2.

Transistors, Fabrication, Layout

Jacob Abraham

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

The University of Texas at Austin
VLSI Design
Fall 2020

September 1, 2020

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 1 / 44
 Conductivity in Silicon Lattice

Look at the behavior of crystalline silicon

At temperatures close to 0 K, electrons in outermost shell
tightly bound (insulator)
At higher temps., (300 K), some electrons have thermal
energy to break covalent bonds

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 1 / 44
 The Elements (Periodic Table)

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 2 / 44
 Build Systems with Information on Electrical
Characteristics of Building Blocks (Transistors)

This course will not cover semiconductor physics

Learn this from other courses in the department
We will design VLSI circuits knowing the electrical behavior of
the transistors

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 3 / 44
 Dopants
Used to selectively change the conductivity of silicon
Silicon is a semiconductor
Pure silicon has no free carriers and conducts poorly
Adding dopants impurities to pure silicon increases the
conductivity
Group V: extra electron (n-type)
Group III: missing electron, called hole (p-type)

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 4 / 44
 p-n Junctions

Diodes
A junction between p-type and n-type semiconductor forms a
diode
Current flows only in one direction

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 5 / 44
 p-n Junction, Cont’d

Source: Prof. Dr. Helmut Föll, University of Kiel

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 6 / 44
 nMOS Transistor

Four-Terminal device: gate, source, drain, body

Gate oxide body stack looks like a capacitor
Gate and body are conductors
SiO2 (oxide) is a very good insulator
Called metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) capacitor, even
though gate material changed to polysilicon
Recent gate material in nanoscale processes is back to metal

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 7 / 44
 nMOS Transistor Operation
Body (bulk) is commonly tied to Ground (0 V)
When the gate is at a low voltage
P-type body is at low voltage
Source-body and drain-body diodes are OFF
No current flows, transistor is OFF

When the gate is at a high voltage

Positive charge on gate of MOS
capacitor
Negative charge attracted to body
Inverts a channel under gate to n-type
Now electrons can flow through n-type
silicon from source through channel to
drain, transistor is ON
ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 8 / 44
 pMOS Transistor

Similar to nMOS transistor, but doping and voltages reversed

Body tied to high voltage (VDD)
Gate low: transistor ON
Gate high: transistor OFF
Bubble indicates inverted behavior

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 9 / 44
 CMOS Fabrication
Silicon technology
CMOS transistors are fabricated on silicon wafer
Lithography process similar to printing press
On each step, different materials are deposited or etched
Easiest to understand by viewing both top and cross-section
of wafer in a simplified manufacturing process

Example inverter cross-section

Typically use p-type substrate for nMOS transistors
Requires n-well for body of pMOS transistors
A
GND VDD
Y SiO2

n+ diffusion

p+ diffusion
n+ n+ p+ p+
polysilicon
n well
p substrate
metal1

nMOS transistor pMOS transistor

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 10 / 44
 Well and Substrate Taps
Substrate contacts are critical to correct operation of CMOS
Substrate must be tied to GND, n-well to VDD
(reverse-biased diodes isolate regions)
Metal to lightly-doped semiconductor forms poor connection
called Schottky Diode – use heavily doped well and substrate
contacts/taps

A
GND VDD
Y

p+ n+ n+ p+ p+ n+

n well
p substrate

substrate tap well tap

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 11 / 44
 Inverter Masks

Transistors and wires are defined by masks

Cross-sections shown above taken along dashed line

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 12 / 44
 Examples of Fabrication Steps
A VERY simplified description illustrating the major step – modern
processes follow these basic steps, but are much more complex
Start with blank wafer
Build inverter from the bottom up

First step is to form the n-well

Cover wafer with protective layer of SiO2 (oxide)
Remove layer where n-well should be built
Implant or diffuse n dopants into exposed wafer
Strip off SiO2

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 13 / 44
 Oxidation and Photoresist
Grow SiO2 on top of Si wafer
900 − − 1200◦ C with H2 O or O2 in oxidation furnace

