Calculus

Calculus[nb 1] is the mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study
of shape, and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations.

It has two major branches, differential calculus and integral calculus; the former concerns instantaneous
rates of change, and the slopes of curves, while the latter concerns accumulation of quantities, and areas
under or between curves. These two branches are related to each other by the fundamental theorem of
calculus, and they make use of the fundamental notions of convergence of infinite sequences and infinite
series to a well-defined limit.[1]

Infinitesimal calculus was developed independently in the late 17th century by Isaac Newton and Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz.[2][3] Later work, including codifying the idea of limits, put these developments on a more
solid conceptual footing. Today, calculus has widespread uses in science, engineering, and social science.[4]

Etymology
In mathematics education, calculus denotes courses of elementary mathematical analysis, which are mainly
devoted to the study of functions and limits. The word calculus is Latin for "small pebble" (the diminutive
of calx, meaning "stone"), a meaning which still persists in medicine. Because such pebbles were used for
counting out distances,[5] tallying votes, and doing abacus arithmetic, the word came to mean a method of
computation. In this sense, it was used in English at least as early as 1672, several years prior to the
publications of Leibniz and Newton.[6]

In addition to the differential calculus and integral calculus, the term is also used for naming specific
methods of calculation and related theories which seek to model a particular concept in terms of
mathematics. Examples of this convention include propositional calculus, Ricci calculus, calculus of
variations, lambda calculus, and process calculus. Furthermore, the term "calculus" has variously been
applied in ethics and philosophy, for such systems as Bentham's felicific calculus, and the ethical calculus.

History
Modern calculus was developed in 17th-century Europe by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
(independently of each other, first publishing around the same time) but elements of it appeared in ancient
Greece, then in China and the Middle East, and still later again in medieval Europe and in India.

Ancient precursors

Egypt
Calculations of volume and area, one goal of integral calculus, can be found in the Egyptian Moscow
papyrus (c. 1820  BC), but the formulae are simple instructions, with no indication as to how they were
obtained.[7][8]

Greece

Laying the foundations for integral calculus and foreshadowing the concept of
the limit, ancient Greek mathematician Eudoxus of Cnidus (c. 390 – 337 BC)
developed the method of exhaustion to prove the formulas for cone and
pyramid volumes.

During the Hellenistic period, this method was further developed by

Archimedes (c. 287 – c. 212 BC), who combined it with a concept of the
indivisibles—a precursor to infinitesimals—allowing him to solve several
problems now treated by integral calculus. In The Method of Mechanical
Theorems he describes, for example, calculating the center of gravity of a solid
hemisphere, the center of gravity of a frustum of a circular paraboloid, and the
area of a region bounded by a parabola and one of its secant lines.[9]

Archimedes used the

China method of exhaustion to
calculate the area under
The method of exhaustion was later discovered independently in China by Liu a parabola in his work
Hui in the 3rd century AD in order to find the area of a circle.[10][11] In the 5th Quadrature of the
century AD, Zu Gengzhi, son of Zu Chongzhi, established a method[12][13] Parabola.
that would later be called Cavalieri's principle to find the volume of a sphere.

Medieval

Middle East

In the Middle East, Hasan Ibn al-Haytham, Latinized as Alhazen (c. 965  –

c. 1040 AD) derived a formula for the sum of fourth powers. He used the
results to carry out what would now be called an integration of this function,
where the formulae for the sums of integral squares and fourth powers
allowed him to calculate the volume of a paraboloid.[14]

India

In the 14th century, Indian mathematicians gave a non-rigorous method,

resembling differentiation, applicable to some trigonometric functions.
Madhava of Sangamagrama and the Kerala School of Astronomy and
Mathematics thereby stated components of calculus. A complete theory
encompassing these components is now well known in the Western world as
the Taylor series or infinite series approximations.[15][16] However, they were Ibn al-Haytham, 11th-
century Arab
mathematician and
physicist
not able to "combine many differing ideas under the two unifying themes of the derivative and the integral,
show the connection between the two, and turn calculus into the great problem-solving tool we have
today".[14]

Modern

Johannes Kepler's work Stereometrica Doliorum formed the basis of integral calculus.[17] Kepler
developed a method to calculate the area of an ellipse by adding up the lengths of many radii drawn from a
focus of the ellipse.[18]

