1.

Module – 1

1.1. Introduction to Mechanical Engineering:

Mechanical engineering is the application of the principles and problem-solving techniques of
engineering from design to manufacturing to the marketplace for any object. Mechanical
engineers analyze their work using the principles of motion, energy, and force, ensuring that
designs function safely, efficiently, and reliably, all at a competitive cost. Virtually every
product or service in modern life has probably been touched in some way by a mechanical
engineer to help humankind. This includes solving today's problems and creating future
solutions in health care, energy, transportation, world hunger, space exploration, climate
change, and more.

Mechanical engineers play an important role in the automotive, aerospace, biotechnology,

computer and electronics, automation, and manufacturing industries. They design, develop,
build, and test all sorts of mechanical devices, tools, engines, and machines. Mechanical
engineers can design and manufacture everything from small parts like miniature connectors,
to large machine tools like drill presses. They take a product from start to finish, and design for
aesthetics, functionality, and durability.

1.2. Role of Mechanical Engineers in Industries and Society:

1.2.1. Society:
Mechanical engineers contribute to society in many ways which mainly includes
transportation, agricultural mechanization and household appliances and waste management.
Transportation: The distance that once took days for us to cover using biological modes of
transport can now be achieved in mere hours and minutes with the aid of automobiles. The
distance that once took days for us to cover using biological modes of transport can now be
achieved in mere hours and minutes.

Agricultural mechanization: Just like the transportation, the agricultural field too reaped the
benefits of modified mechanized farming machinery to increase the production and reduce the
time taken to do so manually. Without the implementation of the modern machinery like water
pumps, tractors, harvesters, etc. developed by the mechanical engineers, our society would
have been still hobbled and would have never attained its full potential.

Household appliances: Mechanical engineers have always played a crucial role in the
development of various household appliances and mechanized items that make our lives easier
and help us to focus on the more important aspects of life. Today, we all can very well enjoy a
comfortable life with the help of appliances such as heaters, air conditioners, and refrigerators.
Every workplace in the modern world has a ventilated central cooling and/or heating system.
Such systems are also used to purify the air and help in manufacturing processes that require a
specific temperature.
Waste management: Likewise, waste management has also played a pivotal role in our society
by keeping it clean, hygienic and free of diseases. And as you may know, waste disposal trucks,
treatment facilities, and water purification systems are all significant contributions of
mechanical engineers towards our society.

Other sectors: Mechanical engineers are being involved with healthcare industry in creating
technologies that are helping doctors and humankind through solving various healthcare
problems and creating future solutions. Healthcare devices, individualised medicines as well
as surgical devices are being developed by mechanical engineers using 3D-printing
technologies. Mechanical engineers also involve in developing green technology, sustainable
energy, clean air, drinking water, green transportation, safe waste disposal and renewable
energy.

1.2.2. Energy Sector:

Mechanical engineers have been involved in power generation whether hydro or thermal.
Recent world has seen their contributions in the development of renewable energy
infrastructure across the world starting from huge solar projects, to using wind, ocean, or tidal
energy to develop power. Mechanical engineers help hydropower or hydroelectric power plants
find efficient ways of extracting electricity from strong water currents. They design, and
develop essential machines and hardware, such as turbines, generators, and hydro-pressure and
control mechanisms. Mechanical engineers can also work as consultants in hydropower,
ensuring plants follow environmental guidelines, perform at high levels of safety, and adhere
to state and governmental laws. Mechanical engineers can work in every stage of renewable
energy development and distribution. From developing methods that lower the cost of
manufacturing silicon for solar panels to designing more optimal ways to construct wind farms,
mechanical engineers are critical to lowering the cost of renewable energy infrastructure and
making advancements in efficiency and power generation.

1.2.3. Manufacturing Sector:

Mechanical engineers in manufacturing works to bring the idea and designs into reality by
proper selection of material, machine, and manufacturing process. He involves right from the
selection of materials and tooling, manufacturing, planning process layouts, plant layouts,
equipment specification, tool design, value analysis, cost control, final assembly, inspection,
packing, dispatch/shipment.

1.2.4. Automotive Sector:

Mechanical engineers drive the automotive industry. From 80-seater buses to single seat F1
cars, they design bodyshells, wheelsets and combustion systems for every type of moving
vehicle. Mechanical engineering in the automotive industry is key to developing new types of
vehicles, updating models, repairing existing vehicles and implementing new functionalities
and safety features. There are many mechanical engineers that work on design, manufacturing
and maintenance teams for all the major automotive manufacturers. Mechanical designers are
responsible for the design of all new models and prototypes of vehicles. They are the people
who determine a vehicle's structural layout, the type of materials, the size and the weight.
Design engineers are responsible for the design of all models and prototypes of a vehicle. They
are responsible for the selection and evaluation of materials, components, systems, controls
and systems integration.

They are responsible for the designing of automobiles as a whole, its components, and even
the plant in which such automobiles are manufactured. It involves close coordination between
various development teams such as engine, frame, gears, braking system and so on. These all
teams consist mainly of engineers from the mechanical specialisation. They are also
responsible for the design and the development of various machines and equipment’s required
for the manufacture of quality automobiles.

With the advent of electric vehicle technology in the automotive industry, mechanical
engineers are getting more and more being involved in the design, development manufacturing
and testing of hybrid electric vehicles, battery management systems, electrical safety.

1.2.5. Aerospace Sector:

Mechanical engineers in aerospace involves in the design, development, production and testing
of aircraft, spacecraft, and related equipment and systems. Evaluate designs to ensure products
meet engineering principles, customer requirements, and environmental challenges. They also
involve in design and analysis of missiles or rockets. In addition, they test prototypes to make
sure that they function according to design. They design more fuel-efficient aircraft that cut
emissions, build the fleets of satellites that power modern GPS technology, and create the next
generation of spacecraft for missions to Mars and beyond.

