MAILAM ENGINEEING COLLEGE /ECE/EC 8791/EMBEDDED AND REAL TIME SYSTEMS/ UNIT I /INTRODUCTION TO

EMBEDDEDSYSTEM DESIGN

EC8791 EMBEDDED AND REAL TIME SYSTEM

UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN

PART A
1. Differentiate top down and bottom up design . APRIL 2014 or
Compare and contrast top-down and bottom-up design. N/D 2021

Fig.1.1 Top-down and Bottom-up design

Top–down view Bottom–up view
• In this top–down view, we start with • The alternative is a bottom–up view
the system requirements. in which we start with components
• In the next step, specification, we to build a system
create a more detailed description of • Decisions at one stage of design are
what we want. based upon estimates of what will
• But the specification states only how happen later:
the system behaves, not how it is • How fast can we make a particular
built. function run? How much memory
• The details of the system’s internals will we need? How much system bus
begin to take shape when we capacity do we need?
develop the architecture, which • If our estimates are inadequate, we
gives the system structure in terms may have to backtrack and amend
of large components. our original decisions to take the
• Once we know the components we new facts into account.
need, we can design those • In general, the less experience we
components, including both have with the design of similar

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software and hardware systems, the more we will have to

rely on bottom-up design
information to help us refine the
system.

2. Define embedded computer system and what are the challenges in embedded
computing system design (Apr/May 16)(Nov/Dec 2020 &Apr/May 2021,
or List out the major challenges in designing an embedded system. N/D 2021
Embedded computer system

• It is any device that includes a programmable computer but is not itself

intended to be a general-purpose computer.
• Thus, a PC is not itself an embedded computing system, although PCs are often
used to build embedded computing systems.
• But a fax machine or a clock built from a microprocessor is an embedded
computing system.
Challenges in embedded computing system design
• Hardware constraints
• Meeting a deadline
• Minimizing power consumption
• Design for upgradability
• Really working or not.
3. What are all the application areas of the embedded systems?
• Telecom Smart Cards,
• Missiles and Satellites,
• Computer Networking,
• Digital Consumer Electronics and Automotives

4. Define UML with an example.

Creating requirements and specifications, architecting the system, designing code,
and designing tests. It is often helpful to conceptualize these tasks in diagrams; there
is a visual language that can be used to capture all these design tasks: the Unified

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Modeling Language(UML)
UML is an object-oriented modeling language but object-oriented design
emphasizes two concepts of importance:
■ It encourages the design to be described as a number of interacting objects,
rather than a few large monolithic blocks of code.
■ At least some of those objects will correspond to real pieces of software or
hardware in the system.

5. What are the relationship that exists between objects and classes?
There are several types of relationships that can exist between objects and
classes:
• Association occurs between objects that communicate with each other but
have no ownership relationship between them.
• Aggregation describes a complex object made of smaller objects.
• Composition is a type of aggregation in which the owner does not allow
access to the component objects.
• Generalization allows us to define one class in terms of another

6. Define Digital Command Control (DCC) and Memory Mapping Unit(MMU).

Digital Command Control (DCC)
• The Digital Command Control (DCC) standard was created by the National Model
Railroad Association to support interoperable digitally-controlled model trains.
The DCC standard is given in two documents:
• Standard S-9.1, the DCC Electrical Standard, defines how bits are encoded on
the rails for transmission.
• Standard S-9.2, the DCC Communication Standard, defines the packets that
carry information.
PSA(sD) + E

MMU Memory Mapping Unit(MMU)

• A MMU translates addresses between the CPU and physical memory.
• This translation process is often known as memory mapping since addresses are
mapped from a logical space into a physical space.
• MMUs are used to provide virtual addressing.

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7. Define compiler, linker and loader.

Compiler
• A compiler is a computer program (or set of programs) that transforms source
code written in a programming language (the source language) into another
computer language (the target language, often having a binary form known as object
code).
• The most common reason for converting a source code is to create
an executable program.
Linker
• A linker or link editor is a computer program that takes one or more object files
generated by a compiler
• It combines them into a single executable file, library file, or another object file.
Loader
• In computing, a loader is the part of an operating system that is responsible for
loading programs and libraries. It is one of the essential stages in the process of
starting a program, as it places programs into memory and prepares them for
execution.

8. What are the types of power management features in CPU?

There are two types of power management features provided by CPUs.
• Static power management
• Dynamic power management
• A static power management mechanism is invoked by the user but does not
Otherwise depend on CPU activities. An example of a static mechanism is a power
down mode intended to save energy. This mode provides a high-level way to reduce
unnecessary power consumption.
• A dynamic power management mechanism takes actions to control power based
upon the dynamic activity in the CPU. For example, the CPU may turn off certain
sections of the CPU when the instructions being executed do not need them

9. What is Super Harvard Architecture (SHARC)?

Differentiate Von Neumann Architecture and Super Harvard Architecture (SHARC)?
Von Neumann Architecture Harvard Architecture
The memory holds both data and Harvard machine has separate
instructions, and can be read or written memories for data and program.
when given an address. A computer

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EMBEDDEDSYSTEM DESIGN

whose memory holds both data and

instructions is
known as a von Neumann machine
The CPU has several internal registers The program counter points to program
that store values used internally. One of memory, not data memory. As a result,
those registers is the program counter it is harder to write self-modifying
(PC),which holds the address in programs (programs that write data
memory values, then use
of an instruction. The CPU fetches the those values as instructions) on Harvard
instruction from memory, decodes the machines
instruction, and executes it. The
program counter does not directly
determine what the machine does next,
but only indirectly by pointing to an
instruction in memory

10. What is an embedded system?

An embedded system is one that has computer-hardware with
software embedded in it as one of its most important component. It is a
computing device that does a specific focused job.
11. What is watch dog timer and Kernel?
• A timer with timeout from which resets the processor in case the program gets stuck
for an unexpected time.
• An important timing device in a system that resets the system after a pre-defined
timeout. This time may be definable within the first few clock cycles after reset.

kernel

A program with functions for memory allocation and deallocation,

tasks scheduling, inter-Process communication, effective management of shared
memory access by using the Signals ,exception handling signals, semaphores,
queues, mailboxes, pipes, interrupt controls, device drivers and device management.

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12. Enumerate some embedded computers that are exists from origin of embedded
Systems. (Nov/Dec 16)
Apollo Guidance Computer,
Automatics D-17 guidance computer

13. Mention the various methods for reading from or writing to an I/O port
(Apr/May 17).
Microprocessors can provide programming support for input and output in two ways:
I/O Instructions and memory-mapped I/O.

