What is memory?

◦ Human memory is often defined as the processing, storage and retrieval of information

acquired through learning. 

◦ Memory + Learning work together= they need each other in order to exist.

Memory as involving three fundamental processes:

◦ encoding: conversion of information into a usable form so that it can be neurologically

represented (‘placed’) and stored in memory. (information is always received in RAW form)

◦ Storage: retention of the encoded information over time

◦ retrieval: recovery of stored information and bringing into conscious awareness for use when
needed.

Atkinson–Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory

◦ The Atkinson–Shiffrin multi-store
model represents memory as consisting of
three separate stores (components) called
sensory memory, short-term memory and
long-term memory.

◦ Each store processes information in different

ways and also differs in terms of
its function (purpose and
roles), capacity (the amount of information
it can hold at any given moment)
and duration (the length of time it can hold
information).

◦ Despite their distinguishing features, the three stores operate simultaneously and interact in
an integrated way.

Sensory memory

◦ sensory memory is the entry point for new information. It is received in RAW form.

◦ It stores vast quantities of incoming sensory information for up to several seconds.

◦ If we pay attention to any of the information in sensory memory, it is transferred to

short-term memory.
 ◦ Sensory information that is not attended to is
lost from memory completely.

Short -Term Memory

◦ Information received in short-term memory is

processed (encoded) and stored for up to
about 18–20 seconds, unless a conscious
effort is made to keep it there longer.

◦ A conscious way to keep it in STM is to

rehearse it.

◦ The transfer of information from short-term

memory involves a further level of processing
(encoding) for storage in long-term memory.
Such as chucking

◦ It’s our conscious awareness

◦ Capacity 7- or + 2 items

Long term Memory

◦ Information transferred to long-term memory may be stored for up to a lifetime. (potentially

unlimited)

◦ Information may also be retrieved from long-term memory and brought back to short-term
memory when needed.

◦ Sometimes, however, we may be unable to retrieve information from the long-term store,
which we commonly refer to as ‘forgetting’.
- Procedural memory: NEVER forget the How to
memorise even with amnesia
- Declarative memory: I declare that I know that fact or
event
- Semantic memory is all facts and data
- Episodic memory: episode in your life

- Structural features are the permanent, built-in fixed

features of memory that do not vary from one
situation to another

- Other structural features include the amount of

information each store can hold at any given moment
(i.e. storage capacity) and the length of time information can be held by each component
(i.e. storage duration).

- Control processes are selected and used by each individual and may vary in different
situations.

- attention is a control process. Whether or not the individual chooses to attend to and select
incoming sensory information will determine whether that information is transferred from
the sensory store to the short-term store. 

- Rehearsal is also a control process and its use determines whether information is retained in
the short-term store, how long it will be held there and whether it is transferred to the
long-term store.

- Retrieval is a third control process. The specific retrieval method used by the individual will
determine whether some or all of the required information in the long-term store will be
located, recovered and brought into conscious awareness.
Sensory memory

◦ Sensory memory is the entry point of memory where new incoming sensory information is
stored for a very brief period.

◦ retained as its original, ‘raw’, sensory form

◦ We can store vast amounts of sensory information

in sensory memory and it is commonly described
as having a potentially unlimited storage capacity.

◦ It is therefore a temporary storage system for

information that may subsequently undergo
further processing.

◦ Incoming sensory information is assumed to be

stored in separate sensory systems called sensory
registers, each of which retains sensory
information for different periods.

Iconic memory

◦  iconic memory is used to describe visual sensory memory — the brief sensory memory for
incoming visual information.

◦ Usually 0.2-0.4

Photographic memory

◦ Eidetic memory is the ability to remember with great accuracy visual information on the
basis of short-term exposure. Eidetic memories involve eidetic images.

◦ An eidetic image is an exact replica of a visual image that persists over time without
distortion.
 ◦ The term echoic memory is used to describe auditory sensory memory — the brief sensory
memory for incoming auditory information.

◦ Echoic memory registers and retains all kinds of sounds, such as speech, the barking of a dog
and the sirens of emergency vehicles

◦ Duration 3-4 seconds

Short term memory (STM)

◦ Short-term memory (STM) is a memory system with limited storage capacity in which
information is stored for a relatively short time, unless renewed in some way.

◦ STM stores information temporarily, but for a longer time than sensory memory (and less
than LTM).

