UNIT - I Syllabus

INTRODUCTION ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Concept of AI, history, current status, scope, agents, environments, Problem Formulations, Review of tree
and graph structures, State space representation, Search graph and Search tree.

Define AI
It is a branch of computer science by which we can create intelligent machines which can behave like a
human, think like humans, and able to make decisions."
Advantages of Artificial Intelligence
Following are some main advantages of Artificial Intelligence:
o High Accuracy with less errors: AI machines or systems are prone to less errors and high
accuracy as it takes decisions as per pre-experience or information.
o High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision making, because of that AI
systems can beat a chess champion in the Chess game.
o High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the same action multiple times
with high accuracy.
o Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in situations such as defusing a bomb,
exploring the ocean floor, where to employ a human can be risky.
o Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to the users such as AI
technology is currently used by various E-commerce websites to show the products as per
customer requirement.
o Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities such as a self-driving car
which can make our journey safer and hassle-free, facial recognition for security purpose, Natural
language processing to communicate with the human in human-language, etc.

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

Every technology has some disadvantages, and thesame goes for Artificial intelligence. Being so
advantageous technology still, it has some disadvantages which we need to keep in our mind while
creating an AI system. Following are the disadvantages of AI:
o High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is very costly as it requires lots of
maintenance to meet current world requirements.
o Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter machines with AI, but still they cannot
work out of the box, as the robot will only do that work for which they are trained, or
programmed.
o No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding performer, but still it does not
have the feeling so it cannot make any kind of emotional attachment with human, and may
sometime be harmful for users if the proper care is not taken.
o Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of technology, people are getting more
dependent on devices and hence they are losing their mental capabilities.
o No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can imagine some new ideas but still AI
machines cannot beat this power of human intelligence and cannot be creative and imaginative.

Application of AI
Artificial Intelligence has various applications in today's society. It is becoming essential for today's time
because it can solve complex problems with an efficient way in multiple industries, such as Healthcare,
entertainment, finance, education, etc. AI is making our daily life more comfortable and fast.
Following are some sectors which have the application of Artificial Intelligence:
1. AI in Astronomy
o Artificial Intelligence can be very useful to solve complex universe problems. AI technology can be helpful
for understanding the universe such as how it works, origin, etc.
2. AI in Healthcare
o In the last, five to ten years, AI becoming more advantageous for the healthcare industry and going to have
a significant impact on this industry.
o Healthcare Industries are applying AI to make a better and faster diagnosis than humans. AI can help
doctors with diagnoses and can inform when patients are worsening so that medical help can reach to the
patient before hospitalization.
3. AI in Gaming
o AI can be used for gaming purpose. The AI machines can play strategic games like chess, where the
machine needs to think of a large number of possible places.
4. AI in Finance
o AI and finance industries are the best matches for each other. The finance industry is implementing
automation, chatbot, adaptive intelligence, algorithm trading, and machine learning into financial
processes.
5. AI in Data Security
o The security of data is crucial for every company and cyber-attacks are growing very rapidly in the digital
world. AI can be used to make your data more safe and secure. Some examples such as AEG bot, AI2
Platform,are used to determine software bug and cyber-attacks in a better way.
6. AI in Social Media
o Social Media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat contain billions of user profiles, which need to
be stored and managed in a very efficient way. AI can organize and manage massive amounts of data. AI
can analyze lots of data to identify the latest trends, hashtag, and requirement of different users.
7. AI in Travel & Transport
o AI is becoming highly demanding for travel industries. AI is capable of doing various travel related works
such as from making travel arrangement to suggesting the hotels, flights, and best routes to the customers.
Travel industries are using AI-powered chatbots which can make human-like interaction with customers
for better and fast response.