14. What are the roles of microprocessor in Embedded system? (Nov 17)
OR Mention the need of microprocessor in embedded systems.(Nov/Dec 2020
&Apr/May 2021)
• First, microprocessors execute programs very efficiently.
• Second, microprocessor manufacturers spend a great deal of money to make their
CPUs run very fast.

15. Compare the functions of CPU and Co-processor .(Apr/May 19)

CPU CO-PROCESSOR
CPU is the main processing unit of the Co-processors are attached to the CPU and
computer that performs arithmetic, logic implement some of the instructions.
and control operations according to the
instructions
Maintains proper functioning of the entire It helps the processor to increase the system
computer performance

16. Define assembler. (Apr/May 19)

• Assembler splits the program line by line.
• Assemblers must also provide some pseudo-ops to help programmers create
complete assembly language programs.

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17. Determine the average memory access time of machine whose hit rate is 90%
with a cache access time of 3ns and main memory access time of 70ns. (Nov/Dec 18)
Solution:
Given
h= hit rate=90%=0.9
tcache=cache access time=3ns=3x10-9
tmain=main memory access time = 70ns=70x10-9

Formula

Answer
tav=0.9x3x10-9 + ((1-0.9)*70x10-9) = 3.4x10-9=3.4ns
18. Why design methodologies are used in embedded system?
Process is important because without it, we can’t reliably deliver the products
we want to create. The obvious goal of a design process is to create a product that
does something useful.
19.List the product metrics and goals used in design process. (or) Mention the goals of
design process in embedded computing systems. Apr 18
• Functionality
• manufacturing cost
• power consumption
• Time-to-market
• Design cost
• Quality
20. What is meant by design flow?
A design flow is a sequence of steps to be followed during a design. Some of
the steps can be performed by tools, such as compilers or computer-aided design
(CAD) systems; other steps can be performed by hand.

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21. List the characteristics of design flows used in embedded system. Nov 17
• Waterfall model
• Spiral model
• Successive refinement
• Hierarchical design flows
• Concurrent engineering
22. Define TCP.
• TCP guarantees the reliable, in order delivery of a stream of bytes.
• It is a full-duplex protocol, meaning that each TCP connection supports a pair of
byte streams, one flowing in each direction.
23. List out the phases of waterfall model. (Nov/Dec 16)
• Requirements
• Architecture
• Coding
• Testing
• Maintenance

24. What do you mean by spiral model? (Nov/Dec 16)

The spiral model assumes that several versions of the system will be built.
Early systems will be simple mock-ups constructed to aid designers’ intuition and to
build experience with the system. As design progresses, more complex systems will
be constructed. At each level of design, the designers go through requirements,
construction, and testing phases. At later stages when more complete versions of the
system are constructed, each phase requires more work, widening the design spiral.

25. Differentiate waterfall model Vs Spiral model.

The waterfall model assumes that the system is built once in its entirety, the
spiral model assumes that several versions of the system will be built

26. What is meant by successive refinement?

In this approach, the system is built several times. A first system is used as a
rough prototype, and successive models of the system are further refined. Refining
the system by building several increasingly complex systems allows you to test out
architecture and design techniques.

27. What do you mean by concurrent engineering?

• Concurrent engineering attempts to take a broader approach and optimize the
total flow.

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• Reduced design time is an important goal for concurrent engineering.

• It tries to eliminate “over-the-wall” design steps, in which one designer performs
an isolated task and then throws the result over the wall to the next designer, with
little interaction between the two.
• In particular, concurrent engineering usually requires eliminating the wall
between design and manufacturing.

28. Define requirement analysis.

• Requirements are informal descriptions of what the customer wants, while
specifications are more detailed, precise, and consistent descriptions of the system
that can be used to create the architecture.
• Both requirements and specifications are, however, directed to the outward
behavior of the system, not its internal structure.

29. List the types of requirements used in embedded design .(or) List out some
of the verification and specification related to the design flow.(APR/MAY
2017)
There are two types of requirements
• Functional
• Non-functional
A functional requirement states what the system must do, such as compute an
FFT. A non-functional requirement can be any number of other attributes, including
physical size, cost, power consumption, design time, reliability, and so on.
30. List the functional and non functional requirements.
• Correctness
• Unambiguousness
• Completeness
• Verifiability
• Consistency
• Modifiability
• Traceability
31. What do you meant by SDL language?
• An example of a widely used state machine specification language is the SDL
language, which was developed by the communications industry for specifying
communication protocols, telephone systems, and so forth.
• SDL specifications include states, actions, and both conditional and
unconditional transitions between states.
• SDL is an event-oriented state machine model because transitions between states
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are caused by internal and external events.

32. Define state chart.

The State chart is one well-known technique for state-based specification that
introduced some important concepts. The State chart notation uses an event-driven
model. State charts allow states to be grouped together to show common
functionality.
There are two basic groupings: OR and AND

33. What do you mean by CRC card? (Or) Write the special Characteristics of a
CRC card.(Nov/Dec2018)
The CRC card methodology is a well-known and useful way to help analyze a
system’s structure. It is particularly well suited to object-oriented design because it
encourages the encapsulation of data and functions.
• The acronym CRC stands for the following three major items that the methodology
tries to identify:
• Classes define the logical groupings of data and functionality.
• Responsibilities describe what the classes do.
• Collaborators are the other classes with which a given class works.
34. How to analyze the system using CRC card methodology?
• Develop an initial list of classes
• Write an initial list of responsibilities and collaborators
• Create some usage scenarios
• Walk through the scenarios
• Refine the classes, responsibilities, and collaborators
• Add class relationships
35. Define Capability Maturity Model. (CMM)
One well-known way of measuring the quality of an organization’s software
development process is the Capability Maturity Model (CMM) developed by Carnegie
Mellon University’s Software Engineering Institute [SEI99]. The CMM provides a
model for judging an organization. It defines the following five levels of maturity:
• Initial
• Repeatable
• Defined
• Managed
• Optimizing

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36. List the seven layers in OSI model.

Figure 1.2 shows the seven layers of OSI model.

Fig.1.2 Seven Layers in OSI Model

37. State the features of FSK Detection Scheme in MODEM.(NOV/DEC 2018)

A modem converts the binary data from a computer to FSK for transmission
over telephone lines, cables, optical fiber, or wireless media. The modem also
converts incoming FSK signals to digital low and high states, which the computer
can "understand.
. Direct memory access (DMA) is a bus operation that allows reads and writes
not controlled by the CPU. A DMA transfer is controlled by a DMA controller,
which requests control of the bus from the CPU. After gaining control, the DMA
controller performs read and write operations directly between devices and memory.

