ASSIGNMENT I

1. What is the main purpose of a system call and a system program?

Ans: The main purpose of a system call is to provide an interface between user-level
applications and the operating system (OS). It allows user programs to request
services and resources from the OS, such as file operations, network communication,
process management, and device access. System calls are typically used to perform
privileged operations that are restricted to the OS, ensuring that user programs can
execute certain tasks without direct access to the underlying hardware or OS kernel.

On the other hand, system programs (also known as utility programs or system
utilities) are software programs provided by the operating system to perform specific
system-related tasks. These programs serve as intermediaries between users and the
underlying hardware or operating system. System programs can include various tools
and utilities for tasks such as file management, system configuration, disk
management, network administration, and system monitoring.

2. Explain the difference between micro kernel and macro kernel architecture?
Ans: Microkernel architecture separates essential services from non-essential ones,
implementing the former in the kernel and the latter as user-space processes. It
offers modularity and reliability but may have performance overhead. Macrokernel
architecture integrates all services within the kernel, providing direct hardware
access and better performance but sacrificing modularity and simplicity.

3. How security and production services are managed by an operating system?

Ans: Operating systems play a crucial role in managing security and production
services in a computing environment.

1. Security Management:
Operating systems provide various mechanisms and features to ensure security
within the system. Some common security management aspects include:

• User Authentication and Access Control: Operating systems manage user

authentication, enforcing password policies, and providing mechanisms to
control access to system resources. This includes user account management,
permissions, and privileges.

• File and Data Security: Operating systems implement access control

mechanisms to protect files and data from unauthorized access. This involves
setting file permissions, ownership, and implementing file encryption or file
system security features.
 • Network Security: Operating systems include network security features such
as firewalls, network filtering, and encryption protocols to protect network
communications and prevent unauthorized access.

• Process Isolation: Operating systems use process isolation to prevent one

process from interfering with or accessing the memory or resources of
another process. This helps protect sensitive data and ensures the stability of
the system.

• Security Updates: Operating systems regularly release security updates and

patches to address vulnerabilities and protect against known threats. These
updates can include bug fixes, vulnerability patches, and improvements to
security features.

2. Production Services Management:

Operating systems provide the infrastructure and tools to manage production
services efficiently. This includes:

• Process and Resource Management: The operating system manages the

execution of processes, allocating system resources such as CPU time,
memory, and I/O devices to ensure optimal utilization and performance.
Process scheduling algorithms, memory management techniques, and I/O
subsystems are used to manage production services effectively.

• Monitoring and Performance Analysis: Operating systems provide tools and

utilities to monitor the performance of production services, including CPU
usage, memory utilization, disk I/O, and network traffic. These tools help
administrators identify bottlenecks, optimize resource allocation, and
troubleshoot performance issues.

• Service Availability and Fault Management: Operating systems incorporate

mechanisms to ensure high availability of production services. This may
involve features such as fault tolerance, redundancy, and error recovery
mechanisms to minimize downtime and maintain service continuity.

• Logging and Auditing: Operating systems offer logging and auditing

capabilities to record system events, user activities, and system changes. This
helps in tracking and investigating security incidents, identifying unauthorized
access, and ensuring compliance with regulatory requirements.

• Service Configuration and Deployment: Operating systems provide tools and

utilities for configuring and deploying production services, including setting
 up network configurations, managing software packages, and automating
service deployment processes.

4. What is the difference between program and process? State with suitable example.
Ans: In the context of operating systems, a program and a process are related but
distinct concepts. Here's an explanation of the difference between the two, along
with an example:

1. Program:
A program is a set of instructions or code written in a programming language that
performs a specific task. It is a passive entity, typically stored on disk as an executable
file. A program doesn't have an active state and doesn't consume system resources
until it is executed.

For example, consider a text editor program like Microsoft Word. The Word program
is the executable file containing the instructions for editing text documents.
However, when the program is not running, it remains inactive and doesn't consume
CPU time or memory.