A significant work was a treatise, the origin being Kepler's methods,[18] written by Bonaventura Cavalieri,
who argued that volumes and areas should be computed as the sums of the volumes and areas of
infinitesimally thin cross-sections. The ideas were similar to Archimedes' in The Method, but this treatise is
believed to have been lost in the 13th century, and was only rediscovered in the early 20th century, and so
would have been unknown to Cavalieri. Cavalieri's work was not well respected since his methods could
lead to erroneous results, and the infinitesimal quantities he introduced were disreputable at first.

The formal study of calculus brought together Cavalieri's infinitesimals with the calculus of finite
differences developed in Europe at around the same time. Pierre de Fermat, claiming that he borrowed from
Diophantus, introduced the concept of adequality, which represented equality up to an infinitesimal error
term.[19] The combination was achieved by John Wallis, Isaac Barrow, and James Gregory, the latter two
proving predecessors to the second fundamental theorem of calculus around 1670.[20][21]

The product rule and chain rule,[22] the notions of higher derivatives and Taylor series,[23] and of analytic
functions[24] were used by Isaac Newton in an idiosyncratic notation which he applied to solve problems of
mathematical physics. In his works, Newton rephrased his ideas to suit the mathematical idiom of the time,
replacing calculations with infinitesimals by equivalent geometrical arguments which were considered
beyond reproach. He used the methods of calculus to solve the problem of planetary motion, the shape of
the surface of a rotating fluid, the oblateness of the earth, the motion of a weight sliding on a cycloid, and
many other problems discussed in his Principia Mathematica (1687). In other work, he developed series
expansions for functions, including fractional and irrational powers, and it was clear that he understood the
principles of the Taylor series. He did not publish all these discoveries, and at this time infinitesimal
methods were still considered disreputable.[25]

These ideas were arranged into a true calculus of infinitesimals by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who was
originally accused of plagiarism by Newton.[26] He is now regarded as an independent inventor of and
contributor to calculus. His contribution was to provide a clear set of rules for working with infinitesimal
quantities, allowing the computation of second and higher derivatives, and providing the product rule and
chain rule, in their differential and integral forms. Unlike Newton, Leibniz put painstaking effort into his
choices of notation.[27]

Today, Leibniz and Newton are usually both given credit for independently inventing and developing
calculus. Newton was the first to apply calculus to general physics and Leibniz developed much of the
notation used in calculus today.[28]: 5 1–52  The basic insights that both Newton and Leibniz provided were
the laws of differentiation and integration, emphasizing that differentiation and integration are inverse
processes, second and higher derivatives, and the notion of an approximating polynomial series.

When Newton and Leibniz first published their results, there was great controversy over which
mathematician (and therefore which country) deserved credit. Newton derived his results first (later to be
published in his Method of Fluxions), but Leibniz published his "Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis"
first. Newton claimed Leibniz stole ideas from his unpublished notes, which Newton had shared with a few
members of the Royal Society. This
controversy divided English-speaking
mathematicians from continental
European mathematicians for many
years, to the detriment of English
mathematics.[29] A careful examination
of the papers of Leibniz and Newton
shows that they arrived at their results
independently, with Leibniz starting first
with integration and Newton with
differentiation. It is Leibniz, however,
who gave the new discipline its name.
Newton called his calculus "the science
of fluxions", a term that endured in
English schools into the 19th Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was the Isaac Newton developed the
century.[30]: 1 00  The first complete first to state clearly the rules of use of calculus in his laws of
calculus. motion and universal
treatise on calculus to be written in
gravitation.
English and use the Leibniz notation
was not published until 1815.[31]

Since the time of Leibniz and Newton, many mathematicians have contributed to the continuing
development of calculus. One of the first and most complete works on both infinitesimal and integral
calculus was written in 1748 by Maria Gaetana Agnesi.[32][33]