38. Define Peripheral Component Interconnect. (PCI)

PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) is the dominant high-performance
system bus today. PCI uses high-speed data transmission techniques and efficient
protocols to achieve high throughput.
The original PCI standard allowed operation up to 33 MHz; at that rate, it could
achieve a maximum transfer rate of 264 MB/s using 64-bit transfers. The revised PCI
standard allows the bus to run up to 66 MHz, giving a maximum transfer rate of 524
MB/s with 64-bit wide transfers.

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39. What is a data flow graph? [APRIL 2014](Apr /May 17 )

A data flow graph is a model of a program with no conditionals. In a high-level
programming language, a code segment with no conditionals—more precisely, with only
one entry and exit point—is known as a basic block. Figure 1.3 shows a simple basic
block. As the C code is executed, we would enter this basic block at the beginning and
execute all the statements.

Fig.1.3 Data flow graph

40. Show the structure of typical CPU bus which supports read/Write? Apr/May
Figure 1.4 shows a typical microprocessor bus.

PART-B & C

1. Explain Complex Systems And Microprocessors.

Sub-Topics:
A. Embedding Computers
B. Characteristics of Embedded Computing Applications
C. Why Use Microprocessors?
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D. The Physics of Software

E. Challenges in Embedded Computing System Design
F. Performance in Embedded Computing
G. Different levels of abstraction
A.
Embedding Computers
An Embedded system
An embedded system is one that has computer-hardware with software
embedded in it as one of its most important component. It is a computing device
that does a specific focused job.
B) Characteristics of Embedded Computing Applications
Complex algorithms:
• The operations performed by the microprocessor may be very sophisticated.
User interface:
• Microprocessors are frequently used to control complex user interfaces that may
include multiple menus and many options.
• The moving maps in Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation are good examples
of sophisticated user interfaces.
Real time:
• Many embedded computing systems have to performing real time— if the data is
not ready by a certain deadline, the system breaks.
• In some cases, failure to meet a deadline is unsafe and can even endanger lives.
Multirate:
• Not only must operations be completed by deadlines, but many embedded computing
systems have several real-time activities going on at the same time.
Manufacturing cost:
• The total cost of building the system is very important in many cases.
• Manufacturing cost is determined by many factors, including the type of
microprocessor used, the amount of memory required, and the types of I/O devices.
Power and energy:
• Power consumption directly affects the cost of the hardware, since a larger power
supply may be necessary.
• Energy consumption affects battery life, which is important in many
applications, as well as heat consumption, which can be important even in desktop
applications.

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C) Why Use Microprocessors?

• Microprocessors are a very efficient way to implement digital systems.
• Microprocessors make it easier to design families of products that can be built to
provide various feature sets at different price points and can be extended to provide
new features to keep up with rapidly changing markets.
There are two factors that work together to make microprocessor-based designs fast.
• First, microprocessors execute programs very efficiently.
• Second, microprocessor manufacturers spend a great deal of money to make their
CPUs run very fast.
D) The Physics of Software
• Computing is a physical act.
• Software performance and energy consumption are very important properties in
connecting our embedded computers to the real world.
• Understand the sources of performance and power consumption.
• As much as possible, we want to make computing abstractions work for us as we work
on the physics of our software systems.

E) Challenges in Embedded Computing System Design

• Hardware constraints
• Meeting a deadline
• Minimizing power consumption
• Design for upgradability
• Really working or not
F) Performance in Embedded Computing
• Embedded system designers, in contrast, have a very clear performance goal in mind—
their program must meet its deadline.
• At the heart of embedded computing is real-time computing. The program receives its
input data; the deadline is the time at which a computation must be finished.
• If the program does not produce the required output by the deadline, then the program
does not work, even if the output that it eventually produces is functionally correct.

G. Different levels of abstraction

• CPU • Multiprocessor
• Platform
• Program.
• Task

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2.Explain embedded system design process.(OR) What are the parameters to

be considered while designing an embedded system design process?(OR)
Write in detail about the steps or factors involved in Embedded system design
process.[MAY/JUNE 2013,APR 2015,2016](or)
Analyse the requirements for designing the GPS moving map in embedded
systems design process. (Nov/Dec 16)(Apr/May 18) Demonstrate the challenges
and performance of embedded processes for the system design. (Nov/Dec
18),(Nov/Dec 2020 &Apr/May 2021)
Sub-Topics
A. Top down and Bottom up approach
B. Major goals to be considered for design of an embedded system
C. Tasks we need to perform at every step in the design
i. Requirements (Table)
ii. Specification
iii. Architecture
iv. components
v. System integration
A. Top down and Bottom up approach
The embedded system design process is described in both top down and bottom up
approach as in below figure 1.5

Fig.1.5 Top down and Bottom up approach

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Top–down view Bottom–up view

• In this top–down view, we start • The alternative is a bottom–up
with the system requirements. view in which we start with
• In the next step, specification, we components to build a system
create a more detailed description • Decisions at one stage of design
of what we want. are based upon estimates of what
• But the specification states only will happen later:
how the system behaves, not how • How fast can we make a
it is built. particular function run? How
• The details of the system’s much memory will we need?
internals begin to take shape How much system bus capacity
when we develop the do we need?
architecture, which gives the • If our estimates are inadequate,
system structure in terms of large we may have to backtrack and
components. amend our original decisions to
take the new facts into account.
• Once we know the components • In general, the less experience we
we need, we can design those have with the design of similar
components, including both systems, the more we will have to
software and hardware rely on bottom-up design
information to help us refine the
system.

B. Major goals to be considered for design of an embedded system:

• Manufacturing cost;
• Performance (both overall speed and deadlines); and
• Power consumption.
C. Tasks we need to perform at every step in the design process
• We must analyze the design at each step to determine how we can meet the
specifications.
• We must then refine the design to add detail.
• And we must verify the design to ensure that it still meets all system goals,
such as cost, speed, and so on.
A) Requirements
• First, we gather an informal description from the customers known as
requirements, as shown in Table 1.1
• Requirements may be functional or nonfunctional. We must of course
capture the basic functions of the embedded system, but functional
description is often not sufficient.
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Typical non functional requirements include:

• Performance
• Cost
• Physical size and weight
• Power consumption

Example
Requirements analysis of a GPS moving map
The moving map is a handheld device that displays for the user a map of the terrain
around the user’s current position; the map display changes as the user and the map
device change position. The moving map obtains its position from the GPS, a
satellite-based navigation system. Requirements for moving map is shown in
Figure 1.6
Name GPS moving map
Purpose Consumer grade moving map for
driving use
Inputs Power button, two control buttons
Outputs Back-light LCD display 400 x600
Functions Uses 5-receiver GPS system; three
user-selectable resolutions; always
displays current latitude and
longitude
Performance Updates screen within 0.25 seconds
upon movement