Spin-on photoresist
Photoresist is a light-sensitive organic polymer which softens
where exposed to light (positive resist)

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 14 / 44
 Lithography
Use light to transfer a pattern to the wafer
Expose photoresist through n-well mask (using UV light –
example 193 nm wavelength)
“Immersion lithography” used in some nanoscale processes
Strip off exposed photoresist

Interesting physics problem

How can we “print” a 45 nm feature using light with a
wavelength of 193 nm?
Significant distortion of the image!
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 Trend in Integrated Circuit Feature Sizes

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 Features Smaller than Wavelength of Light Used

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 Optical Proximity Correction (OPC)
What you see is NOT what you get

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 18 / 44
 Etch and Strip Photoresist
Etch oxide with Hydrofluoric acid (HF)
Only attacks oxide where resist has been exposed

Strip remaining photoresist using mixture of acids (“piranha” etch)

Necessary so resist does not melt in the next step

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 19 / 44
 n-Well
Formed using ion implant (used to be diffusion)
Bombard wafer with As ions, which only enter exposed Si
(With diffusion, wafer is placed in a furnace with As gas)
Remaining oxide is then stripped off using HF, and it is back
to the bare wafer, but with an n-well

Subsequent steps repeat the above process

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 20 / 44
 Polysilicon (Modern Processes use Metal Gates)
Very thin layer of gate oxide is grown on wafer
Gate oxide thickness is < 20Å (few atomic layers)
One of the most critical steps in fabrication process

Polysilicon deposited on top of gate oxide

Grown using Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
Wafer placed in furnace with Silane (SiH) gas
Small crystals (polysilicon) formed on wafer
Heavily doped to be a good conductor

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 21 / 44
 Polysilicon Patterning
Use same lithography processing to pattern polysilicon
Reactive Ion Etch (RIE) process
Charge buildup on un-etched polysilicon can lead to “antenna
effects” and damage gate oxide

Self-aligned process
Polysilicon “blocks” dopants where the channel should be
formed
ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 22 / 44
 N+ Diffusion
nMOS transistors are formed
Oxide is patterned to form the n+ regions
N+ diffusion forms nMOS source, drain, and n-well contact

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 23 / 44
 N+ Diffusion, Cont’d
Ion implantation used to dope silicon
n+ regions are formed
Oxide is stripped off to complete patterning step

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 24 / 44
 P+ Diffusion

A similar set of steps is used to form the p+ diffusion regions for

the pMOS transistor source and drain as well as the substrate
contact

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 25 / 44
 Contacts

Points where the first level of metal contacts the transistors

Used to wire the devices together
Wafer is covered with thick field oxide
Oxide is etched where the contact cuts are needed

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 26 / 44
 Metallization

Used to interconnect internal nodes

Aluminum was the traditional metal
Switch to Copper for high performance processes
Aluminum is sputtered over the entire wafer
Patterned to remove excess metal, leaving the wires

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 27 / 44
 Layout

Describes actual layers and geometry on the silicon substrate

to implement a function
Need to define transistors, interconnection
Transistor widths (for performance)
Spacing, interconnect widths, to reduce defects, satisfy power
requirements
Contacts (between poly or active and metal), and vias
(between metal layers)
Wells and their contacts (to power or ground)
Layout of lower-level cells constrained by higher-level
requirements: floorplanning
“design iteration”

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 28 / 44
 Layout, Cont’d

Chips are specified with set of masks

Minimum dimensions of masks determine transistor size (and
hence speed, cost, and power)
Feature size f = distance between source and drain
Set by minimum width of polysilicon (= minimum “drawn”
gate length)
Feature size improves 30% every 3 years or so
Normalize for feature size when describing design rules
Express rules in terms of λ = f /2
e.g., λ = 0.3µm in 0.6µm process

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 29 / 44
 CMOS Inverter Layout