Foundations

In calculus, foundations refers to the rigorous development of the subject from

axioms and definitions. In early calculus the use of infinitesimal quantities was
thought unrigorous, and was fiercely criticized by a number of authors, most
notably Michel Rolle and Bishop Berkeley. Berkeley famously described
infinitesimals as the ghosts of departed quantities in his book The Analyst in
1734. Working out a rigorous foundation for calculus occupied mathematicians
for much of the century following Newton and Leibniz, and is still to some
extent an active area of research today.[34] Maria Gaetana Agnesi

Several mathematicians, including Maclaurin, tried to prove the soundness of

using infinitesimals, but it would not be until 150 years later when, due to the work of Cauchy and
Weierstrass, a way was finally found to avoid mere "notions" of infinitely small quantities.[35] The
foundations of differential and integral calculus had been laid. In Cauchy's Cours d'Analyse, we find a
broad range of foundational approaches, including a definition of continuity in terms of infinitesimals, and a
(somewhat imprecise) prototype of an (ε, δ)-definition of limit in the definition of differentiation.[36] In his
work Weierstrass formalized the concept of limit and eliminated infinitesimals (although his definition can
actually validate nilsquare infinitesimals). Following the work of Weierstrass, it eventually became common
to base calculus on limits instead of infinitesimal quantities, though the subject is still occasionally called
"infinitesimal calculus". Bernhard Riemann used these ideas to give a precise definition of the integral.[37]
It was also during this period that the ideas of calculus were generalized to the complex plane with the
development of complex analysis.[38]

In modern mathematics, the foundations of calculus are included in the field of real analysis, which contains
full definitions and proofs of the theorems of calculus. The reach of calculus has also been greatly
extended. Henri Lebesgue invented measure theory, based on earlier developments by Émile Borel, and
used it to define integrals of all but the most pathological functions.[39] Laurent Schwartz introduced
distributions, which can be used to take the derivative of any function whatsoever.[40]

Limits are not the only rigorous approach to the foundation of calculus. Another way is to use Abraham
Robinson's non-standard analysis. Robinson's approach, developed in the 1960s, uses technical machinery
from mathematical logic to augment the real number system with infinitesimal and infinite numbers, as in
the original Newton-Leibniz conception. The resulting numbers are called hyperreal numbers, and they can
be used to give a Leibniz-like development of the usual rules of calculus.[41] There is also smooth
infinitesimal analysis, which differs from non-standard analysis in that it mandates neglecting higher-power
infinitesimals during derivations.[34] Based on the ideas of F. W. Lawvere and employing the methods of
category theory, smooth infinitesimal analysis views all functions as being continuous and incapable of
being expressed in terms of discrete entities. One aspect of this formulation is that the law of excluded
middle does not hold.[34] The law of excluded middle is also rejected in constructive mathematics, a branch
of mathematics that insists that proofs of the existence of a number, function, or other mathematical object
should give a construction of the object. Reformulations of calculus in a constructive framework are
generally part of the subject of constructive analysis.[34]

Significance

While many of the ideas of calculus had been developed earlier in Greece, China, India, Iraq, Persia, and
Japan, the use of calculus began in Europe, during the 17th century, when Newton and Leibniz built on the
work of earlier mathematicians to introduce its basic principles.[11][25][42] The Hungarian polymath John
von Neumann wrote of this work,

The calculus was the first achievement of modern mathematics and it is difficult to
overestimate its importance. I think it defines more unequivocally than anything else the
inception of modern mathematics, and the system of mathematical analysis, which is its logical
development, still constitutes the greatest technical advance in exact thinking.[43]

Applications of differential calculus include computations involving velocity and acceleration, the slope of
a curve, and optimization.[44]: 3 41–453  Applications of integral calculus include computations involving
area, volume, arc length, center of mass, work, and pressure.[44]: 6 85–700  More advanced applications
include power series and Fourier series.