Manufacturing cost $30

Power 100mW
Physical size and weight No more than 2” to 6” , 12 ounces

Figure 1.6 Requirements of moving map

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The moving map display might look something like the following as shown in
figure.1.7

Fig.1.7 GPS moving map

B) Specification
❖ The specification is more precise—it serves as the contract between the
customer and the architects. The specification should be understandable
enough so that someone can verify that it meets system requirements and
overall expectations of the customer.
A specification of the GPS system would include several components as shown in
block diagram of Fig.1.8
■ Data received from the GPS satellite constellation.
■ Map data.
■ User interface.
■ Operations that must be performed to satisfy customer requests.
■ Background actions required to keep the system running, such as operating the
GPS receiver.
C) Architecture Design
The specification does not say how the system does things, only what the
system does. Describing how the system implements those functions is the purpose
of the architecture. The architecture is a plan for the overall structure of the system
that will be used later to design the components that make up the architecture.

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❖ The hardware block diagram shown in Fig 1.9 clearly shows that we have one
central CPU surrounded by memory and I/O devices.
A. Hardware and Software Components

.
E) System Integration
❖ Only after the components are built do we have the satisfaction of putting
them together and seeing a working system. Of course, this phase usually
consists of a lot more than just plugging everything together and standing
back. Bugs are typically found during system integration, and good
planning can help us find the bugs quickly.
❖ By building up the system in phases and running properly chosen tests, we
can often find bugs more easily.

❖ System integration is difficult because it usually uncovers problems.

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3. Discuss about Formalisms for system design. (APR/MAY 2015)

• A number of different design tasks at different levels of abstraction:
creating requirements and specifications, architecting the system,
designing code, and designing tests.
• Using visual language all these design tasks can be captured: the Unified
Modeling Language (UML).
• UML was designed to be useful at many levels of abstraction in the design
process.
• UML is useful because it encourages design by successive refinement and
progressively adding detail to the design, rather than rethinking the design
at each new level of abstraction.
• UML is an object-oriented modeling language.
Object-oriented design emphasizes two concepts of importance:
• It encourages the design to be described as a number of interacting objects,
rather than a few large monolithic blocks of code.
• At least some of those objects will correspond to real pieces of software or
hardware in the system.
• Object-oriented (often abbreviated OO) specification can be seen in two
complementary ways:
• Object-oriented specification allows a system to be described in a way that
closely models real-world objects and their interactions.
• Object-oriented specification provides a basic set of primitives that can be
used to describe systems with particular attributes, irrespective of the
relationships of those systems’ components to real-world objects.
Structural Description
❖ The principal component of an object-oriented design is, naturally enough,
the object.
An object
❖ Includes a set of attributes that define its internal state. When implemented
in a programming language, these attributes usually become variables or
constants held in a data structure.
❖ The text in the folded-corner page icon is a note; it does not correspond to
an object in the system and only serves as a comment. The attribute is, in this
case, an array of pixels that holds the contents of the display. The object is
identified in two ways: It has a unique name, and it is a member of a class.
❖ A class is a form of type definition—all objects derived from the same class
have the same characteristics, although their attributes may have different
values. A class defines the attributes that an object may have. It also defines
the operations that determine how the object interacts with the rest of the
world.
❖ The Display class defines the pixels attribute seen in the object as shown
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in Fig1.10

• A class defines both the interface for a particular type of object and that
object’s implementation as shown in Fig 1.11
• There are several types of relationships that can exist between objects and
classes:
• Association occurs between objects that communicate with each other but
have no ownership relationship between them.
• Aggregation describes a complex object made of smaller objects.
• Composition is a type of aggregation in which the owner does not allow
access to the component objects.
• Generalization allows us to define one class in terms of another.
• Unified Modeling Language, like most object-oriented languages, allows
us to define one class in terms of another. An example is shown in
Figure, where we derive two particular types of displays.
• The first, BW_display, describes a black and- white display. This does
not require us to add new attributes or operations, but we can specialize
both to work on one-bit pixels.
• The second, Color_map_display, uses a graphic device known as a
color map to allow the user to select large number of available colors even
with a small number of bits per pixel. This class defines a color_map
attribute that determines how pixel values are mapped onto display colors.
• A derived class inherits all the attributes and operations from its base
class. In this class, Display is the base class for the two derived classes.
• A derived class is defined to include all the attributes of its base class

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• UML also allows us to define multiple inheritance, in which a class is

derived from more than one base class as shown in Fig.1.12
• A Multimedia_display class by combining the Display class with a
Speaker class for sound. The derived class inherits all the attributes and
operations of both its base classes, Display and Speaker. Because multiple
inheritance causes the sizes of the attribute set and operations to expand
so quickly, it should be used with care.
• A link describes a relationship between objects; association is to link as
class is to object as shown in Fig 1.13. We need links because objects often
do not stand alone; associations let us capture type information about these
links.
• When generalized into classes, we define an association between the
message set class and the message class. The association is drawn as a line
between the two labeled with the name of the association, namely,
contains. The ball and the number at the message class end indicate that
the message set may include zero or more message objects

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Behavioral Description
❖ One way to specify the behavior of an operation is a state machine. Figure
1.14 shows UML states; the transition between two states is shown by a
skeleton arrow.
❖ These state machines will not rely on the operation of a clock, as in hardware;
rather, changes from one state to another are triggered by the occurrence
of events.

❖ A signal is an asynchronous occurrence. It is defined in UML by an object

that is labeled as a <<signal>>. The object in the diagram serves as a
declaration of the event’s existence. Because it is an object, a signal may have
parameters that are passed to the signal’s receiver.
❖ A call event follows the model of a procedure call in a programming
language.
❖ A time-out event causes the machine to leave a state after a certain amount
of time.
❖ The label tm (time-value) on the edge gives the amount of time after which
the transition occurs. A time-out is generally implemented with an external
timer. This notation simplifies the specification and allows us to defer
implementation details about the time-out mechanism.
❖ A sequence diagram is somewhat similar to a hardware timing diagram,
although the time flows vertically in a sequence diagram, whereas time
typically flows horizontally in a timing diagram. The sequence diagram is
designed to show a particular scenario or choice of events as shown in
Fig 1.15—it is not convenient for showing a number of mutually exclusive
possibilities.

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4. Design a model train controller with suitable diagrams and explain.