1.2.6. Automation:
Mechanical engineers in automation are responsible for the design, development and
implementation of automated systems that help manufacturing processes run efficiently. This
includes the design and development of modular components that their team can easily
integrate into the manufacturing process. They also develop or modify existing production or
testing equipment to make it more efficient or help implement new methods.

1.2.7. Industry 4.0:

With the emergence of industry 4.0, the mechanical engineering industry is undergoing
tremendous digital transformation. These technologies are reshaping how engineers design and
build new gears, from machine learning (ML) to artificial intelligence (AI) to big data. Industry
4.0 in its truest sense is a manufacturing revolution and by that very nature, its successful
implementation and evolution will hinge greatly on mechanical engineers (their skills,
adaptation to digitization and innovative approach.)

1.3. Energy:
Energy is defined as the ability or capacity to do work. Most of the energy used by humankind
is mainly derived from conventional energy sources. Due to the vast demand of energy, the
rate of depletion of these resources has reached alarmingly low levels. This situation leads to
seek for alternate energy sources such as solar, wind, ocean, biomass, hydel etc.
1.3.1. Energy Sources:
There are two types of energy sources i.e., capital energy sources and celestial energy sources.
The energy existing in the earth is known as capital energy. Fossil fuels and nuclear fuels are
the examples of capital energy sources. Energy that comes from outer space is called celestial
energy. Electromagnetic energy, gravitational and particle energy from stars, planets, moon
etc. are the examples of celestial energy sources. Electromagnetic energy from sun is called as
direct solar energy which results in generation of different types of energies such as wind,
hydel, geothermal, biofuel, etc. Gravitational energy of moon produces the tidal energy.

1.3.2. Classification of Energy Sources:

Energy sources can be classified into two types such as,
1. Renewable energy sources &
2. Non-renewable energy sources

1.3.3. Renewable energy sources:

Energy sources which are continuously produced in nature and are essentially inexhaustible
are called renewable energy sources. Renewable energy sources include
a. Direct solar energy – Heat energy radiated from sun
b. Wind energy – Energy obtained from flow of wind
c. Tidal energy – Energy obtained from the tides in oceans
d. Hydel energy – Energy obtained from flowing water
e. Ocean thermal energy – Heat energy obtained from the surface of water in oceans
f. Bio energy- Energy obtained from the organic matter of plants and animals
g. Geothermal energy – Heat energy stored deep inside the earth

(Link to Renewable Energy Topic: https://youtu.be/T4xKThjcKaE?list=PL7b293q4n8alo87lK74wa2iuJRVGmBxvH)

1.3.4. Non renewable energy sources:

Energy sources which have been accumulated over the ages and not quickly replenishable when
they are exhausted. Non renewable energy sources include
a. Fossil fuels – Example: Coal, petroleum, coal gas and natural gas
b. Nuclear fuels – Example: Uranium
(Link to Non-Renewable Energy Topic: https://youtu.be/MpEJnnpye-k)
1.3.5. Differences between Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy Sources
Renewable Energy Non-Renewable Energy
Sl. No. Factor
Sources Sources
Exhaustibility/
1. Inexhaustible Exhaustible
Inexhaustibility
Abundantly and freely
2. Availability Not abundantly available
available
3. Replenishment Replenished naturally Cannot be replenished
Environmental Environment friendly
4. Not environment friendly
Friendliness except in case of biomass
Building Systems cost is
5. Cost Factor Production cost is high
high, running cost is low
6. Nature of Availability Intermittently available Continuously available
Regional restriction & Available in certain
7. No regional restriction
dependency factor countries

1.4. Fossil Fuels:

Fossil fuels are commonly classified as coal, oil, and natural gas. They are called fossil fuels
because they were formed over millions and millions of years by the action of heat from the
earth's core, and pressure from rock and soil on the remains (or fossils) of dead plants and
animals (including micro-organisms). Fossil fuels provide around 66 % of the world's electrical
power and 95% of the world's total energy demands (including heating, transport, power
generation and other uses).
(Link to Fossil Fuels Topic: https://youtu.be/zaXBVYr9Ij0)

1.4.1. Coal:
Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel on earth. It is a combustible black or brownish- black
sedimentary rock composed mostly of carbon and hydrocarbons. Coal is the major fuel used
for thermal power plants to generate steam. Coal occurs in nature, which was formed by the
decay of vegetable matters buried under the earth millions of years ago under pressure and
heat. This phenomenon of transformation of vegetable matter into coal under earth’s crust is
known as Metamorphism.
 Figure 1: Schematic representation of coal formation

There are three main types of coal: Lignite, bituminous and Anthracite. Lignite and bituminous
have a lesser percentage of carbon in them and therefore burn faster. Anthracite has about 98%
of carbon and therefore burns slowly and releases much less smoke than the other two types.
But, coal of all types contain sulphur to some degree, which is the worst of the pollutants to
cause damage to human health and to vegetation. Despite the above disadvantages, coal
remains essential for the industrial sector like iron and steel making, concrete, and paper
industries, etc, driving locomotives, and for power generation.

The coal mined from the earth is crushed to a fine dust and burnt. The heat obtained by burning
coal is transferred to water to generate steam. The energy in the steam is used to drive the
turbine, which in turn drives the generator to produce electricity.

Advantages of coal:
a. Very large amounts of electricity can be generated in one place using coal.
b. A coal-fuelled power plant can be built almost anywhere, so long as you can get large
quantities of coal to it.
c. Coal is relatively cheap.