Calculus is also used to gain a more precise understanding of the nature of space, time, and motion. For
centuries, mathematicians and philosophers wrestled with paradoxes involving division by zero or sums of
infinitely many numbers. These questions arise in the study of motion and area. The ancient Greek
philosopher Zeno of Elea gave several famous examples of such paradoxes. Calculus provides tools,
especially the limit and the infinite series, that resolve the paradoxes.[45]

Principles

Limits and infinitesimals

Calculus is usually developed by working with very small quantities. Historically, the first method of doing
so was by infinitesimals. These are objects which can be treated like real numbers but which are, in some
sense, "infinitely small". For example, an infinitesimal number could be greater than 0, but less than any
number in the sequence 1, 1/2, 1/3, ... and thus less than any positive real number. From this point of view,
calculus is a collection of techniques for manipulating infinitesimals. The symbols and were taken to
be infinitesimal, and the derivative was their ratio.[34]

The infinitesimal approach fell out of favor in the 19th century because it was difficult to make the notion
of an infinitesimal precise. In the late 19th century, infinitesimals were replaced within academia by the
epsilon, delta approach to limits. Limits describe the behavior of a function at a certain input in terms of its
values at nearby inputs. They capture small-scale behavior using the intrinsic structure of the real number
system (as a metric space with the least-upper-bound property). In this treatment, calculus is a collection of
techniques for manipulating certain limits. Infinitesimals get replaced by sequences of smaller and smaller
numbers, and the infinitely small behavior of a function is found by taking the limiting behavior for these
sequences. Limits were thought to provide a more rigorous foundation for calculus, and for this reason they
became the standard approach during the 20th century. However, the infinitesimal concept was revived in
the 20th century with the introduction of non-standard analysis and smooth infinitesimal analysis, which
provided solid foundations for the manipulation of infinitesimals.[34]

Differential calculus

Differential calculus is the study of the

definition, properties, and applications of the
derivative of a function. The process of
finding the derivative is called differentiation.
Given a function and a point in the domain,
the derivative at that point is a way of
encoding the small-scale behavior of the
function near that point. By finding the
derivative of a function at every point in its
domain, it is possible to produce a new
function, called the derivative function or just
the derivative of the original function. In
formal terms, the derivative is a linear
operator which takes a function as its input Tangent line at (x0 , f(x0 )). The derivative f′(x) of a curve at
and produces a second function as its output. a point is the slope (rise over run) of the line tangent to that
This is more abstract than many of the curve at that point.
processes studied in elementary algebra,
where functions usually input a number and
output another number. For example, if the doubling function is given the input three, then it outputs six,
and if the squaring function is given the input three, then it outputs nine. The derivative, however, can take
the squaring function as an input. This means that the derivative takes all the information of the squaring
function—such as that two is sent to four, three is sent to nine, four is sent to sixteen, and so on—and uses
this information to produce another function. The function produced by differentiating the squaring
function turns out to be the doubling function.[28]: 3 2 

In more explicit terms the "doubling function" may be denoted by g(x) = 2x and the "squaring function"
by f(x) = x2. The "derivative" now takes the function f(x), defined by the expression "x2", as an input,
that is all the information—such as that two is sent to four, three is sent to nine, four is sent to sixteen, and
so on—and uses this information to output another function, the function g(x) = 2x, as will turn out.

In Lagrange's notation, the symbol for a derivative is an apostrophe-like mark called a prime. Thus, the
derivative of a function called f is denoted by f′, pronounced "f prime" or "f dash". For instance, if
f(x) = x2 is the squaring function, then f′(x) = 2x is its derivative (the doubling function g from above).
If the input of the function represents time, then the derivative represents change with respect to time. For
example, if f is a function that takes a time as input and gives the position of a ball at that time as output,
then the derivative of f is how the position is changing in time, that is, it is the velocity of the ball.[28]: 1 8–20 

If a function is linear (that is, if the graph of the function is a straight line), then the function can be written
as y = mx + b , where x is the independent variable, y is the dependent variable, b is the y-intercept, and:

This gives an exact value for the slope of a straight line.[46]: 6   If the graph of the function is not a straight
line, however, then the change in y divided by the change in x varies. Derivatives give an exact meaning to
the notion of change in output with respect to change in input. To be concrete, let f be a function, and fix a
point a in the domain of f. (a, f(a)) is a point on the graph of the function. If h is a number close to zero,
then a + h is a number close to a . Therefore, (a + h, f(a + h)) is close to (a, f(a)). The slope between
these two points is

This expression is called a difference quotient. A line through two points on a curve is called a secant line,
so m is the slope of the secant line between (a, f(a)) and (a + h, f(a + h)). The secant line is only an
approximation to the behavior of the function at the point a because it does not account for what happens
between a and a + h . It is not possible to discover the behavior at a by setting h to zero because this
would require dividing by zero, which is undefined. The derivative is defined by taking the limit as h tends
to zero, meaning that it considers the behavior of f for all small values of h and extracts a consistent value
for the case when h equals zero:

Geometrically, the derivative is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at a . The tangent line is a limit
of secant lines just as the derivative is a limit of difference quotients. For this reason, the derivative is
sometimes called the slope of the function f.[46]: 6 1–63 

Here is a particular example, the derivative of the squaring function at the input 3. Let f(x) = x2 be the
squaring function.