Nov17,Apr 18,Nov/Dec 18, (Nov/Dec 2020 &Apr/May 2021) ( or )
Assuming the design of model train controller, draw a state diagram for a
behavior that sends the command bits on the track. The machine should
generate the address, generate the correct message type, include the
parameters and generate the error correcting code (ECC). N/D 2021
Subtopics
✓ Diagram for Modern train control system
✓ Digital Command Control (DCC)
✓ Requirements (Table)
✓ Specification
i. Conceptual Specification-Class and UML diagram for Train controller system
ii. Detailed Specification- Sequence diagram for transmitter
Sequence diagram for Receiver

❖ A model train controller, which is illustrated in Figure.1.16. shows the

user sending messages to the train with a control box attached to the
tracks. The control box may have familiar controls such as a throttle,
emergency stop button, and so on.

❖ Since the train receives its electrical power from the two rails of the
track, the control box can send signals to the train over the tracks by
modulating the power supply voltage.

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Modern train control system

A) Requirements
Name Model train controller

Purpose Control speed of up to eight model trains

Inputs Throttle, inertia setting, emergency stop, train
number
Outputs Train control signals
Functions Set engine speed based upon inertia settings;
respond
to emergency stop
Performance Can update train speed at least 10 times per
second
Manufacturing cost $50

Power 10W (plugs into wall)

B) DCC

✓ The Digital Command Control (DCC) standard was created by the

National Model Railroad Association to support interoperable
digitally-controlled model trains. DCC was created to provide a
standard that could be built by any manufacturer so that hobbyists
could mix and match components from multiple vendors.
The DCC standard is given in two documents:

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■ Standard S-9.1, the DCC Electrical Standard, defines how bits are encoded on
the rails for transmission.
■ Standard S-9.2, the DCC Communication Standard, defines the packets that
carry information.
We can write the basic packet format as a regular expression:
PSA(sD) + E
In this regular expression:
■ P is the preamble
■ A is an address data byte
■ sis the data byte start bit, which, like the packet start bit, is a 0.
■ D is the data byte, which includes eight bits. A data byte may contain an address,
instruction, data, or error correction information.
■ E is a packet end bit, which is a 1 bit.
A baseline packet is the minimum packet that must be accepted by all DCC
implementations. More complex packets are given in a Recommended Practice
document.
C) Conceptual Specification
• A conceptual specification allows us to understand the system a little
better.A train control system turns commands into packets. Commands
and packets may not be generated in a 1-to-1 ratio.
• There are clearly two major subsystems: the command unit as shown
in fig.1.16 and the train-board component as shown in Figure. 1.17.
• The command unit has three derived classes namely speed, inertia and
E-stop.
• The train board component has console which selects 1 to n trains and
seds control messages to the train and the receiver .

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Class and UML diagram for Train controller system

❖ A UML class diagram for the train controller showing the composition of the
subsystems as shown in fig 1.18. Modeling the tracks would help us identify
failure modes and possible recovery mechanisms.
❖ The train receiver must also perform three major functions:
✓ Receive the message,
✓ Interpret the message (taking into account the current speed, inertia
setting, etc.),
✓ Actually control the motor.

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■ The Console class describes the command unit’s front panel, which contains the
analog knobs and hardware to interface to the digital parts of the system.
■ The Formatter class includes behaviors that know how to read the panel knobs
and creates a bit stream for the required message.
■ The Transmitter class interfaces to analog electronics to send the message along
the track.
■ Knobs describes the actual analog knobs, buttons, and levers on the control panel.
■ Sender describes the analog electronics that send bits along the track. Likewise,
the Train makes use of three other classes that define its components:
■ The Receiver class knows how to turn the analog signals on the track into
digital form.
■ The Controller class includes behaviors that interpret the commands and figures
out how to control the motor.
■ The Motor interface class defines how to generate the analog signals required to
control the motor. We define two classes to represent analog components:
■ Detector detects analog signals on the track and converts them into digital form.
■ Pulser turns digital commands into the analog signals required to control the
motor speed.

D) Detailed Specification

The basic classes, let’s refine it to create a more detailed specification.

o At this point, we need to define the analog components in a little more
detail because their characteristics will strongly influence the
Formatter and Controller.
o Figure 1.21 shows a class diagram for panel and motor interface
classes; this diagram shows a little more detail since it includes
attributes and behaviors of these classes.
o The Panel has three knobs: train number (which train is currently being
controlled), speed (which can be positive or negative), and inertia. It
also has one button for emergency-stop.
o When we change the train number setting, we also want to reset the
other controls to the proper values for that train so that the previous
train’s control settings are not used to change the current train’s settings
o To do this, Knobs must provide a set-knobs behavior that allows the
rest of the system to modify the knob settings.
o The motor system takes its motor commands in two parts. The Sender
and Detector classes are relatively simple: They simply put out and
pick up a bit, respectively.
o Power is applied in a pulse for a fraction of some fixed interval, with
the fraction of the time that power is applied determining the speed.

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✓ The Panel class defines a behavior for each of the controls on the
panel; we have chosen not to define an internal variable for each
control since their values can be read directly from the physical device,
but a given implementation may choose to use internal variables.
✓ The new-settings behavior uses the set-knobs behavior of the
Knobs class to change the knobs settings whenever the train number
setting is changed.
✓ The Motor-interface defines an attribute for speed that can be set
by other classes.
✓ The Transmitter and Receiver classes are shown in Figure 1.22 they
provide the software interface to the physical devices that send and
receive bits along the track.

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Sequence diagram for transmitter:

✓ The Transmitter provides a distinct behavior for each type of message that can
be sent; it internally takes care of formatting the message.
✓ The Receiver class provides a read-cmd behavior to read a message off the
tracks.
✓ We do not need a separate behavior for an Estop message since it has no
parameters—knowing the type of message is sufficient.
✓ The role of the formatter during the panel’s operation is illustrated by the
sequence diagram shown in Figure 1.23
✓ The figure shows two changes to the knob settings:
✓ First to the throttle, inertia, or emergency stop; then to the train number.
✓ The panel is called periodically by the formatter to determine if any control
settings have changed. If a setting has changed for the current train, the formatter
decides to send a command, issuing a send-command behavior to cause the
transmitter to send the bits.
✓ Because transmission is serial, it takes a noticeable amount of time for the
transmitter to finish a command; in the meantime, the formatter continues to
check the panel’s control settings. If the train number has changed, the formatter
must cause the knob settings to be reset to the proper values for the new train.

Sequence diagram for Receiver

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The operation of the Controller class during the reception of a set-speed command
is illustrated in Figure 1.24. The Controller’s operate behavior must execute several
behaviors to determine the nature of the message. Once the speed command has
been parsed, it must send a sequence of commands to the motor to smoothly change
the train’s speed.