Disadvantages of coal:
a. The combustion of coal produces several types of emissions that pollutes the environment.
b. Mining coal is somewhat difficult and also dangerous.
c. Coal fired power stations requires large area for reserving piles of coal.
(Link to coal topic:
https://youtu.be/iN6LvH_4Q3g?list=PL7b293q4n8alo87lK74wa2iuJRVGmBxvH)

1.4.2. Oil (Petroleum products):

Oil was formed from the remains of animals and plants that lived millions of years ago in the
sea. As the years passed, these deposits turned into chemical that are now called crude oil
(hydrocarbons). Crude oil is a smelly, yellow-to-black liquid and is usually found in
underground areas called reservoirs. Scientists and engineers explore these reservoirs and drill
deep holes through which the oil is pumped out. At oil refineries, the crude oil is heated and
split into various types of products like petrol, diesel fuel, gasoline, aviation fuel, etc., and
transported in huge pipelines and tanker ships to places where it is required.
 Figure 2: Schematic representation of oil formation

Oil is particularly used for propelling vehicles like cars, trucks, buses, and aircrafts. The engine
in these vehicles transform the chemical energy stored in the fuel into heat energy, which in
turn is responsible for the movement of the vehicle. Oil is also used for residential heating,
making products like medicines, plastics, deodorants, CD's & DVD's, etc.

Some important advantages are as follows:

a. The storage and handling of liquid fuels is much easier than solid and gaseous fuels.
b. Excess air required for the complete combustion is less than the solid fuels.
c. Fire control is easy and hence changes in load can be met easily and quickly.
d. There are no requirements of ash handling and disposal.
e. The system is very clean, and hence the labour required is relatively less compared to the
operation with solid fuels.

(Link to oil topic:

https://youtu.be/UPAqfTNiais?list=PL7b293q4n8alo87lK74wa2iuJRVGmBxvH)

1.4.3. Natural Gas:

Natural gas is usually found underground near an oil source. The natural gas is generally
obtained from gas wells and petroleum wells. The major constituent in natural gas is methane,
about 60-65%, and contains small amounts of other hydrocarbons such as ethane, propane,
butane, pentane, and compounds like carbon dioxide, helium, nitrogen, etc. Natural gas is the
cleanest burning fossil fuel. When it is burned, it gives off less carbon dioxide than oil or coal,
virtually no sulphur dioxide, and only small amounts of nitrous oxides. The natural gas is
colourless, odourless, and highly toxic. Its calorific value ranges from 25,000 to 50,000
kJ/Kg-K, in accordance with the percentage of methane in the gas. Natural gas is used to
produce steel, glass, paper, clothing, brick, electricity, and as essential raw material for many
common products like paints, fertilizers, plastics, dyes, photographic films, medicines, and
explosives.
(Link to natural gas topic: https://youtu.be/-njmj0diWu8?list=PL7b293q4n8alo87lK74wa2iuJRVGmBxvH)
1.5. Nuclear Fuels:
Nuclear fuel is the material that is used in a nuclear reactor to generate electricity. Nuclear fuel
is used to produce tremendous amount of heat energy which powers the turbines to generate
electricity. Heat is created when nuclear fuel undergoes nuclear fission or fusion reaction.
These fuels are fissile, and the most common nuclear fuels are uranium-235 (235U) and
plutonium-239 (239Pu). All processes involved in obtaining, refining, and using this fuel make
up a cycle known as the nuclear fuel cycle.
Nuclear Fusion: Nuclear Fusion reactions power the Sun and other stars. Fusion energy is a
form of nuclear energy released by the fusion (combustion) of two light nuclei (i.e., nuclei of
low mass) to produce heavier mass. The process releases energy because the total mass of the
resulting single nucleus is less than the mass of the two original nuclei. The leftover mass
becomes energy.

Figure 3: Representation of Fusion Reaction

Nuclear Fission:

Figure 4: Representation of Fission Reaction.

Nuclear fission is a reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller
nuclei. Uranium and plutonium are mostly used for fission reactions in nuclear power reactors
because they are easy to initiate and control. The energy released by fission in these reactors
heats water into steam. The steam is used to spin a turbine to produce carbon-free electricity.
One gram of Uranium will produce energy equivalent to approximately burning 4.5 tonnes of
high-grade coal.
 (Link to Nuclear Energy: https://youtu.be/44ovdxOvP_A?list=PL7b293q4n8alo87lK74wa2iuJRVGmBxvH
Link to fusion and fission reaction: https://youtu.be/2W-GEE6YU4M)

1.5.1. Advantages of nuclear energy:

a. Produces huge amounts of energy from small amounts of fuel. One ton of uranium produces
more energy than is produced by several million tons of coal, or several million barrels of
oil.
b. Does not produce smoke or CO2 as is in the case of thermal power plants.
c. Nuclear power is reliable.

1.5.2. Disadvantages of nuclear energy:

a. Nuclear waste products emit dangerous radiation. Although not much waste is produced, it
is very very dangerous. It must be sealed up and buried for many years to allow the radio
activity to die away.
b. Nuclear power is reliable, but a lot of money has to be spent on safety. If it does go wrong,
a nuclear accident can be a major disaster.

1.6. Hydro Energy:

Hydel energy is the energy obtained from the flowing water. In hydroelectric power plants the
potential energy of water due to its high location is converted into electrical energy. The total
power generation capacity of the hydroelectric power plants depends on the head of water and
volume of water flowing towards the water turbine.