2. Process:
A process, on the other hand, refers to an instance of a program that is currently
executing. It is an active entity that is managed by the operating system and consists
of several components, including program code, data, stack, registers, and system
resources.

When a program is executed, it becomes a process in memory, and the operating

system assigns system resources to it. Each process has its own memory space and
execution context, allowing it to run independently of other processes.

Continuing with the previous example, when you launch Microsoft Word to edit a
document, it becomes a process. The Word process is created in memory, and the
operating system allocates resources such as CPU time, memory, and I/O devices for
that specific instance of Word. The process has its own state, including the program
counter, stack, and data, which allows it to perform actions like opening, editing, and
saving documents.

5. Define the following terms:

• Jobs.
• Task.
• Job scheduling.
• Long term scheduling.
• Short term scheduling.
• Medium term scheduling.
• Throughput.
• Turn around time.
• Waiting time.
• Deadlock.
• System calls.
• Starvation.
• Firmed wire.
• Kernel.
• PCB.
• Interprocess Communication.
• Critical Section.
• Read and write signal related to the process.
Ans:

• Jobs: A job refers to a unit of work or a task submitted by a user or a program

to the operating system for execution. A job typically represents a specific job
or request that needs to be performed, such as running a program, executing
a batch of tasks, or performing a computational job.

• Job scheduling:

Job scheduling in operating systems refers to the process of determining

the order in which jobs or tasks are executed by the system's resources. It
involves deciding which job should be allocated system resources such as
CPU time, memory, and I/O devices at any given time.Job scheduling is a
crucial aspect of operating system functionality, especially in systems that
support batch processing or multitasking.

• Long term scheduling:

Long-term scheduling, also known as admission control or job
scheduling, is a phase of process/job management in an operating
system. It refers to the selection and admission of jobs or processes
from the job queue into the system for execution.The long-term
scheduler determines which jobs or processes should be allowed to
enter the system based on resource availability, system load, and
other factors. It controls the degree of multiprogramming, which is
the number of concurrent jobs or processes allowed to be in main
memory at a given time.
• Short term scheduling: Short-term scheduling, also known as CPU
scheduling, is a process performed by the operating system to determine
which process should be executed next from the pool of ready processes. It
involves selecting a process from the ready queue and allocating the CPU to
that process for a specific time slice or until it voluntarily relinquishes the
CPU. The primary goal of short-term scheduling is to optimize CPU
utilization, minimize response time, and ensure fair allocation of CPU time
among processes.

• Medium term scheduling: Medium-term scheduling, also referred to as

swapping or memory scheduling, is a process in the operating system that
decides which processes should be moved from main memory (RAM) to
secondary storage (disk) and vice versa. It involves the decision of whether
to swap out a process from memory to create more space or to bring a
process back into memory for execution. Medium-term scheduling helps
manage memory resources efficiently and can improve overall system
performance by controlling the number of processes in memory at any
given time. It plays a crucial role in systems with limited memory capacity.

• Throughput: Throughput refers to the number of processes or tasks that

are completed within a given time period. It represents the overall rate at
which a system can process and complete tasks or operations. Throughput
is a performance metric used to evaluate the efficiency and capacity of an
operating system or any other computing system. Throughput is typically
measured in terms of the number of tasks completed per unit of time, such
as processes per second or transactions per second. A higher throughput
indicates a system's ability to handle a larger workload and process tasks
more quickly.

• Turn around time: In operating systems, turnaround time refers to the

total time taken for a process to complete its execution, starting from the
moment it enters the system until it finishes and exits. It is also known as
the total turnaround time or completion time. Turnaround time is a crucial
performance metric used to evaluate the efficiency and responsiveness of a
system in processing tasks. It provides an overall measure of how long it
takes for a process to complete its execution, including waiting time in the
ready queue, actual execution time on the CPU, and any time spent on I/O
or other operations.
To calculate the turnaround time for a process, you subtract the arrival time
of the process from the time at which the process completes its execution.
In other words:
 Turnaround Time = Completion Time - Arrival Time
• Waiting time: Waiting time refers to the amount of time a process spends
in the ready queue, waiting to be allocated the CPU for execution. It
represents the duration between when a process arrives in the system and
when it starts executing on the CPU. Waiting time is an important
performance metric used to evaluate the efficiency and responsiveness of a
system in handling processes. It directly affects the overall response time
experienced by processes and users, as well as the system's throughput and
resource utilization.
To calculate the waiting time for a process, you subtract the arrival time of
the process from the time at which the process starts executing on the
CPU. In other words:

Waiting Time = Start Time - Arrival Time

• Deadlock: In operating systems, a deadlock refers to a situation in which

two or more processes or threads are unable to proceed because each is
waiting for a resource that another process holds. In a deadlock, the
processes form a circular chain of dependencies, and none of them can
release the resources they hold until they acquire the resources they are
waiting for, resulting in a stalemate. Deadlocks typically occur in systems
with resource sharing, where processes compete for finite resources such
as memory, I/O devices, or locks.

• System calls: In operating systems, system calls are a mechanism that

allows user-level processes or programs to request services from the
operating system kernel. They provide a way for applications to interact
with and utilize the underlying operating system functionality and
resources. System calls act as an interface or bridge between user-level
programs and the operating system kernel.

• Starvation: In operating systems, starvation refers to a situation where a

process or a thread is unable to make progress or obtain the necessary
resources to execute its tasks, despite being eligible to do so. Starvation
occurs when a lower-priority process or thread is continuously deprived of
resources or CPU time by higher-priority processes or threads.

• Firmed wire: Firmware, in operating systems, is a permanent software

stored in hardware devices, providing low-level control and functionality. It
initializes hardware, controls operation, and acts as a bridge between
hardware and higher-level software. It includes essential instructions for
tasks like booting and managing input/output. Firmware is difficult to
modify and commonly found in devices like peripherals, routers, and
 embedded systems, ensuring proper functionality and compatibility with
the operating system.

• Kernel: In an operating system (OS), the kernel is the central component

that serves as the core or nucleus of the operating system. It is responsible
for managing and controlling the system's resources and providing essential
services to user-level processes and applications. The kernel acts as a
bridge between software applications and the underlying hardware of a
computer system. It is loaded into memory when the system boots up and
remains resident in memory throughout the system's operation, facilitating
the execution of processes and managing various system resources.

• PCB: In operating systems, PCB stands for Process Control Block. It is a data
structure maintained by the operating system for each running process or
thread in a system. The PCB contains essential information about a process
or thread, enabling the operating system to manage and control its
execution.

• Interprocess Communication: In operating systems, interprocess

communication (IPC) refers to the mechanisms and techniques used for
processes or threads to exchange information, share data, and synchronize
their activities. IPC enables communication and coordination between
different processes or threads running concurrently within an operating
system.

• Critical Section: In operating systems, a critical section refers to a section of

code or a region in a program where shared resources are accessed or
manipulated by multiple processes or threads. The critical section contains
instructions or operations that must be executed atomically to ensure data
integrity and prevent race conditions.

• Read and write signal related to the process:

Read Signal: The read signal, also known as a reader signal or read lock, is
used to coordinate and control access for reading processes or threads. It
indicates that a reader has entered the critical section or the shared
resource and is allowed to read the data. Multiple readers can be granted
access simultaneously as long as no writer is currently accessing or
modifying the shared resource.

Write Signal: The write signal, also known as a writer signal or write lock, is
used to coordinate and control access for writing processes or threads. It
indicates that a writer has entered the critical section or the shared
resource and has exclusive access to modify the data. When a write signal is
received, no other reader or writer can access the shared resource until the
writer completes its operation.

These read and write signals are used to enforce synchronization and
ensure that conflicts between readers and writers are prevented.
Depending on the specific synchronization mechanism employed, such as
locks, semaphores, or condition variables, different signaling methods may
be used to indicate the availability or readiness to read or write the shared
resource.