8. AI in Automotive Industry
o Some Automotive industries are using AI to provide virtual assistant to their user for better performance.
Such as Tesla has introduced TeslaBot, an intelligent virtual assistant.
o Various Industries are currently working for developing self-driven cars which can make your journey
more safe and secure.
9. AI in Robotics:
o Artificial Intelligence has a remarkable role in Robotics. Usually, general robots are programmed such that
they can perform some repetitive task, but with the help of AI, we can create intelligent robots which can
perform tasks with their own experiences without pre-programmed.
o Humanoid Robots are best examples for AI in robotics, recently the intelligent Humanoid robot named as
Erica and Sophia has been developed which can talk and behave like humans.
10. AI in Entertainment
o We are currently using some AI based applications in our daily life with some entertainment services such
as Netflix or Amazon. With the help of ML/AI algorithms, these services show the recommendations for
programs or shows.
11. AI in Agriculture
o Agriculture is an area which requires various resources, labor, money, and time for best result. Now a day's
agriculture is becoming digital, and AI is emerging in this field. Agriculture is applying AI as agriculture
robotics, solid and crop monitoring, predictive analysis. AI in agriculture can be very helpful for farmers.
12. AI in E-commerce
o AI is providing a competitive edge to the e-commerce industry, and it is becoming more demanding in the
e-commerce business. AI is helping shoppers to discover associated products with recommended size,
color, or even brand.
13. AI in education:
o AI can automate grading so that the tutor can have more time to teach. AI chatbot can communicate with
students as a teaching assistant.
 o AI in the future can be work as a personal virtual tutor for students, which will be accessible easily at any
time and any place.

Scope of AI (AI Careers)

Fresher's should analyze their competencies and skills and choose a better AI role with the
potential for upward mobility. The future scope of Artificial Intelligence continues to grow due
to new job roles and advancements in the AI field. The various roles in an AI career are as
follows:
o AI Analysts and Developers
o AI Engineer and Scientist
o AI researcher
o AI Algorithms Expert
o Robotics specialist
o Military and aviation specialist
o Maintenance and mechanical engineer
o Surgical AI technician

scope of Artificial Intelligence

The adoption of Artificial Intelligence in India is promising. However, it is currently in its early
stages. While some industries, such as IT, manufacturing, automobiles, etc., are taking advantage
of the prowess of AI, there are still many areas in which its potential has not been explored.The
immense potential present in AI can be understood by the various other technologies included
under the umbrella of AI. Examples of such technologies include self-improvement algorithms,
machine learning, pattern recognition, big data, and many others.It is predicted that hardly any
industry will be left untouched by this powerful tool in the next few years. It is the reason why AI
has so much potential to grow in India.

In this comprehensive blog, we have discussed some of the areas in which AI is being used:

1: Banking
Banking is nothing new, thanks to the trends in Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
technologies. The sector has rapidly adopted technology to keep up to date with the current
market trends. It uses this technology to record customer data, which was previously a
monotonous manual task.With the rapid increase in the amount of data generated and stored in
the banking sector today, Artificial Intelligence and ML allow professionals to do this accurately
and efficiently.

How AI has made a significant difference in banking includes better customer support,

enhanced data quality, fraud prevention, digital assistants, and more.

One of the most progressive sectors in the world today is healthcare. In the next section, you will
read how Artificial Intelligence has affected this sector and how it will continue to do so.
2: Health care and medicine
According to one of the studies conducted by Forbes, the realm of AI can add value to life, as
has already been observed over the years. The healthcare sector uses this technology to its
advantage in several ways and constantly innovates.
AI use case is the collaborative Cancer Cloud, developed by Intel and the Knight Career Institute.
Cloud collects past data of cancer patients and other patients with similar diseases to help
doctors diagnose cancer early based on the symptoms they have shown and compare them with
previously available data. The best treatment for this deadly disease is to prevent it from
reaching its advanced stage.

In addition, Eve, an AI-based robot built by a team of scientists from the top universities of
Aberystwyth, Manchester, and Cambridge, discovered an element often found in toothpaste
that can cure malaria. It is proof that Artificial Intelligence will play an important role in the
medical field in the coming times.

AAI is also used in health care and medicine in other similar fields, such as drug testing,
synthetic biology, etc. You can also be sure that AI will accelerate the process of scientific
research and development, which may well aid this field.