Figure 5. Hydroelectric power plant

Figure 5 shows the layout of a hydroelectric power plant for utilizing hydel energy. In
hydroelectric/hydro power plant a dam is built to collect the rainwater in a reservoir. The water
from the reservoir is then allowed to flow through penstock (large pipe) and enter the nozzle
where the potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of water is utilized
to run the water turbine, which in turn drives the generator to produce electricity.
1.6.1. Advantages of hydel energy:
a. Once the dam is built, the energy is virtually free.
b. Working cost of the system is less.
c. No waste or pollution produced.
d. Electricity can be generated constantly.
1.6.2. Disadvantages of hydel energy:
a. Dependant on the quantity of water available.
b. Construction of dam is very expensive.
c. Finding a suitable site for the power plant is difficult.
(Link to the working of hydel power plant: https://youtu.be/qbyL--6q7_4,
https://youtu.be/q8HmRLCgDAI?list=PL7b293q4n8alo87lK74wa2iuJRVGmBxvH)

1.7. Solar Energy:

Solar energy is the primary source of energy on Earth. It is the heat energy radiated from the
sun. Solar energy is very large, inexhaustible and a renewable resource. One square meter of
the land exposed to direct sunlight receives an energy equivalent of about 1 kW of power. Solar
energy can be converted directly or indirectly into other forms of energy such as heat and
electricity by three primary processes: heliothermal, helioelectrical, and heliochemical process.
Utilization of the solar energy requires collectors. A solar collector is a device which captures
as much sunlight (solar rays) as possible. The two types of collectors are Flat plate collectors
and Focusing collectors.

1.7.1. Flat plate collectors:

A flat plate collector is the simplest and the most common type of solar collector. In this type,
a flat sheet of thermally conductive material (usually black coated) absorbs the incident solar
rays. The absorbed energy (heat energy) is transferred to cold water or can be utilized for
various applications. Flat plate collectors are widely used and are preferable for low
temperature applications such as cooking, water heating, drying food grains and vegetables,
heating and cooling buildings, etc.
Solar Water Heater:

Figure 6. Solar water heater.

The conversion of sun’s radiation into thermal energy (heat energy) is generally termed as
heliothermal process. Solar water heater is the best example for flat plate collector and is shown
in Figure 6. Solar water heater consists of the following components: absorber plate,
transparent cover, water tubes and insulation.
Absorber plate:
• It is usually made of copper/aluminium/steel.
• It is coated with black material to enhance the absorption of solar radiation.
• From the absorbing plates heat is transferred to tubes which carry either water or air.
Transparent cover:
• It is made of a toughened glass, usually 4 mm thick, and helps in reflecting the incident
solar energy back to the absorber plate.
• They allow solar energy to reach the absorbing plate while reducing convection, conduction
and reradiation heat losses.
Water tubes: These are metallic tubes through which water circulates. The tubes are attached
to the absorber plate.

Insulation: It minimizes and protects the absorbing plate from heat losses. Insulation by means
of resin bonded rock wool is provided below the absorber plate so as to prevent heat losses by
conduction.
Working:
• Cold water from the overhead tank is made to flow through the water tubes of the solar
heater. When the sun rises to a certain level, it's energy, passes through the transparent
cover and falls on the absorber plate. The heat energy absorbed by the absorber plate is
transferred to the cold water flowing through the tubes. The heated water being lighter than
the cold water, rises and flows into the top of the solar water heater tank. The cold water
 from the overhead tank enters the water tubes and the process repeats. The heated water
can be used for various purposes.
1.7.2. Photovoltaic Cell or Solar Cell:
The direct conversion of sun’s radiation into electrical energy (heat energy) is generally termed
as helioelectrical process. This is achieved with the use of solar cell or photovoltaic cell. Solar
cells are most commonly fabricated from a naturally available semiconductor silicon, however
other materials such as cadmium and gallium may also be used. Semiconductors behave like
insulator at low temperature and like conductors above room temperature. To increase its
conductivity, semiconductors are doped with impurities like boron or aluminum, the resulting
which is called p-type semiconductors, and semiconductors doped with impurities like
phosphorous are called n-type semiconductors.

Figure 7. Solar cell

A solar cell is constructed with a sandwich of n-type and p-type wafer thin semiconductors of
silicon. Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy. These photons contain
various amounts of energy corresponding to different wavelengths of the solar specimen. When
photons strike a photovoltaic cell, they may be reflected, pass through, or be absorbed. Only
the absorbed photons provide energy to generate electricity. When enough sunlight (energy) is
absorbed by the material (semiconductor), electrons are dislodged from the material's atoms.
When the electrons leave their position, holes are formed. When many electrons, each carrying
a negative charge, travel toward the front surface of the cell, the resulting imbalance of charge
between the cell's front and back surfaces creates a voltage potential like the negative and
positive terminals of a battery. When the two surfaces are connected through an external load,
electricity flows. Solar cells can be used for domestic lighting, street lighting, village
electrification, water pumping, desalination of salt water, railway signals, powering of remote
telecommunication repeater stations, etc.
(Link to Solar Energy:https://youtu.be/yFwGpiCs3ss?list=PL7b293q4n8alo87lK74wa2iuJRVGmBxvH,
https://youtu.be/gl5tY5Noacc?list=PL7b293q4n8alo87lK74wa2iuJRVGmBxvH,
https://youtu.be/FgjfJGfusdE?list=PL7b293q4n8alo87lK74wa2iuJRVGmBxvH)
Advantages of solar energy:
a. Solar energy is inexhaustible (renewable) and the most abundant source of energy available
freely in nature.
b. It is an environmental clean source of energy.
c. Since it is freely available in nature, it can be used as an alternative to high-cost energy
sources.
d. Since it is an environment clean source of energy, it can be used for household applications.
e. Since solar energy can be converted into other forms of energy, it can be used for a wide
range of applications.
Disadvantages of solar energy:
a. It is a dilute source of energy. Sun does not deliver much energy at one place at any given
time. Hence, large collectors are required to collect the energy at a useful rate.
b. Solar energy may be very cheap, but the solar collectors are relatively expensive and require
maintenance to work properly and efficiently.
c. The availability of solar energy varies with time and weather conditions. Hence, we cannot
depend on it to tap the energy at all times.
d. The energy collected during the sun shining must be stored for its use during night times
and cloudy conditions. Hence the need for storage, increases the cost of the system.
e. Collection of solar energy is a difficult problem. Hence special components are required to
collect the solar energy, and to concentrate it efficiently.