◦ After about 12 seconds, recall starts to decline and by about 18 seconds almost all of the
information disappears entirely if it has not been renewed in some way.

◦ A commonly used method of renewal is continual repetition (called maintenance rehearsal).

To transfer the information in long term memory from the short-term memory you must use
elaborative rehearsal. i.e. adding meaning

Capacity of STM

◦ Compared to sensory memory and LTM, STM has a very limited storage capacity.

◦ The amount of information it can hold at any one time is about seven ‘bits of information’

◦ STM capacity of 7 ± 2 pieces of information.

◦ When STM is ‘full’, new items can only be added by pushing old items out.
Decay and displacement

◦ Information stored in STM is lost primarily

through decay (not being used) and
displacement (being pushed out) by new
information.

◦ Decay of information in STM occurs when

information is not renewed (e.g. through
repetition) and simply fades away with the
passage of time.

◦ Chunking is the grouping, or ‘packing’, of

separate bits of information into a larger
single unit, or ‘chunk’, of information. The
first sequence of letters was probably
perceived as 12 separate items, which
probably exceeded your STM capacity. The second letter sequence can be perceived as four
‘chunks’.

◦ Increasing the capacity 🡪 chunking

◦ Increasing the duration 🡪 Rehearsal

STM functions as working memory

◦ As our ‘working memory’, STM enables us to actively ‘work on’ and manipulate information
while we undertake our everyday tasks.

◦ Information from sensory memory is processed in working memory and information is

retrieved from LTM to be used and manipulated in working memory.

Long Term Memory

• long-term memory
(LTM) stores a
potentially
unlimited amount
of information for a
very long time,
possibly
permanently.

• The two main LTM

types are called
explicit and implicit
memory

• Explicit:
upfront/declarative memory

• Implicit: implied/ non-declarative (unconscious/ involuntary)

Explicit memory

• Explicit memory involves memory that occurs when information can be consciously or
intentionally retrieved and stated

• When explicit memory is used, there is a deliberate and conscious attempt to retrieve
previously stored information. Explicit memories are also called declarative memories

because, if asked, we can consciously retrieve the information and can ‘declare’ (state) or
‘explicitly’ (openly) express it.

REMEMBER

• You must DECLARE that you KNOW that FACT or EVENT

• Explicit memory has two sub-types that are commonly called episodic memory and semantic
memory.

• Episodic memory is the memory of personally experienced events. These memories often
include details of the time, place and our psychological and physiological state when the
event occurred.

• REMEMBER: Episodic memory is memory of EPISODES in YOUR LIFE

• semantic memory is the memory of facts and knowledge about the world. It includes our
specialised knowledge of:

• facts and knowledge of the kind learned in school —

• e.g., that humans are mammals and a pie graph is circular

• everyday facts and general knowledge —

• e.g., that hair can be dyed blonde or that the 2016 summer Olympic
Games were held in Rio de Janeiro

• the meaning of words —

• e.g., that ‘assist’ means to help

• rules — e.g., the spelling rule ‘i before e except after c’, or the formula for
calculating a mean score

• areas of expertise — e.g., that in a game of chess, a king can be moved only one
space in any direction

Implicit memory

• Implicit memory involves memory that does not require conscious or intentional retrieval.

• You are not aware you are remembering, nor are you necessarily trying to remember or
aware of ever having remembered something you know you know or can do, but the
remembering usually occurs effortlessly.

• The term ‘implicit memory’ is used because the existence of a specific memory can be
‘implied’ by (or inferred from) responses that can be observed.
 • You never forget how to memory but you can forget that you know how to do something .

Procedural & classically conditioned memory

• Procedural memory is the memory of motor skills and actions that have been learned
previously. It involves memories of ‘how to do something.

• Procedural memories are demonstrated through performance (i.e. behaviour) and include
what are sometimes called skill, motor, body or muscle memories.

• Procedural memories typically require little or no intentional or conscious attempt to

retrieve.

• Procedural memories are often particularly difficult to put into words.

• You can never forget a procedural memory once learnt.

• Conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli acquired through classical conditioning are
also considered to be a type of implicit memory, particularly those involving fear or anxiety.

• Semantic network, or frame network, is a network that represents semantic relations

between concepts.

• Different to semantic memory

• This is often used as a form of knowledge representation

• ESSENTIALLY, A semantic network is used when one has knowledge that is best understood
as a set of concepts that are related to one another.