Benefits of AI
AI has various uses in the modern-day scenario. Industries are using AI to automate processes,
and better AI algorithms are being developed every day to speed up various industry
processes/tasks.

o Automation- AI makes sense of machines to interpret the situation and take necessary action.
Some tasks can be tedious, like checking papers, submitting forms, etc., and these tasks can be
automated with the help of AI with minimal human intervention. Employees in an
organization/industry can focus on their core responsibility, whereas AI can automate difficult
tasks.
o Speed- AI can do many things without stopping as compared to humans. In addition to
automation, AI lets us complete work before the deadline, and work can be done outside working
hours, and this reduces not only human labor but also provides great speed and efficiency.
o Accuracy- AI reduces the chance of error as compared to humans. There are fewer errors
because the machine will always act according to the fixed AI algorithm in every scenario. AI helps
us define new boundaries of accuracy and precision with less risk.
 o Exploration- Artificial Intelligence has helped us to discover many unexplored places like volcanic
sites, ocean floors, etc. Humans cannot visit these vulnerable sites because they cannot survive in
those landscapes, and AI machines can visit such sensitive places and collect information.
o Data Collection and Analysis - Data analytics is already a trending technology in the modern-
day business world. Industries and businesses know the importance of analyzing large chunks of
data and extracting useful information from it.

The various benefits of AI lead to different use cases and job roles in the market, which are
beneficial for deep tech enthusiasts or those new to pursuing a career in the AI industry. The
scope of AI in India is bright as firms need expert employees who can extract meaningful
information from large chunks of data.

What are the risks associated with AI?

Are you aware of the risks associated with AI and how to manage them? A beginner should be
aware of the potential risks associated with AI processes and how to deal with them. Some of
the common risks associated with AI are as follows:

o High Implementation Cost - Do you want to install chatbot software for your firm/business? The
implementation cost of AI is high compared to setting up other technologies like cloud
technology, database, etc. A subset of AI, Machine Learning, and Deep Learning also have high
implementation costs. Why do firms still opt for AI despite the high implementation cost?
o This is because almost every business has realized the future scope of Artificial Intelligence.
Although its implementation cost is high, an AI setup can help you in the long run, and it is sure
to save you money and resources by reducing the reliance on human labor in your organization.
o Human Replication - It all started in 1950 when Alan Turing conducted the 'Turing Test' to
define the ability to think in machines. Since then, the replication of human intelligence using AI
has been constantly debated. The bright realm of Artificial Intelligence also comes with its risks
which have to be handled by AI experts.

What are the applications of AI?

AI has its application in every conceivable field or area, and recent advances will only increase
the application and relevance of AI in almost every field of human activity. As a beginner, you
might think that AI is a newly developed technology, and AI has been under development for
longer than you might think. Some of the top use cases of AI are as follows:

o Speech Recognition - AI has helped us convert spoken words into digital text. Speech
recognition has many uses, such as voice-enabled messaging, content writing, voice-controlled
remotes, and devices. Speech recognition is also used for authorization and verification.
For example, if an office is accessed only by authorized persons, speech recognition may match
their voice and authority. If any unauthorized person tries to enter the office, they will be stopped
as their voice sample will not match.
 o Natural Language Processing - NLP (Natural Language Processing) enables a system or
machine to understand the human text. You must have heard about some major virtual assistants
like Siri, Google Assistant, etc. Virtual Assistants and Chatbots work on the principle of NLP and
understand the emotion and mood of their users.
o Image Recognition - Recently, a platform called 'MyHeritage' allowed its users to animate old
photos. It uses AI and deep neural networks to animate faces in still photos, and AI can
understand actions in video footage or still images. Image recognition has many applications
such as facial recognition, fingerprint ID, self-driving vehicles, etc. Image recognition is also
heavily used in the digital marketing space.
o AI can sense stock market volatility and predict high-return stocks with greater accuracy than
humans. The future scope of Artificial Intelligence in the finance sector is also expanding as
cryptocurrency trading grows.
o Robots- Have you heard of the new generation 'Sofia' robot? It is considered one of the most
intelligent robots in the world. Apart from developing highly intelligent robots, AI has also helped
create robots that can assist humans in routine tasks like cleaning, gardening, servicing, etc.

These were only the top use cases for AI in the current scenario. AI has many other use cases
such as autopilot technology in vehicles, ride-booking services, cyber security, etc.