1.8. Wind Energy:

Figure 8. Wind turbine

Wind energy is the kinetic energy of large masses of air moving over the earth's surface. Winds
are caused by the uneven heating of the earth's surface by the sun, the irregularities of the earth's
surface, and rotation of the earth. Hence it can be said that wind energy is a form of solar
energy. The kinetic energy of wind can be converted into mechanical work (rotation of shaft)
by a wind turbine. The mechanical power thus obtained can be used for specific tasks such as
grinding food grains, pumping underground water, generate electricity, etc.

Figure 8 shows the schematic of a wind turbine for generating electricity. A wind turbine
consists of specially designed blades that are connected to a low-speed shaft. A gear box
connects the low-speed shaft to the high-speed generator shaft to increase the rotational speeds
from about 30-60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1000-1800 rpm to produce electricity. In
operation, the blades of the windmill rotate due to the kinetic energy of the flow of wind. This
makes the shaft to rotate which in turn drives the generator to produce electricity. Since wind
speed increases with height, the blades are mounted high above the ground level by means of
a tower. In India, Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka and coastal areas of Gujarat
and Maharashtra have found to be suitable for generating power using wind energy.

1.8.1. Advantages of wind energy

a. Inexhaustible (Renewable) source of energy.
b. Freely available in nature and environment friendly.
c. Since it is freely available in nature, it can be used as an alternative to high-cost energy
sources
d. Cheap sources for power generation:
e. Good method of supplying energy to remote areas

1.8.2. Disadvantages of wind energy

a. Wind is not always predictable, and hence cannot depend for continuous power production
b. Wind is always not available.
c. Windmills cannot be located at all places.
d. Noisy in operation
(Link to wind energy: https://youtu.be/Z5c50-_hcD0?list=PL7b293q4n8alo87lK74wa2iuJRVGmBxvH)

1.9. Biofuels:
Biofuel is a type of renewable energy source derived from microbial, plant, or animal materials.
Biofuels can be solid, liquid, or gaseous. They are most useful in the latter two forms as this
makes it easier to transport, deliver, and burn cleanly. Biofuel is a fuel that is produced over a
short time span from biomass, rather than by the very slow natural processes involved in the
formation of fossil fuels, such as oil. Biofuels are produced from sugar crops, starch crops,
oilseed crops and animal waste.
Examples of biofuels include ethanol (often made from corn in the United States and sugarcane
in Brazil), biodiesel (sourced from vegetable oils and liquid animal fats), green diesel (derived
from algae and other plant sources), and biogas (methane derived from animal manure and
other digested organic material).
The most common first-generation biofuels are:
Biodiesel: Obtained by extraction, with or without esterification of vegetable oils from seeds
of plants like soybean, oil palm, oilseed rape and sunflower or residues including animal fats
derived from rendering applied as fuel in diesel engines.
Bioethanol: Obtained by fermentation of simple sugars from sugar crops like sugarcane or
from starch crops like maize and wheat applied as fuel in petrol engines
Bio-oil: Obtained by thermo-chemical conversion of biomass. A process still in the
development phase.
Biogas: Obtained from anaerobic fermentation or organic waste, animal manures, crop residues
an energy crops applied as fuel in engines suitable for compressed natural gas.
Biochemical: Obtained from modification of the bio-ethanol fermentation process including a
pre-treatment procedure.

1.9.1. Applications:
1. Biogas is cheap and sustainable fuel used in lighting, cooking or generating electricity.
2. Biodiesel finds its use in automotive industry mainly in cars and trucks.
3. Small engines are seen in lawn movers and chain saw.
4. The marine industry finds application of biofuel in suitable blend mixtures to be used in
boats and ships.

1.9.2. Problems Associated with Biofuels:

Biofuel is compatible with current engines but with certain issues. The most important of these
are:
a. Biodiesel exhibits cold weather problems.
b. Some types of biodiesels have exhibited storage instability that could lead to engine
problems.
c. Diesel additives may not provide the same benefits when used with biodiesel.
d. Sometimes, vegetable oils create adverse effects on engine components due to their
volatility, molecular structure, and high viscosity.
(Link to Biofuels: https://youtu.be/ZGmwtDffc74?list=PL7b293q4n8alo87lK74wa2iuJRVGmBxvH)

1.10. Engineering Materials:

Engineering materials refers to the group of materials that are used in the construction of
manmade structures and components. The primary function of an engineering material is to
withstand the applied load without breaking and without exhibiting excessive deflection. The
major classifications of engineering materials include metals and nonmetals (polymers,
ceramics, and composites). Engineering materials are extensively used in development and
manufacturing of tools, equipment, instruments, machinery, etc.
1.10.1. Metals:
Metals are polycrystalline bodies which are having number of differentially oriented fine
crystals. Normally major metals are in solid states at normal temperature. However, some
metals such as mercury are also in liquid state at normal temperature. All metals are having
high thermal and electrical conductivity. All metals are having positive temperature coefficient
of resistance. Means resistance of metals increases with increase in temperature. In a qualitative
term, metals are defined as chemical elements which are mostly opaque, hard, heavy, good
conductor of heat and electricity, denser, malleable, and ductile. These metals are in the form
of oxides, sulphides, carbides, etc. In the case of many metals when they are in pure state, their
properties are not suitable for engineering applications. Therefore, most of the metals used
today are either alloys or compounds.
Examples: Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminum, Iron, Zinc, Lead, Tin etc.