5. Discuss the concepts of design methodologies and design flow.

Nov 17(OR) Explain the various design methodologies and design flow in
system .(Nov/ Dec 2018)

Design methodologies
Process is important because without it, we can’t reliably deliver the
products we want to create. Thinking about the sequence of steps necessary to build
something.

Product metrics
A design process has several important goals beyond function, performance,
and power:

➢ Time-to-market.
➢ Design cost.
➢ Quality.
Processes evolve over time. They change due to external and internal forces.
Customers may change, requirements change, products change, and available
components change.
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Design flows

A design flow is a sequence of steps to be followed during a design. Some of

the steps can be performed by tools, such as compilers or computer-aided design
(CAD) systems; other steps can be performed by hand. In this section we look at the
basic characteristics of design flows.

Waterfall model

Figure 1.25 shows the waterfall model introduced by Royce [Dav90], the
first model proposed for the software development process. The waterfall
development model consists of five major phases: requirements analysis determines
the basic characteristics of the system; architecture design decomposes the
functionality into major components; coding implements the pieces and integrates
them; testing uncovers bugs; and maintenance entails deployment in the field, bug
fixes, and upgrades.
.

Spiral model

✓ Figure 1.26 illustrates an alternative model of software development,

called the spiral model.
✓ While the waterfall model assumes that the system is built once in its
entirety, the spiral model assumes that several versions of the system
will be built.
✓ Early systems will be simple mock-ups constructed to aid designers’
instuition and to build experience with the system. As design
progresses, more complex systems will be constructed.
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✓ At each level of design, the designers go through requirements,

construction, and testing phases. At later stages when more complete
versions of the system are constructed, each phase requires more work,
widening the design spiral. This successive refinement approach helps
the designers understand the system they are working on through a
series of design cycles.

Successive refinement

✓ Figure 1.27 shows a successive refinement design methodology. In

this approach, the system is built several times. A first system is used
as a rough prototype, and successive models of the system are further
refined.
✓ Refining the system by building several increasingly complex systems
allows you to test out architecture and design techniques.
✓ The various iterations may also be only partially completed; for
example, continuing an initial system only through the detailed design
phase may teach you enough to help you avoid many mistakes in a
second design iteration that is carried through to completion.

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Hierarchical design flows

The design flow follows the levels of abstraction in the system, from complete
system design flows at the most abstract to design flows for individual components.
The design flow for these complex systems resembles the flow shown in Figure
1.28.

Concurrent engineering

Concurrent engineering attempts to take a broader approach and optimize

the total flow.

6. Discuss the importance of requirement analysis for system design Nov 2017
Requirements are informal descriptions of what the customer wants, while
specifications are more detailed, precise, and consistent descriptions of the system
that can be used to create the architecture.

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Functional and non-functional requirements

We have two types of requirements: functional and non-functional.

A functional requirement states what the system must do, such as compute an
FFT. A nonfunctional requirement can be any number of other attributes, including
physical size, cost, power consumption, design time, reliability, and so on. A good
set of requirements should meet several tests
A good set of requirements should meet several tests:
• Correctness: • Consistency
• Unambiguousness • Modifiability
• Completeness • Traceability:
• Verifiability
Each requirement should be traceable in the following ways:
• We should be able to trace backward from the requirements to know why each
requirement exists.
• We should also be able to trace forward from documents created before the
requirements (e.g., marketing memos) to understand how they relate to the final
requirements.
Direct customer contact gives the designer an unfiltered sample of what the
customer says.

7. Describe in detail about the quality assurance techniques (Apr/May 16) (or)
observe in detail about quality assurance techniques and verifying its
specifications. Apr/MAY 18, NOV/DEC 17, (or)
Elaborate in detail about the various Quality Assurance techniques used for
evaluating the embedded systems. N/D 2021

Quality assurance

❖ The quality of a product or service can be judged by how well it

satisfies its intended function.
❖ A product can be of low quality for several reasons, such as it was
shoddily manufactured, its components were improperly designed, its
architecture was poorly conceived, and the product’s requirements
were poorly understood. Quality must be designed in.
❖ You can’t test out enough bugs to deliver a high-quality product. The
quality assurance (QA) process is vital for the delivery of a
satisfactory system

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Quality assurance techniques

o The International Standards Organization (ISO) has created a set of

quality standards known as ISO 9000.
o ISO 9000 was created to apply to a broad range of industries, including
but not limited to embedded hardware and software. .
o Consequently, ISO 9000 concentrates on processes used to create the
product or service.
o The processes used to satisfy ISO 9000 affect the entire organization
as well as the individual steps taken during design and manufacturing.

A detailed description of ISO 9000 is beyond the scope of this book; several books
describe ISO 9000’s applicability to software development. We can, however, make
the following observations about quality management based on ISO 9000:

o Process is crucial.
o Documentation is important.
o Communication is important.
o Many types of techniques can be used to verify system designs and
ensure quality. Techniques can be either manual or tool based. Manual
techniques are surprisingly effective in practice.

Tool-based verification helps considerably in managing large quantities of

information that maybe generated in a complex design.
Test generation programs can automate much of the drudgery of creating test
sets for programs. Tracking tools can help ensure that various steps have been
performed. Design flow tools automate the process of running design data through
other tools.

Metrics are important to the quality control process.

To know whether we have achieved high levels of quality, we must be able
to measure aspects of the system and our design process
Tool and manual techniques must fit into an overall process. The details
of that process will be determined by several factors, including the type of product
being designed (e.g., video game, laser printer, air traffic control system), the
number of units to be manufactured and the time allowed for design, the existing
practices in the company into which any new processes must be integrated, and
many other factors.
An important role of ISO 9000 is to help organizations study their total
process, not just particular segments that may appear to be important at a
particular time.

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One well-known way of measuring the quality of an organization’s software

development process is the Capability Maturity Model (CMM) developed by
Carnegie Mellon University’s Software Engineering Institute [SEI99]. The CMM
provides a model for judging an organization. It defines the following five levels of
maturity:

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1. Initial.
2. Repeatable.
3. Defined.
4. Managed.
5. Optimizing.

Verifying the specification

The requirements and specification are generated very early in the design process.
Verifying the requirements and specification is very important for the simple reason
that bugs in the requirements or specification can be extremely expensive to fix later on.
Figure 1.29 shows how the cost of fixing bugs grows over the course of the design
process. The longer a bug survives in the system, the more expensive it will be to fix.