Subfields of Artificial Intelligence

o Here, are some important subfields of Artificial Intelligence:
o Machine Learning: Machine learning is the art of studying algorithms that learn from examples
and experiences. Machine learning is based on the idea that some patterns in the data were
identified and used for future predictions. The difference from hardcoding rules is that the
machine learns to find such rules.
o Deep Learning: Deep learning is a sub-field of machine learning. Deep learning does not mean
the machine learns more in-depth knowledge; it uses different layers to learn from the data. The
depth of the model is represented by the number of layers in the model. For instance, the Google
LeNet model for image recognition counts 22 layers.
o Natural Language Processing: A neural network is a group of connected I/O units where each
connection has a weight associated with its computer programs. It helps you to build predictive
models from large databases. This model builds upon the human nervous system. You can use this
model to conduct image understanding, human learning, computer speech, etc.
o Expert Systems: An expert system is an interactive and reliable computer-based decision-making
system that uses facts and heuristics to solve complex decision-making problems. It is also
considered at the highest level of human intelligence. The main goal of an expert system is to
solve the most complex issues in a specific domain.
o Fuzzy Logic: Fuzzy Logic is defined as a many-valued logic form that may have truth values of
variables in any real number between 0 and 1. It is the handle concept of partial truth. In real life,
we may encounter a situation where we can’t decide whether the statement is true or false.
o

History of Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence is not a new word and not a new technology for researchers. This technology is
much older than you would imagine.

Maturation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1952)

 o Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by Warren McCulloch and
Walter pits in 1943. They proposed a model of artificial neurons.
o Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for modifying the connection strength
between neurons. His rule is now called Hebbian learning.
o Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and pioneered Machine learning
in 1950. Alan Turing publishes "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" in which he proposed
a test. The test can check the machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behavior equivalent to human
intelligence, called a Turing test.

The birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-1956)

o Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first artificial intelligence
program"Which was named as "Logic Theorist". This program had proved 38 of 52 Mathematics
theorems, and find new and more elegant proofs for some theorems.
o Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by American Computer scientist John
McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference. For the first time, AI coined as an academic field.

At that time high-level computer languages such as FORTRAN, LISP, or COBOL were invented. And
the enthusiasm for AI was very high at that time.

The golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-1974)

o Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms which can solve mathematical
problems. Joseph Weizenbaum created the first chatbot in 1966, which was named as ELIZA.
o Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan which was named as WABOT-
1.

The first AI winter (1974-1980)

o The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter duration. AI winter refers to the
time period where computer scientist dealt with a severe shortage of funding from government for
AI researches.
o During AI winters, an interest of publicity on artificial intelligence was decreased.

A boom of AI (1980-1987)
o Year 1980: After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert System". Expert systems were
programmed that emulate the decision-making ability of a human expert.
o In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American Association of Artificial
Intelligence was held at Stanford University.

The second AI winter (1987-1993)

o The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI Winter duration.
o Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research as due to high cost but not
efficient result. The expert system such as XCON was very cost effective.

The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-2011)

o Year 1997: In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess champion, Gary Kasparov, and
became the first computer to beat a world chess champion.
 o Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of Roomba, a vacuum cleaner.
o Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006. Companies like Facebook, Twitter,
and Netflix also started using AI.

Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence (2011-

present)
o Year 2011: In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show, where it had to solve the
complex questions as well as riddles. Watson had proved that it could understand natural language
and can solve tricky questions quickly.
o Year 2012: Google has launched an Android app feature "Google now", which was able to
provide information to the user as a prediction.
o Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot "Eugene Goostman" won a competition in the infamous
"Turing test."
o Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on complex topics with two master debaters
and also performed extremely well.
o Google has demonstrated an AI program "Duplex" which was a virtual assistant and which had
taken hairdresser appointment on call, and lady on other side didn't notice that she was talking
with the machine.

Now AI has developed to a remarkable level. The concept of Deep learning, big data, and data science are
now trending like a boom. Nowadays companies like Google, Facebook, IBM, and Amazon are working
with AI and creating amazing devices. The future of Artificial Intelligence is inspiring and will come with
high intelligence.

Types of Artificial Intelligence:

Artificial Intelligence can be divided in various types, there are mainly two types of main categorization
which are based on capabilities and based on functionally of AI. Following is flow diagram which explain
the types of AI.

AI type-1: Based on Capabilities

1. Weak AI or Narrow AI:
o Narrow AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a dedicated task with intelligence.The most common
and currently available AI is Narrow AI in the world of Artificial Intelligence.
o Narrow AI cannot perform beyond its field or limitations, as it is only trained for one specific task. Hence
it is also termed as weak AI. Narrow AI can fail in unpredictable ways if it goes beyond its limits.
o Apple Siriis a good example of Narrow AI, but it operates with a limited pre-defined range of functions.
 o IBM's Watson supercomputer also comes under Narrow AI, as it uses an Expert system approach
combined with Machine learning and natural language processing.
o Some Examples of Narrow AI are playing chess, purchasing suggestions on e-commerce site, self-driving
cars, speech recognition, and image recognition.