1.10.2. Non-Metals:

Non-Metal materials are non-crystalline in nature. These are available in both solid and gaseous
forms at normal temperature. Normally all non-metals are bad conductor of heat and electricity.
Examples: Plastics, Rubber, Leathers, Asbestos etc. As these non-metals are having very high
resistivity which makes them suitable for insulation purpose in electrical machines.

1.10.3. Classification of metals:

Metals are further divided into ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals.
Ferrous Metals – All ferrous metals are having iron as common element. All ferrous materials
are having very high permeability which makes these materials suitable for construction of core
of electrical machines. Examples: Pig Iron, Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, Steel, Silicon Steel, High
Speed Steel, Spring Steel etc.

1.10.4. Pig Iron:

The metallic product coming out of blast furnace is known as pig iron. It is produced by
reduction of iron ore in blast furnaces where coke is used as a fuel and reducing agent. The
major composition of pig iron is formed based on the raw material 'ore' and 'coke' used in its
manufacturing. Carbon in pig iron may be present in the form of graphite or as cementite.

1.10.5. Cast Iron:

Remelting of pig iron and refining it forms cast iron. It is basically an alloy of iron and carbon
where carbon varies from 2 to 6.7%. However, most of the cast irons have carbon of 2 to 4%
approx and silicon of 1 to 3%. Cast iron is a brittle material and has poor ductility and also
malleability. It cannot be forged, rolled, extruded, drawn or pressed at room temperature. Cast
iron has low melting point and therefore is easily melted and casted into the required final
shape and size. Since casting is the most suitable process for these alloys, they are known as
cast irons. Cast irons are widely used alloys mainly due to their low cost. Cast irons are
available in several forms which depend upon the composition, rate of cooling and heat
treatment given. Some of the mostly used cast irons are grey cast iron, white cast iron,
malleable cast iron, ductile cast iron, chilled cast iron and alloyed cast iron.
Applications:
1. Grey cast irons are mostly used for piston rings, cylinder and blocks, machine frames, and
base of IC engines.
2. White cast iron is extensively used for pump liners, grinding balls, dies and extrusion
nozzles.
3. Malleable cast iron is extensively used in automotive and electrical industries for
components such as crankshaft, camshafts housing steering brackets, fittings for power
transmission and distribution system etc.
4. Malleable cast iron is also used in brakes, carriers, inserts, flanges, farm equipment, etc.
5. Ductile cast iron is used for crankshaft, rolls, punches, dies and sheet metal work. It is also
used for steam plants and furnace doors.

1.10.6. Steel:
Steel is defined as a crystalline alloy of iron and carbon which does contain any free graphite.
Two percent of carbon is considered a boundary between steel and cast iron of course, most of
the steels have carbon not more than 1.5%. Similarly, most of the cast irons do not have less
than 2.5% carbon. Steels with carbon less than 0.2% are weak. As the carbon percentage
increases, the tensile strength and yield strength increase but ductility decreases. Major
characteristics of steel are
a. Steel has wide range of mechanical properties which include from a very soft condition to
a very hard condition.
b. Properties of steel can be significantly modified by addition or removal of alloying
elements.
c. Steel can be heat treated to obtain desired ductility and strength.
d. Steel possesses good machinability and weldability.
e. It is cheap and readily available in wide variety.
f. Steel is extensively used as a variety of structural members.

Applications:
a. Low carbon steels are extensively used in structural members and industrial applications.
b. Low carbon steels applications include joining elements such as rivets, bolts, chains shafts,
etc. Structural body such as refrigerator housing, engine housing, angles, channels, beams,
girders, etc. Pipelines, wheels, hubs, brake housing, levers, plates, shells, etc. Bridge work,
boiler plates, forging elements, general workshop components, etc.
c. Medium carbon steel is used in making of springs, wires, ropes, hammers, locomotive tyres,
etc. It is also used is railway tracks, crankshafts, gears, cams, cylinders, levers, tubes,
spindles, etc.
d. High carbon steels are used in hammers, dies, anvils, cable wires, punches, rock drills, etc.
e. Stainless steel is extensively used for food processing equipment, surgical and dental
equipment, turbine blades, acid resistant chambers, etc.
f. Tool steels applications include cutting, shearing, forming, extrusion, drawing and rolling.
g. Molybdenum steels is often used with nickel and chromium which exhibit high
hardenability. Such are used in aircraft industry for structural parts.
Non-Ferrous Metals - Metals and alloys which do not contain iron as base material are called
non-ferrous metals and alloys. These alloys are extensively used in electrical and thermal
industries where high conductivities are required. The alloys of materials such as aluminium,
copper, lead, tin, magnesium, nickel, zinc, titanium, etc. are important non-ferrous metals and
alloys.
The characteristics of non-ferrous alloys are as follows:
a. Good thermal and electrical conductivity.
b. Some alloys are resistance to corrosion.
c. Ease in fabrication.
d. High strength to weight ratio.
e. Ductile and ease in cold working.
f. Non-magnetic properties.

1.10.7. Copper and its alloys:

Copper is the most important non-ferrous metal whose melting point is around 1100°C and
density is 8900 kg/m3. It forms many alloys with other metals such zinc, tin, nickel and bismuth.

Brass: Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. It may also contain in small amount elements such
as lead, tin, aluminium, etc. Addition of zinc improves its strength machinable hardness and
colour. They are less expensive than copper.

Bronze: Bronze is basically an alloy of copper and tin. However, it is extensively used for all
alloys other than copper zinc alloys. Commercial bronze may contain, in addition to copper
and tin, aluminium, silicon, beryllium, phosphorous, lead, zinc and nickel.

Applications:
a. Extensively used for electrical wires, cables and other conductors.
b. High thermal conductivity makes its uses for heat exchangers, radiators and heaters.
c. High conductivity of heat also accounts for its use in soldering irons.
d. Copper is also used as alloys in the name of brass and bronze.
e. Its use is extensive in the form of pipes and tubes for hot and cold-water distribution
lines.
f. The copper-nickel alloys are superior in resisting erosion in high velocity salt water.