Requirements validation

❖ Prototypes are a very useful tool when dealing with end users—rather than
simply describe the system to them in broad, technical terms, a prototype can
let them see, hear, and touch at least some of the important aspects of the
system. Of course, the prototype will not be fully functional because the design
work has not yet been done.

❖ Certain programming languages, sometimes called prototyping languages or

specification languages, are especially well suited to prototyping.
❖ Preexisting systems can also be used to help the end user articulate his or her
needs.
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Validation of specifications

The techniques used to validate requirements are also useful in verifying that the
specifications are correct. Building prototypes, specification languages, and comparisons to
preexisting systems are as useful to system analysis and designers as they are to end users.
Auditing tools may be useful in verifying consistency, completeness, and so forth.
Design reviews

The design review is a critical component of any quality assurance process. The
design review is a simple, low-cost way to catch bugs early in the design process.

Design review format

A design review is held to review a particular component of the system. A design

review team has several types of members:

• The designers
• The review leader
• The review scribe
• The review audience
• Cross-functional teams
• Concurrent product realization
• Incremental information sharing
• Integrated project management
• Early and continual supplier involvement
• Early and continual customer focus

8. Explain the Memory Devices? (OR) describe the basic types of memory
components commonly used in embedded systems? Apr/May 16, Apr18, Nov 18
Subtopics
✓ Memory Device Organization
✓ Random-Access Memories (RAM)
✓ Read-Only Memories

a) Memory Device Organization

✓ The most basic way to characterize a memory is by its capacity, such as 256 MB.

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✓ However, manufacturers usually make several versions of a memory of a given size,

each with a different data width. For example, a 256-MB memory may be available
in two versions. The memory device organisation is shown in Fig.1.30

■ As a 64M _ 4-bit array, a single memory access obtains an 8-bit data item, with a
maximum of 226 different addresses.
■ As a 32 M_ 8-bit array, a single memory access obtains a 1-bit data item, with a
maximum of 223 different addresses.
The height/width ratio of a memory is known as its aspect ratio.

b) Random-Access Memories (RAM)

❖ Random-access memories can be both read and written.
They are called random access because, unlike magnetic disks, addresses can be
read in any order. Most bulk memory in modern systems is dynamic RAM (DRAM).
❖ DRAM is very dense; it does, however, require that its values be refreshed
periodically since the values inside the memory cells decay over time.
❖ The dominant form of dynamic RAM today is the synchronous DRAMs (SDRAMs),
which uses clocks to improve DRAM performance.
❖ SDRAMs use Row Address Select (RAS) and Column Address Select (CAS)
signals to break the address into two parts, which select the proper row and column
in the RAM array. Signal transitions are relative to the SDRAM clock, which allows
the internal SDRAM operations to be pipelined.

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❖ SDRAMs generally also support an interleaved mode that exchanges pairs of bytes.
Even faster synchronous DRAMs, known as double-data rate (DDR) SDRAMs .
Fig 1.31 shows the Timing diagram to read on a SDRAM. DDR2 and DDR3
SDRAMs, are now in use.
❖ Memory for PCs is generally purchased as single in-line memory modules (SIMMs)
or double in-line memory modules (DIMMs).

c) Read-Only Memories
❖ Read-only memories (ROMs) are pre- programmed with fixed data.
❖ They are very useful in embedded systems since a great deal of the code, and perhaps
some data, does not change over time.
❖ Read-only memories are also less sensitive to radiation induced errors.
❖ There are several varieties of ROM available. The first-level distinction to be made
is between factory-programmed ROM (sometimes called mask-programmed ROM
and field-programmable ROM. Factory-programmed ROMs are ordered from the
factory with particular programming.
❖ ROMs can typically be ordered in lots of a few thousand, but clearly factory
programming is useful only when the ROMs are to be installed in some quantity.
Field-programmable ROMs, on the other hand, can be programmed in the lab. Flash

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memory is the dominant form of field-programmable ROM and is electrically

erasable.
❖ Flash memory uses standard system voltage for erasing and programming, allowing
it to be reprogrammed inside a typical system.
❖ As a result, this form of flash is commonly known as boot-block flash. Similar to
those of single-rate SDRAMs; DDRs simply use sophisticated circuit techniques to
perform more operations per clock cycle.

9. How embedded systems are designed with computing platforms? Apr/May 16

(Nov/Dec16) Nov 17(or) Compare and contrast debugging techniques used in
embedded systems. Nov 18
Subtopics
✓ Example platforms
✓ Choosing a platform
✓ Intellectual property
✓ Development environments
✓ Debugging techniques
✓ Debugging challenges

1. Example platforms
❖ The design complexity of the hardware platform can vary greatly, from a totally off the-
shelf solution to a highly customized design.
❖ Chip vendors often provide their own evaluation boards or evaluation modules for their
chips. The evaluation board may be a complete solution or provide what you need with only
slight modifications.
2. Choosing a platform
❖ We probably will not design the platform for our embedded system from scratch. We may
assemble hardware and software components from several sources; we may also acquire a
complete hardware/software platform package.
❖ The various components may all playa factor in the suitability of the platform.
✓ CPU,
✓ Bus,
✓ Memory and
✓ Input and output devices
❖ When we think about software components of the platform, we generally think about both
the run-time components and the support components.
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❖ Run-time components become part of the final system:

✓ The operating system,
✓ Code libraries, and so on.
3. Intellectual property
❖ Intellectual property (IP) is something that we can own but not touch:
✓ software,
✓ netlists, and so on.
❖ Just as we need to acquire hardware components to build our system, we also need to acquire
intellectual property to make that hardware useful.

Examples of the wide range of Intellectual property that we use in embedded system
design:
• run-time software libraries;
• software development environments;
• schematics, netlists, and other hardware design information.
4. Development environments
❖ Although we may use an evaluation board, much of the software development for an
embedded system is done on a PC or workstation known as a host as illustrated in
Figure 1.32
❖ The hardware on which the code will finally run is known as the target.
❖ The host and target are frequently connected by a USB link, but a higher-speed link such
as Ethernet can also be used.
❖ The target must include a small amount of software to talk to the host system. That
software will take up some memory, interrupt vectors, and so on, but it should generally
leave the smallest possible footprint in the target to avoid interfering with the application
software. The host should be able to do the following:
• load programs into the target;
• start and stop program execution on the target; and
• examine memory and CPU registers.
❖ A cross-compiler is a compiler that runs on one type of machine but generates code for
another. After compilation, the executable code is typically downloaded to the embedded
system by USB.
❖ We often create a test bench program that can be built to help debug embedded code. The
test bench generates inputs to stimulate a piece of code and compares the outputs against
expected values, providing valuable early debugging help.

