

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n

Fig. 4.10. Amplitude spectrum of the signal for Example 4.6

φn
π
2

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n

π
−
2
Fig. 4.11. Phase spectrum of the signal for Example 4.6

Since c~− n = c~n , the amplitude spectrum is symmetric in the vertical axis.
Similarly, since φ− n = −φn , the phase spectrum is symmetric in the origin.

4.6. Convergence of Fourier series

Not every periodic signal can be represented by a Fourier series and the
question arises under what conditions the Fourier series exists. This question is
answered by the Dirichlet conditions as follows:
 139

(i) Over any period f (t ) must be absolutely integrable, i.e.

∫ f (t )
0
dt < ∞ .

(ii) In any period f (t ) is of bounded variation, i.e. f (t ) has at most a finite

number of maxima and minima.
(iii) In any period f (t ) has at most a finite number of discontinuities and each of
these discontinuities is finite.
Under these conditions the Fourier series of f (t ) converges to f (t ) at all points
where f (t ) is continuous and the series converges to

1
2
[ ( ) ( )]
f t i+ + f t i−

at any point ti of discontinuity.

Note that the condition (i ) guarantees that each coefficient c~n is finite, because

T T T

∫ f (t ) e ∫ f (t ) e ∫ f (t ) dt < ∞ .
1 − jnω 0 t 1 − jnω 0 t 1
c~n = dt ≤ dt =
T 0
T 0
T 0

A periodic function that violates this condition is depicted in Fig.4.12

f (t)

3 -T T T T 3 t
− T − T
2 2 2 2
Fig. 4.12. Function that violates the first Dirichlet condition

An example of a function that does not satisfy condition (ii) is

140

⎛ 2π ⎞
1
f (t ) = e t −1sin ⎜ ⎟ 0 ≤ t <1
⎝1− t ⎠

with T = 1 as depicted in Fig.4.13.

f (t)

0 1 2 t

Fig. 4.13. Function that violates the second Dirichlet condition

An example of a function that violates condition (iii) is indicated in Fig.4.14.

f (t)

T
0 T t
−
2 2
Fig. 4.14. Function that violates the third Dirichlet condition

Dirichlet conditions do not require that a function f (t ) be continuous in order to

possess a Fourier expansion. Thus, its waveform may consists of a number of
disjointed arcs as depicted in Fig.4.15.
 141

f (t)

c
b
a

0 t1
T 2T t
Fig. 4.15. Signal with discontinuity points

The signal shown in Fig.4.15 has two points of discontinuity at t1 and T over the
period. Setting t = t1 into the Fourier series of this signal we obtain

1
(a + c ) .
2

Similarly, setting t = T we obtain

1
b.
2

It can be shown that Fourier coefficients tend to zero as n approaches infinity.

Therefore the Fourier series can be truncated after a finite number of terms. The
truncated series including N terms will be called the partial sum and labeled
s N (t ) .
Let us consider a periodic signal f (t ) having the waveform depicted in
Fig.4.16. This signal satisfies the Dirichlet conditions.
f(t)
1

T T 0 T T t
− −
2 4 4 2
Fig. 4.16. Rectangular pulse train signal
142

T
At t = ± the points of discontinuity occur. Figure 4.17 shows the partial sums
4
s N (t ) of this signal for N = 7 , N = 11 , N = 15 and N = 25 . Note that the partial
sums exhibit ripples and oscillations. Furthermore, the peak value of these ripples

(a) s7(t)

0 t
T T T T
− −
2 4 4 2

(b) s11(t)

0 t
T T T T
− −
2 4 4 2
 143

(c) s15(t)

0 t
T T T T
− −
2 4 4 2
(d) s25(t)

0 t
T T T T
− −
2 4 4 2
Fig. 4.17. An illustration of the Gibbs phenomenon

in the neighborhood of the discontinuity points does not decrease as N increases

and remains approximately 9% of the height of the signal for any finite N. Thus,
the deviations in the vicinity of the discontinuities are rather large. This behavior
of s N (t ) is known as the Gibbs phenomenon.