The slope of the tangent line to the squaring function at the point (3, 9) is 6, that is to say, it is going up six
times as fast as it is going to the right. The limit process just described can be performed for any point in the
domain of the squaring function. This defines the derivative function of the squaring function or just the
derivative of the squaring function for short. A
computation similar to the one above shows that the
derivative of the squaring function is the doubling
function.[46]: 6 3 

Leibniz notation

A common notation, introduced by Leibniz, for the

derivative in the example above is

dy
In an approach based on limits, the symbol dx is to be The derivative f′(x) of a curve at a point is the
interpreted not as the quotient of two numbers but as a slope of the line tangent to that curve at that point.
shorthand for the limit computed above.[46]: 7 4  This slope is determined by considering the
Leibniz, however, did intend it to represent the quotient limiting value of the slopes of secant lines. Here
of two infinitesimally small numbers, dy being the the function involved (drawn in red) is
infinitesimally small change in y caused by an f(x) = x3 − x. The tangent line (in green) which
infinitesimally small change dx applied to x. We can passes through the point (−3/2, −15/8) has a slope
d of 23/4. The vertical and horizontal scales in this
also think of dx as a differentiation operator, which
image are different.
takes a function as an input and gives another function,
the derivative, as the output. For example:

In this usage, the dx in the denominator is read as "with respect to x".[46]: 7 9  Another example of correct
notation could be:

Even when calculus is developed using limits rather than infinitesimals, it is common to manipulate
symbols like dx and dy as if they were real numbers; although it is possible to avoid such manipulations,
they are sometimes notationally convenient in expressing operations such as the total derivative.

Integral calculus

Integral calculus is the study of the definitions, properties, and applications of two related concepts, the
indefinite integral and the definite integral. The process of finding the value of an integral is called
integration.[44]: 5 08  The indefinite integral, also known as the antiderivative, is the inverse operation to the
derivative.[46]: 1 63–165  F is an indefinite integral of f when f is a derivative of F. (This use of lower- and
upper-case letters for a function and its indefinite integral is common in calculus.) The definite integral
inputs a function and outputs a number, which gives the
algebraic sum of areas between the graph of the input and
the x-axis. The technical definition of the definite integral
involves the limit of a sum of areas of rectangles, called a
Riemann sum.[47]: 2 82 

A motivating example is the distance traveled in a given

time.[46]: 1 53  If the speed is constant, only multiplication is
needed:

But if the speed changes, a more powerful method of

finding the distance is necessary. One such method is to
approximate the distance traveled by breaking up the time Integration can be thought of as measuring
into many short intervals of time, then multiplying the time the area under a curve, defined by f(x),
elapsed in each interval by one of the speeds in that between two points (here a and b).
interval, and then taking the sum (a Riemann sum) of the
approximate distance traveled in each interval. The basic
idea is that if only a short time elapses, then the speed will
stay more or less the same. However, a Riemann sum only
gives an approximation of the distance traveled. We must
take the limit of all such Riemann sums to find the exact
distance traveled.

When velocity is constant, the total distance traveled over A sequence of midpoint Riemann sums over
the given time interval can be computed by multiplying a regular partition of an interval: the total area
velocity and time. For example, travelling a steady 50 mph of the rectangles converges to the integral of
for 3 hours results in a total distance of 150 miles. Plotting the function.
the velocity as a function of time yields a rectangle with
height equal to the velocity and width equal to the time
elapsed. Therefore, the product of velocity and time also calculates the rectangular area under the (constant)
velocity curve.[44]: 5 35  This connection between the area under a curve and distance traveled can be
extended to any irregularly shaped region exhibiting a fluctuating velocity over a given time period. If f(x)
represents speed as it varies over time, the distance traveled between the times represented by a and b is the
area of the region between f(x) and the x-axis, between x = a and x = b .