1.10.8. Aluminium and its alloys:

Aluminium is termed light metal due to its low density of the order of 2.3 gm/cm³. It is higher
than magnesium which is 1.7 but much less than the ferrous alloys of 8.0 gm/cm³.
Commercially pure aluminium is about 99% pure and rests are iron and silicon. Aluminium
occupies the third place among commercially used engineering materials behind iron and
copper.

Applications:
a. It is widely used in electrical applications, such as overhead cables, electric wires winding
of motors, generators and transformers.
b. It is used as airframes, engines, propellors and body parts in aircrafts, spacecrafts and
missiles.
c. It is also used for oils and fuel pumps, flywheels, connecting rods, etc
d. It is extensively used as alloying elements for steels, copper, magnesium and zinc alloys.
e. Household applications include roofing, ventilators, doors, windows frames and railings.
f. Other household applications include cooking vessels, food containers and foils for food
packings.
g. It is a good substitute for copper due to its low cost, high strength to weight ratio and good
thermal and electrical conductivity.

1.10.9. Lead and lead alloys:

Lead is one of the softest materials. Its softness is suitable for gaskets and joints. The flexibility
of lead makes it possible to use it as cable covering. When coated on wires it acts as a lubricant
in drawing. It is also used in chemical industry due to its anticorrosion property. Lead is
extensively used as alloying element in brass, bronze and free machining steels to improve
machinability.

Applications:
a. Lead is extensively used in manufacturing of storage batteries and cables.
b. It is an anti-knocking agent in high octane fuels.
c. Due to its high density, lead is used in weights and counter/balances.
d. It has high shielding power against X-rays and y-rays.
e. Softness of lead is used in gaskets and joints.
f. Flexibility of lead is used in sheathing of cables.
g. Lead is highly corrosion resistant and therefore used in chemical industry.
h. Due to low melting point, lead is used in solder joints.
i. Lubricating properties of lead are used for bearing and bushing elements.
j. Sheets and pipes made of leads are used in chemical industries.

1.10.10. Nickel and nickel alloys:

Pure nickel is like low carbon steel which is in annealed condition. It has higher density than
steel and melting point is 1455°C. Nickel is alloyed with copper, iron, chromium, silicon,
molybdenum, manganese and aluminium. The most common alloy of nickel with copper is
Monel metal. It contains 60% nickel and 38% copper with small percentage of aluminium and
manganese. It is strong, tough, and ductile material with resistance to corrosion. Nickel
containing 55% copper is an alloy which is named Constantan. It has highest electrical
resistivity and lower thermal coefficient of expansion. It is therefore widely used for electrical
resistors. It also produces high emf with platinum and is therefore used in thermocouples. An
alloy of nickel containing 10% silicon and 3% copper is known as haste alloy. It has excellent
corrosion resistance to concentrated sulphuric acid even at elevated temperatures. An alloy of
nickel containing 16% chromium, 8% iron with 7% nickel is known as Inconel. It has high
corrosion resistance, good toughness and strength, and is used at high temperature.
Major properties:
a. Nickel is a ferromagnetic material with high density and strength.
b. Nickel alloy can achieve near to zero coefficient of thermal expansion.
c. Monel metals are strong, tough and ductile material with resistance to corrosion.
d. It has good corrosion and oxidation resistance. It is a valuable alloying element which is
extensively used in commercial alloys.
e. Nickel provides good machining properties.
f. Nickel protects the heating vessels against corrosion.
g. Nickel is a good catalyst in chemical reactions.

Applications:
a. Nickel is extensively used as an alloying element. Monel, an alloy of nickel, is used as an
excellent corrosion resistance and also good oxidation resistance.
b. Nickel is used for producing heat-resistant alloy for electrical heaters.
c. Nickel generates good emf with platinum and therefore is used as thermocouple material.
d. Pure nickel is used as catalysts in many reaction.
e. Nickel alloys are used in measuring instruments due to very low coefficient of thermal
expansion.

1.11. Polymers:
Polymers are materials that consist of molecules formed by long chains of repeating units. They
may be natural or synthetic. Many useful engineering materials are polymers, such as plastics,
rubbers, fibres, adhesives, and coatings. Polymers are classified as thermoplastic polymers,
thermosetting polymers (thermosets), and elastomers.

Thermoplastic Polymers:
The classification of thermoplastics and thermosets is based on their response to heat. If heat
is applied to a thermoplastic, it will soften and melt. Once it is cooled, it will return to solid
form. Thermoplastics do not experience any chemical change through repeated heating and
cooling (unless the temperature is high enough to break the molecular bonds). They are
therefore very well suited to injection moulding.

Thermosetting Polymers:
Thermosets are typically heated during initial processing, after which they become
permanently hard. Thermosets will not melt upon reheating. If the applied heat becomes
extreme however, the thermoset will degrade due to breaking of the molecular bonds.
Thermosets typically have greater hardness and strength than thermoplastics. They also
typically have better dimensional stability than thermoplastics, meaning that they are better at
maintaining their original dimensions when subjected to temperature and moisture changes.

Elastomers
Elastomers are highly elastic polymers with mechanical properties similar to rubber.
Elastomers are commonly used for seals, adhesives, hoses, belts, and other flexible parts. The
strength and stiffness of rubber can be increased through a process called vulcanization, which
involves adding sulphur and subjecting the material to high temperature and pressure. This
process causes cross-links to form between the polymer chains.

1.12. Ceramics:
Ceramics are solid compounds that may consist of metallic or non-metallic elements. The
primary classifications of ceramics include glasses, cements, clay products, refractories, and
abrasives. Ceramics generally have excellent corrosion and wear resistance, high melting
temperature, high stiffness, and low electrical and thermal conductivity. Ceramics are also very
brittle materials.

