Page 1 of 4 Electromagnetic Induction Introduction: The modem technique of eddy current testing employed for detecting defects under the surfaces of metallic objects is based on the principles of electromagnetic induction. The circulating currents induced in conducting bodies due to changing magnetic Mux in the region where they arc located are called eddy currents. The defects are detected by obs stance and inductance of a coil carrying alternating current when held near the surface of the object. Unless the core of the solenoid has some ferromagnetic material the magnetic flux # is proportional to the current i .The constant of proportionality is called self inductance of the coil and is represented by letter L. The self-induced emf in a coil with inductance L is, therefore, given by - » at a e Ina coupled systerp of circuits with current tin one circuit the magnetic flux linked with its given by + =Liir+Masi2 Where Li is the self inductance of that circuit and Ma is the mutual inductance of the coupled system. Similar equation holds for the reverse, with Miz=Msi LR Circuit A sinusoidal alternating current with angular frequency « flowing through a series combination of resistance Rand inductance L produces a voltage drop across the combination. If we represent current by i = Jo sin wt, the voltage drop across the resistance is equal to JoRsin cx and that across the inductance it is ZowL cos wt. We can combine these to get the voltage across the R-L combination. The quantity co is called inductive reactance and is represented by symbol X. One can readily show that the voltage across the coil is equal to Zo Z sin (wt+8), where Z = VR? +X? @ and o-nn-() ® ‘Alternating voltage as well as current vary continuously in both magnitude and polarity during the course of time but the ms values of these quantities calculated over a cycle are independent of time and the relation V = IZ where both V and / represent the mms values, is analogous to Ohm’s law. From this we see that Vv? = (IR)? + (IX)? @) (Note:- The concept of resistance is basically related to dissipation of electrical energy and the value of resistance of a coil in ac circuit can be different from its value determined by applying Ohm’s law with de currents.) When there are additional resistances and/or inductances in series with the coil, we can still consider the voltage drop across the combination as equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of voltage drops across the total resistance and across the total inductance. Measurement of Inductance and Resistance of a Coil For measuring altemating current and voltage, generally the rms values are noted. From Equations (2) & (3) we get Vcos@ = IR 4) and Vsind= 1X © To obtain the values of R and L of the coil we can use the above equations. Voltage V and current I can be measured. But there being three unknown quantities 0, R and X we need one more equation. r NIUS (PHYSICS), HBCSE-TIFR, MUMBAIFig.l across the series combination consisting of a known resistor A’ with the coil is Va, then IFthe applied voltage to the voltage drops Vr across R’, V across the coil and the angle 4 an expression relating applied voltage V’ is Vp sVptV? +2V,V cos © All quantities except 0 in Equation (6) are measurable. Hence measuring the three voltages Vs, Va’ and V, and using Equations (4), (5) and (6), 8, R and X can be determined. Knowing the frequeney of the alternating current the value of L can be calculated. Alternatively, from Equations (4) and (6) we can express the value of R in terms of the three measured voltages 2) The impedance Z of the coil can be calculated using the formula z = -% pt and the value of X’could be obtained from X=VP—R (A) Coupled Circuits The energy supplied by’the power source to the primary can be dissipated partially in the primary and the remainder in other mutually coupled secondaries. When no mechanical work is done, the energy dissipation is only in resistances. The inductances store energy in the magnetic field associated with them. With current J (rms value) the average stored energy in inductance L is equal to 21/2. When a current flows in the secondary the emf induced due to it in the primary brings about change in the ‘Seen from the primary side the effect is a consequence of change in the effective resistance know the parameters in the secondary circuit. The its appears as if it is dissipated in the effective primary current. and reactance of the primary coil and there is no need to total energy dissipated in primary as well as secondary circui primary resistance when seen from the primary side. ‘The effective values of resistance Ree and inductance Lre of primary can be related to a ‘reflected’ resistance Rn and a ‘reflected’ inductance Lr from the secondary side. The (average) power dissipated in the reflected resistance Re in the primary has to be equal to that in resistance Rs +R in the secondary circuit. This gives IBRe = I3(Rs + Ru) (8) Similarly, we can relate the reflected inductance Lr to the secondary inductance Ls from 1) 24.2 gal = 5lsld 9) Considering the fact that the induced emf in the secondary due to an alternating primary current Jp has magnitude equal to wdIp we can write the equation corresponding to Kirchhoff’s loop rule for the secondary in terms of rms values of primary and secondary currents as @MIp = IsZs where Zs is the impedance of the secondary circuit. When the secon induced emf appears as the voltage across the open ends of the secondary. (10) dary impedance is infinite the mutually NIUS (PHYSICS), HBCSE-TIFR, MUMBAIPage 3 0f 4 APPARATUs: stance B : g See Wires Multimeter other Resistance Aluminium | Complete experimental Sine wave Generator Board Rod set up ‘The apparatus provided for the experiment consists of the following. 1) A sine wave generator with output of about 10 V (rms) at 1000 Hz frequency 2) A digital multimeter (DMM) to be used as a voltmeter 3) A pair of coaxial coils wound one around the other on a cylindrical hollow piece of non magnetic non conducting bobbin 4) A piece of aluminum rod (A! core) 5) Two series of ten resistors mounted on an acrylic board: one consisting of 100 ohms resistors and the other of 10 ohm resistors with banana pin sockets 6) The required resistance for load Ror sampling resistance R’ can be selected using this resistance board and connecting wire pieces. A separate acrylic board with resistance of 300 ohms is provided which can be used for sampling resistor when the other board is used for load resistance. 7) A set of connecting cords. ‘The output of the sine wave generator of frequency 1000 Hz is to be used as the alternating source voltage. Use the 20 V range of the DMM to measure rms ac voltages. ‘The magnitudes of currents /p and /s when needed are to be calculated from the measured voltages across known values of R’ in primary and Rt in secondary respectively. EXPERIMENTAL PROBLEM: PART I: Resistance, Self-inductance, Mutual inductance and Coupling consta Determine resistances, self-inductances and mutual inductances of coil | (with blue terminals) and coil 2 (with ‘green terminals) with air core and also with aluminum (42) core, Determine the coupling coefficients for both the cases (Air and AI core). Use circuit in Fig. 2 below. Choose the value of R’ to obtain Va‘ and V approximately equal so that the systematic error in Z becomes negligible. NIUS (PHYSICS), HBCSE-TIFR, MUMBALPage aot ays Fig2 Inductance, u: Toad resistance: primary and green as secondary. Use circuit in Fig. 3 below, Use R’R’ = 300 Qas a series resistance with primary and variable load resistance 2), across secondary. Linearize equation (1) and obtain Mand Xs. Fig.3 PART 3: Effective Primary Impedance and Reflected Quantities from Secondary: Using the data in Part 2 above, determine effective resistance Rr and effective primary reactance Xpe of the primary for various load resistances. Calculate reflected resistance Rrand reflected reactance Xx (from equations 8 & 9) By plotting a graph of Xre and Xp, obtain the equation that gives the relationship between the two. PART 4: Effects of Eddy currents: In Part 1 above you have the data for both the coils with A/ core, Use it to estimate the ratio of inductance and resistance as seen by the eddy currents in the A! core. Use the connections in Part 2 above. Set R' = 300 ohms and Ri, = 1000 ohms, Insert the Al rod at the core of the coils. Calculate the power dissipation due to the eddy currents in the Al core. NIUS (PHYSICS), HBCSE-TIFR, MUMBAI