Note: the N- and P- well are

not shown in the layout

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 30 / 44
 Other CMOS Layouts
Using wide transistors Using even wider transistors

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 31 / 44
 Buffer with Two Inverters
Side by side Stacked

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 32 / 44
 Improving Layout Efficiency
“Flip” a cell so that power (or ground) can be shared with another
cell

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 33 / 44
 “Stick” Diagram and Simplified Layout of NAND Gate

Stick diagrams identify n- and p-wells are shown

actual layers (which a
schematic does not);
both can be annotated
with transistor sizes

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 34 / 44
 Simplified Design Rules
Based on λ (popular in academia)
Discussed in the textbook
Rules based on λ can theoretically be migrated to a different
technology (by changing the value of λ); in practice, all the rules
do not scale in the same way, and industry typically does not use λ
rules

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 35 / 44
 Inverter Layout
Dimensions of pMOS and nMOS transistors
Dimensions specified as Width/Length ( W
L)
Minimum size, 4λ/2λ, sometimes called unit-size transistor
(pMOS transistors are typically designed to be about twice the
width of nMOS transistors, because of the mobilities of holes
and electrons)

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 36 / 44
 The MOSIS Scalable CMOS Rules

MOSIS is a prototyping and small-volume production service for

VLSI circuit development
MOSIS keeps costs down by combining many designs on a
single die (multi-project chips)
Similar facilities exist in Europe (Europractice, CMP), Taiwan,
etc.
λ-based rules
Designs using these rules are fabricated by a variety of
companies
Support for submicron digital CMOS, analog (buried poly
layer for capacitor), micromachines, etc.
https://www.mosis.com/files/scmos/scmos.pdf

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 37 / 44
 Nangate 45nm Open Cell Library
Used in the laboratory exercises
This is an open-source, standard-cell library
To aid university research programs and other organizations in
developing design flows, designing circuits and exercising new
algorithms
Link to the wiki:
http://www.eda.ncsu.edu/wiki/FreePDK45:Contents
Example: poly rules (note: summarized here)

Rule Value Description

1 50 nm Minimum width
2 140 nm Minimum spacing
3 55 nm Min. extension
4 70 nm Min. enclosure
5 50 nm Min. spacing
6 75 nm Min. spacing

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 38 / 44
 Example of Other Design Rules: Nangate 45nm

Active Rules
Rule Value Description
1 90 nm Minimum width
2 80 nm Minimum spacing
3 – Min. well-active
4 – active inside

Contact Rules
Rule Value Description
1 65 nm Minimum width
2 75 nm Minimum spacing
3 – contact inside
4 5 nm Min. active around
5 5 nm Min. poly around
6 35 nm Min. spacing with gate
7 90 nm Min. spacing with poly

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 39 / 44
 Trend Towards Reducing Number of Rules
Improve manufacturability
Less flexibility for designers
Intel reduced the number of poly layout rules for logic layout
in 45nm by 37% compared with the 65 nm process
Highly regular layout greatly reduces lithographic distortions
Limit rules, thereby limiting the number of allowed structures
and shape relationships
Move towards 1-dimensional shapes and “Gridded Design
Rules” (GDR)

Example layout from Tela Innovations

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 40 / 44
 Regular Layout

Lithography simulations
Lithographic distortions reduced significantly with 1-D shapes
and GDR
Scan D Flip-Flop, 45nm process
Source: Tela Innovations, Inc., ISPD 2009

2D Conven-
tional
Layout

1D GDR
Layout
ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 41 / 44
 Copper and the Damascene Process
Source: UMC
Layers of Damascene Copper (Intel)

Copper Damascene Interconnect (Intel)

ECE Department, University of Texas at Austin Lecture 2. Transistors, Fabrication, Layout Jacob Abraham, September 1, 2020 42 / 44
 Advanced Metallization
IBM Technology (in Rabaey, Digital Integrated Circuits, 2nd ed.)
First commercial Copper process
(0.12µ)

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 Example CMOS Circuit

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