To approximate that area, an intuitive method would be to divide up the distance between a and b into a
number of equal segments, the length of each segment represented by the symbol Δx. For each small
segment, we can choose one value of the function f(x). Call that value h . Then the area of the rectangle
with base Δx and height h gives the distance (time Δx multiplied by speed h ) traveled in that segment.
Associated with each segment is the average value of the function above it, f(x) = h . The sum of all such
rectangles gives an approximation of the area between the axis and the curve, which is an approximation of
the total distance traveled. A smaller value for Δx will give more rectangles and in most cases a better
approximation, but for an exact answer we need to take a limit as Δx approaches zero.[44]: 5 12–522 

The symbol of integration is , an elongated S chosen to suggest summation.[44]: 5 29  The definite integral
is written as:
and is read "the integral from a to b of f-of-x with respect to x." The Leibniz notation dx is intended to
suggest dividing the area under the curve into an infinite number of rectangles, so that their width Δx
becomes the infinitesimally small dx.[28]: 4 4 

The indefinite integral, or antiderivative, is written:

Functions differing by only a constant have the same derivative, and it can be shown that the antiderivative
of a given function is actually a family of functions differing only by a constant.[47]: 3 26  Since the
derivative of the function y = x2 + C, where C is any constant, is y′ = 2x, the antiderivative of the latter
is given by:

The unspecified constant C present in the indefinite integral or antiderivative is known as the constant of
integration.[48]: 1 35 

Fundamental theorem

The fundamental theorem of calculus states that differentiation and integration are inverse
operations.[47]: 2 90  More precisely, it relates the values of antiderivatives to definite integrals. Because it is
usually easier to compute an antiderivative than to apply the definition of a definite integral, the
fundamental theorem of calculus provides a practical way of computing definite integrals. It can also be
interpreted as a precise statement of the fact that differentiation is the inverse of integration.

The fundamental theorem of calculus states: If a function f is continuous on the interval [a, b] and if F is a
function whose derivative is f on the interval (a, b), then

Furthermore, for every x in the interval (a, b),

This realization, made by both Newton and Leibniz, was key to the proliferation of analytic results after
their work became known. (The extent to which Newton and Leibniz were influenced by immediate
predecessors, and particularly what Leibniz may have learned from the work of Isaac Barrow, is difficult to
determine because of the priority dispute between them.[49]) The fundamental theorem provides an
algebraic method of computing many definite integrals—without performing limit processes—by finding
formulae for antiderivatives. It is also a prototype solution of a differential equation. Differential equations
relate an unknown function to its derivatives, and are ubiquitous in the sciences.[50]: 3 51–352 

Applications
Calculus is used in every branch of the physical sciences,[51]: 1  
actuarial science, computer science, statistics, engineering,
economics, business, medicine, demography, and in other fields
wherever a problem can be mathematically modeled and an optimal
solution is desired.[52] It allows one to go from (non-constant) rates
of change to the total change or vice versa, and many times in
studying a problem we know one and are trying to find the
other.[53] Calculus can be used in conjunction with other
mathematical disciplines. For example, it can be used with linear
algebra to find the "best fit" linear approximation for a set of points The logarithmic spiral of the Nautilus
in a domain. Or, it can be used in probability theory to determine shell is a classical image used to
the expectation value of a continuous random variable given a depict the growth and change related
. [54]: 3 7  In , the study
probability density function analytic geometry to calculus.
of graphs of functions, calculus is used to find high points and low
points (maxima and minima), slope, concavity and inflection points.
Calculus is also used to find approximate solutions to equations; in practice it is the standard way to solve
differential equations and do root finding in most applications. Examples are methods such as Newton's
method, fixed point iteration, and linear approximation. For instance, spacecraft use a variation of the Euler
method to approximate curved courses within zero gravity environments.