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5. Debugging techniques
❖ Another very important debugging tool is the breakpoint. The simplest form of a break
point is for the user to specify an address at which the program’s execution is to break.
❖ Implementing breakpoints does not require using exceptions or external devices.
❖ When software tools are insufficient to debug the system, hardware aids can be deployed to
give a clearer view of what is happening when the system is running.
Debugging techniques are:
✓ Microprocessor in-circuit emulator (ICE)
✓ Logic analyzer
❖ The microprocessor in-circuit emulator (ICE) is a specialized hardware tool that can help
debug software in a working embedded system. At the heart of an in-circuit emulator is
a special version of the microprocessor that allows its internal registers to be read out when
it is stopped.
❖ The main drawback to in-circuit emulation is that the machine is specific to a particular
microprocessor, even down to the pinout. If you use several microprocessors, maintaining
a fleet of in-circuit emulators to match can be very expensive.
❖ The logic analyzer is the other major piece of instrumentation in the embedded system
designer’s arsenal. Think of a logic analyzer as an array of inexpensive oscilloscopes—the
analyzer can sample many different signals simultaneously (tens to hundreds) but can
display only 0, 1, or changing values for each.
❖ A typical logic analyzer can acquire data in either of two modes that are typically called
state and timing modes.
❖ The internal architecture of a logic analyzer is shown in Figure 1.33.

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6. Debugging challenges
❖ Logical errors in software can be hard to track down, but errors in real-time code can
create problems that are even harder to diagnose.
❖ Real-time programs are required to finish their work within a certain amount of time; if
they run too long, they can create every unexpected behavior.

10. Explain how Consumer electronics architecture are helpful in designing

embedded systems Nov 17

1. Consumer electronics use cases and requirements

❖ Consumer electronics devices have converged over the past decade around a set of common
features that are supported by common architectural features.
❖ Not all devices have all features, depending on the way the device is to be used, but most
devices select features from a common menu.
❖ Similarly, there is no single platform for consumer electronics devices, but the architectures
in use are organized around some common themes.
❖ This convergence is possible because these devices implement a few basic types of
functions in various combinations:
✓ Multimedia and
✓ Communications.

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❖ The style of multimedia or communications may vary, and different devices may use
different formats, but this causes variations in hardware and software components within
the basic architectural templates. Consumer electronics devices provide several types of
services in different combinations:
❖ Multimedia: The media may be audio, still images, or video.
❖ Data storage and management: Because people want to select what multimedia objects
they save or play, data storage goes hand-in-hand with multimedia capture and display.
Fig.1.34 shows a use case for connecting to a client.
❖ Communications: Communications may be relatively simple, such as a USB interface to
a host computer. The communications link may also be more sophisticated, such as an
Ethernet port or a cellular telephone link. Figure 1.35 shows an user interface with host
computer.

❖ functional block diagram of a typical device. The storage system provides

bulk, permanent storage. The network interface may provide a simple USB
connection or a full-blown Internet connection.
❖ Multiprocessor architectures are common in many consumer multimedia
devices.
❖ Figure 1.36 shows a two-processor architecture; if more computation is
required, more DSPs and CPUs may be added.

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2. File systems
❖ DOS file allocation table (FAT) file systems refer to the file system developed by
Microsoft for early versions of the DOS operating system.
❖ FAT can be implemented on flash storage devices as well as magnetic disks; wear-leveling
algorithms for flash memory can be implemented without disturbing the basic operation
of the filesystem.
❖ Many consumer electronics devices use flash memory for mass storage.
❖ Flash memory has one important limitation that must be taken into account. Writing a flash
memory cell causes mechanical stress that eventually wears out the cell.
❖ A wear-leveling flash file system manages the use of flash memory locations to equalize
wear while maintaining compatibility with existing file systems.
❖ A simple model of a standard file system has two layers:
✓ the bottom layer handles physical reads and writes on the storage device;
✓ The top layer provides a logical view of the file system.

11. Explain Program-Level Energy And Power Analysis And Optimization? Apr/May16
(Apr /May 17) (Nov/Dec 16) (Nov/Dec 18)
Power consumption is a particularly important design metric for battery-powered
systems because the battery has a very limited lifetime. However, power consumption is
increasingly important in systems that run off the power grid.
Example
■ We may be able to replace the algorithms with others that do things in clever ways that
consume less power.

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■ Memory accesses are a major component of power consumption in many applications.

By optimizing memory accesses we may be able to significantly reduce power.
The energy consumption for a code measurement is shown in fig.1.37.
■ We may be able to turn off parts of the system—such as subsystems of the CPU, chips in
the system, and so on—when we do not need them in order to save power.

Several factors contribute to the energy consumption of the program.

■ Energy consumption varies somewhat from instruction to instruction.
■ The sequence of instructions has some influence.
■ The opcode and the locations of the operands also matter.

❖ Choosing which instructions to use can make some difference in a program’s energy
consumption, but concentrating on the instruction opcodes has limited payoffs in most
CPUs. The program has to do a certain amount of computation to perform its function.
❖ While there may be some clever ways to perform that computation, the energy cost
of the basic computation will change only a fairly small amount compared to the total
system energy consumption, and usually only after a great deal of effort.
❖ We are further hampered in our ability to optimize instruction level energy
consumption because most manufacturers do not provide detailed, instruction-level
energy consumption figures for their processors.
❖ In many applications, the biggest payoff in energy reduction for a given amount
of designer effort comes from concentrating on the memory system.
❖ Accesses to registers are the most energy efficient; cache accesses are more energy
efficient than main memory accesses. Caches are an important factor in energy
consumption.
❖ On the one hand, a cache hit saves a costly main memory access, and on the other,
the cache itself is relatively power hungry because it is built from SRAM, not DRAM. If
we can control the size of the cache, we want to choose the smallest cache that provides us
with the necessary performance.

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❖ If the cache is too small, the program runs slowly and the system consumes a lot
of power due to the high cost of main memory accesses.
❖ If the cache is too large, the power consumption is high without a corresponding
payoff in performance. At intermediate values, the execution time and power consumption
are both good ?
❖ The best overall advice is that high performance = low power.
❖ If the program can be modified to reduce instruction or data cache conflicts, for
example, the energy required by the memory system can be significantly reduced. The
effectiveness of changes such as reordering instructions or selecting different instructions
depends on the processor involved, but they are generally less effective than cache
optimizations.
❖ A few optimizations mentioned previously for performance are also often useful for
improving energy consumption:

■ Try to use registers efficiently.

■ Analyze cache behavior to find major cache conflicts.
■ Make use of page mode accesses in the memory system whenever possible

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