1.12.1. Glass:
Glasses are common materials and are seen in applications including windows, lenses, and
containers. Glasses are amorphous, whereas the other ceramics are mainly crystalline. Primary
advantages of glasses include transparency and ease of fabrication. The base element of most
glasses is silica, and other components can be added to modify its properties. Common
processes used to form glass include:
a. heating until melting, then pouring into moulds to cast into useful shapes
b. heating until soft, then rolling
c. heating until soft, then blowing into desired shapes

1.12.2. Cements:
Cements are materials that, after mixing with water, form a paste that then hardens. Because
of this characteristic, cements can be formed into useful shapes while in paste form before they
harden into rigid structures. Plaster of Paris is one common cement. The most common cement
is called Portland cement, which is made by mixing clay and limestone and then firing at high
temperature. Portland cement is used to form concrete, which is made by mixing it with sand,
gravel, and water. It can also be mixed with sand and water to form mortar. Like other ceramics,
cements are weak in tension but strong in compression. Cement is very inexpensive to produce,
and it used widely in the construction of buildings, bridges, and other large structures.

1.12.3. Clay Products:

Clay is a very common ceramic material. It can be mixed with water, shaped, and then hardened
through firing at high temperature. The two primary classifications of clay products include
structural clay products and whitewares. Structural clay products see applications including
bricks, tiles, and piping. Whitewares see applications including pottery and plumbing fixtures.

1.12.4. Refractories:
Refractory ceramics can withstand high temperatures and extreme environments. They can also
provide thermal insulation. Brick is the most common refractory ceramic.

1.12.5. Abrasives
Abrasive ceramics are hard materials that are used to cut, grind, and wear away other softer
materials. Typical properties of abrasives include high hardness, wear resistance, and
temperature resistance. Abrasives can either be bonded to a surface (e.g., grinding wheels and
sandpaper), or can be used as loose grains (e.g., sand blasting). Common abrasives include
cemented carbide, silicon carbide, tungsten carbide, aluminum oxide, and silica sand. Diamond
is also an excellent abrasive, but it is expensive.

1.12.6. Silica:
Silica also called as silicon dioxide is compound of the two most abundant elements in Earth’s
crust, silicon and oxygen (SiO2). The mass of Earth’s crust is 59% silica and is the main
constituent of more than 95% of the known rocks. Silica has three main crystalline varieties:
quartz (by far the most abundant), tridymite, and cristobalite. Silica sand is used in buildings
and roads in the form of Portland cement, concrete, and mortar, as well as sandstone. Silica is
also used in grinding and polishing glass and stone; in foundry moulds; in the manufacture of
glass, ceramics, silicon carbide, ferrosilicon, and silicones; as a refractory material; and as
gemstones. Silica gel is often used as a desiccant to remove moisture. Silicon dioxide is widely
used in the semiconductor technology.

1.12.7. Graphite:
Graphite is a crystalline form of the element carbon. It consists of stacked layers of graphene.
Graphite occurs naturally and is the most stable form of carbon under standard conditions.
Graphite is a mineral that forms when carbon is subjected to heat and pressure in Earth's crust
and in the upper mantle. Pressures in the range of 75,000 pounds per square inch and
temperatures in the range of 750 degrees Celsius are needed to produce graphite. Synthetic and
natural graphite are consumed on large scale for uses in pencils, lubricants, and electrodes. It
is a weak conductor of heat and electricity. Natural graphite is mostly used for refractories,
batteries, steelmaking, expanded graphite, brake linings, cores of nuclear reactors, foundry
facings, and lubricants. Under high pressures and temperatures, it converts to diamond.
Graphite and diamond are the two mineral forms of carbon. It is mined extensively in China,
India, Brazil, North Korea, and Canada.

1.12.8. Diamond:
Diamond is a mineral composed of pure carbon. It is the hardest naturally occurring substance
known and is also the most popular gemstone. Because of their extreme hardness, diamonds
have several important industrial applications. Diamonds vary from colourless to black, and
they may be transparent, translucent, or opaque. Most diamonds used as gems are transparent
and colourless or nearly so. Colourless or pale blue stones are most valued, but these are rare;
most gem diamonds are tinged with yellow. Most industrial diamonds are Gray or brown and
are translucent or opaque, but better-quality industrial stones grade imperceptibly into poor
quality gems. The colour of diamonds may be changed by exposure to intense radiation (as
released in a nuclear reactor or by a particle accelerator) or by heat treatment. The scratch
hardness of diamond is assigned the value of 10 on the Mohs scale of hardness; corundum, the
mineral next to diamond in hardness, is rated as 9. The hardness of a diamond varies
significantly in different directions, causing cutting and polishing of some faces to be easier
than others. Diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any natural material.
1.12.9. Composites:
A composite material is a material in which one or more mutually insoluble materials are mixed
or bonded together. The primary classes of composites are particulate composites, fibrous
composites, and laminated composites.

Particulate Composites:
Particulate composites are created by adding particles of one material to a matrix (the filler
material). The particles will typically account for less than 15% of the total material volume.
The particles are added to improve upon some shortcoming of the matrix material.

Fibrous Composites:
A fibrous composite is a material in which fibres of one material are embedded within a matrix.
The fibres carry most of the stress, and the matrix serves to hold the fibres in place and to
transmit stress between the fibres. The fibres can be short and randomly oriented, or they can
be long and continuous.

Laminated Composites:
Laminated composites are created by combining layers of composite materials. The layers will
typically differ in the orientation of the fibres, or they will differ in the material itself. Sandwich
materials are common, in which a lightweight material (such as foam or a honeycomb) will be
placed in between layers of a strong, stiff material.