Physics makes particular use of calculus; all concepts in classical mechanics and electromagnetism are
related through calculus. The mass of an object of known density, the moment of inertia of objects, and the
potential energies due to gravitational and electromagnetic forces can all be found by the use of calculus.
An example of the use of calculus in mechanics is Newton's second law of motion, which states that the
derivative of an object's momentum with respect to time equals the net force upon it. Alternatively,
Newton's second law can be expressed by saying that the net force is equal to the object's mass times its
acceleration, which is the time derivative of velocity and thus the second time derivative of spatial position.
Starting from knowing how an object is accelerating, we use calculus to derive its path.[55]

Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism and Einstein's theory of general relativity are also expressed in the
language of differential calculus.[56][57]: 5 2–55  Chemistry also uses calculus in determining reaction
rates[58]: 5 99  and in studying radioactive decay.[58]: 8 14  In biology, population dynamics starts with
reproduction and death rates to model population changes.[59][60]: 6 31 

Green's theorem, which gives the relationship between a line integral around a simple closed curve C and a
double integral over the plane region D bounded by C, is applied in an instrument known as a planimeter,
which is used to calculate the area of a flat surface on a drawing.[61] For example, it can be used to
calculate the amount of area taken up by an irregularly shaped flower bed or swimming pool when
designing the layout of a piece of property.

In the realm of medicine, calculus can be used to find the optimal branching angle of a blood vessel so as to
maximize flow.[62] Calculus can be applied to understand how quickly a drug is eliminated from a body or
how quickly a cancerous tumour grows.[63]

In economics, calculus allows for the determination of maximal profit by providing a way to easily
calculate both marginal cost and marginal revenue.[64]: 3 87 

See also
Glossary of calculus
List of calculus topics
 List of derivatives and integrals in alternative calculi
List of differentiation identities
Publications in calculus
Table of integrals

Notes
1. Originally called infinitesimal calculus or "the calculus of infinitesimals".

References
1. DeBaggis, Henry F.; Miller, Kenneth S. (1966). Foundations of the Calculus. Philadelphia:
Saunders. OCLC 527896 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/527896).
2. Boyer, Carl B. (1959). The History of the Calculus and its Conceptual Development (https://a
rchive.org/details/historyofcalculu0000boye). New York: Dover. OCLC 643872 (https://www.
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Further reading
Adams, Robert A. (1999). Calculus: A Cajori, Florian (September 1923). "The
complete course. ISBN 978-0-201-39607- History of Notations of the Calculus".
2. Annals of Mathematics. 2nd Series. 25 (1):
Albers, Donald J.; Anderson, Richard D.; 1–46. doi:10.2307/1967725 (https://doi.org/
Loftsgaarden, Don O., eds. (1986). 10.2307%2F1967725).
Undergraduate Programs in the hdl:2027/mdp.39015017345896 (https://hd
Mathematics and Computer Sciences: The l.handle.net/2027%2Fmdp.390150173458
1985–1986 Survey. Mathematical 96). JSTOR 1967725 (https://www.jstor.or
Association of America. g/stable/1967725).
Anton, Howard; Bivens, Irl; Davis, Stephen Courant, Richard (3 December 1998).
(2002). Calculus. John Wiley and Sons Introduction to calculus and analysis 1.
Pte. Ltd. ISBN 978-81-265-1259-1. ISBN 978-3-540-65058-4.
Apostol, Tom M. (1967). Calculus, Volume Gonick, Larry (2012). The Cartoon Guide
1, One-Variable Calculus with an to Calculus. William Morrow. ISBN 978-0-
Introduction to Linear Algebra. Wiley. 061-68909-3. OCLC 932781617 (https://w
ISBN 978-0-471-00005-1. ww.worldcat.org/oclc/932781617).
Apostol, Tom M. (1969). Calculus, Volume Keisler, H.J. (2000). Elementary Calculus:
2, Multi-Variable Calculus and Linear An Approach Using Infinitesimals.
Algebra with Applications. Wiley. Retrieved 29 August 2010 from
ISBN 978-0-471-00007-5. http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/calc.html
Bell, John Lane (1998). A Primer of (http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/calc.ht
ml) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
Infinitesimal Analysis. Cambridge
0110501113944/http://www.math.wisc.edu/
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-62401-
~keisler/calc.html) 1 May 2011 at the
5. Uses synthetic differential geometry and
Wayback Machine
nilpotent infinitesimals.
Landau, Edmund (2001). Differential and
Boelkins, M. (2012). Active Calculus: a
Integral Calculus. American Mathematical
free, open text (https://web.archive.org/we
Society. ISBN 0-8218-2830-4.
b/20130530024317/http://faculty.gvsu.edu/
boelkinm/Home/Download_files/Active%2 Lebedev, Leonid P.; Cloud, Michael J.
0Calculus%20ch1-8%20%28v.1.1%20W1 (2004). "The Tools of Calculus".
3%29.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the Approximating Perfection: a
original (http://gvsu.edu/s/km) on 30 May Mathematician's Journey into the World of
2013. Retrieved 1 February 2013. Mechanics. Princeton University Press.
Bibcode:2004apmj.book.....L (https://ui.ads
Boyer, Carl Benjamin (1959) [1949]. The
abs.harvard.edu/abs/2004apmj.book.....L).
History of the Calculus and its Conceptual
Development (https://books.google.com/bo Larson, Ron; Edwards, Bruce H. (2010).
oks?id=KLQSHUW8FnUC) (Dover ed.). Calculus (9th ed.). Brooks Cole Cengage
Hafner. ISBN 0-486-60509-4. Learning. ISBN 978-0-547-16702-2.
 McQuarrie, Donald A. (2003). Stewart, James (2012). Calculus: Early
Mathematical Methods for Scientists and Transcendentals (7th ed.). Brooks Cole
Engineers. University Science Books. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-538-
ISBN 978-1-891389-24-5. 49790-9.
Pickover, Cliff (2003). Calculus and Pizza: Thomas, George Brinton; Finney, Ross L.;
A Math Cookbook for the Hungry Mind. Weir, Maurice D. (1996). Calculus and
ISBN 978-0-471-26987-8. Analytic Geometry, Part 1. Addison
Salas, Saturnino L.; Hille, Einar; Etgen, Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-53174-9.
Garret J. (2007). Calculus: One and Thomas, George B.; Weir, Maurice D.;
Several Variables (10th ed.). Wiley. Hass, Joel; Giordano, Frank R. (2008).
ISBN 978-0-471-69804-3. Calculus (11th ed.). Addison-Wesley.
Spivak, Michael (September 1994). ISBN 978-0-321-48987-6.
Calculus. Publish or Perish publishing. Thompson, Silvanus P.; Gardner, Martin
ISBN 978-0-914098-89-8. (1998). Calculus Made Easy. ISBN 978-0-
Steen, Lynn Arthur, ed. (1988). Calculus for 312-18548-0.
a New Century; A Pump, Not a Filter.
Mathematical Association of America.
ISBN 0-88385-058-3.

External links
"Calculus" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Calculus), Encyclopedia of
Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]
Weisstein, Eric W. "Calculus" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Calculus.html). MathWorld.
Topics on Calculus (https://planetmath.org/TopicsOnCalculus) at PlanetMath.
Calculus Made Easy (1914) by Silvanus P. Thompson (http://djm.cc/library/Calculus_Made_
Easy_Thompson.pdf) Full text in PDF
Calculus (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00mrfwq) on In Our Time at the BBC
Calculus.org: The Calculus page (http://www.calculus.org) at University of California,
Davis – contains resources and links to other sites
Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics: Calculus & Analysis (http://ww
w.economics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/Calculus%20and%20Analysis%20Earliest%20Uses.h
tm)
The Role of Calculus in College Mathematics (http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9217/calculus.
htm) from ERICDigests.org
OpenCourseWare Calculus (https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/mathematics/18-01sc-single-variabl
e-calculus-fall-2010/) from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Infinitesimal Calculus (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Infinitesimal_calc
ulus&oldid=18648) – an article on its historical development, in Encyclopedia of
Mathematics, ed. Michiel Hazewinkel.
Daniel Kleitman, MIT. "Calculus for Beginners and Artists" (http://math.mit.edu/~djk/calculus_
beginners/).
Calculus training materials at imomath.com (http://www.imomath.com/index.php?options=27
7)
(in English and Arabic) The Excursion of Calculus (http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4327/), 1772

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