2. General AI:
o General AI is a type of intelligence which could perform any intellectual task with efficiency like a human.
o The idea behind the general AI to make such a system which could be smarter and think like a human by
its own.
o Currently, there is no such system exist which could come under general AI and can perform any task as
perfect as a human.
o The worldwide researchers are now focused on developing machines with General AI.
o As systems with general AI are still under research, and it will take lots of efforts and time to develop such
systems.

3. Super AI:
o Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at which machines could surpass human intelligence, and can
perform any task better than human with cognitive properties. It is an outcome of general AI.
o Some key characteristics of strong AI include capability include the ability to think, to reason,solve the
puzzle, make judgments, plan, learn, and communicate by its own.
o Super AI is still a hypothetical concept of Artificial Intelligence. Development of such systems in real is
still world changing task.

Artificial Intelligence type-2: Based on functionality

1. Reactive Machines
o Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial Intelligence.
o Such AI systems do not store memories or past experiences for future actions.
o These machines only focus on current scenarios and react on it as per possible best action.
o IBM's Deep Blue system is an example of reactive machines.
o Google's AlphaGo is also an example of reactive machines.

2. Limited Memory
o Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some data for a short period of time.
o These machines can use stored data for a limited time period only.
o Self-driving cars are one of the best examples of Limited Memory systems. These cars can store recent
speed of nearby cars, the distance of other cars, speed limit, and other information to navigate the road.

3. Theory of Mind
o Theory of Mind AI should understand the human emotions, people, beliefs, and be able to interact socially
like humans.
o This type of AI machines are still not developed, but researchers are making lots of efforts and
improvement for developing such AI machines.

4. Self-Awareness
o Self-awareness AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence. These machines will be super intelligent, and will
have their own consciousness, sentiments, and self-awareness.
o These machines will be smarter than human mind.
o Self-Awareness AI does not exist in reality still and it is a hypothetical concept.

Agent
Agent is a part of AI system that takes actions or decisions based on the information it perceives from
the environment. For example, Robot Agent utilizes information it senses from the environment using
the sensors in order to carry out a particular action. On the other hand, Human Agent uses sensory
organs to sense the environment and takes particular actions and decisions regarding the body parts of
the human.
Structure of AI Agents
An AI agent comprises of Architecture and an Agent program. Architecture involves machinery for
execution of tasks by agents. It consists of a device with sensors and effectors or actuators. An agent
program refers to the process of implementation of an agent function, which is map of the percept
sequence or the perceptual history of the agent for a particular action.
Interaction of Agents with Environment
Interaction of the Agent with the environment uses Sensors and Effectors. Sensors perceive the
environment and the actuators or effectors act upon that environment.

This interaction can occur in two different ways:

1.  Perception: Perception is a passive interaction between the agent and the environment where the
environment remains unchanged when the agent takes up information from the environment. This
involves gaining information using 'Sensors' from the surroundings without any change to the
surroundings.
2. Action: Action is an active interaction between the agent and the environment where the
environment changes when the action is performed. This involves utilization of an 'Effector' or an
'Actuator' which completes an action but leads to changes in the surroundings while doing so.
For example, in case of a virtual agent, when the virtual agent reads and interprets the information
provided by the user, it is known as 'Perception' while when it replies to the user based on the
interpretation it is known as 'Action'.
Action of Agents In Artificial Intelligence
Agents in Artificial Intelligence act by:
1. Mapping of the Percept sequences or Perceptual history to the Actions: Mapping refers to a list
that maps a particular percept sequence to the action. The design for an ideal agent can be figured
out by specifying an action corresponding to the percept sequence or the perceptual history.
2. Autonomy: The agent designer determines the behavior of the agent by determining its
experience and its built-in knowledge. Autonomy refers to taking actions based on the experience
of the agent. If the system comprises of an autonomous intelligent agent then it is able to operate
and adapt successfully in a wide range of environments.
Examples of Agents
Some examples of agents are as follows:
1. Software agent: It comprises of sensors like Keystrokes, file contents, received network packages
and actuators or effectors like displays on the screen, files, sent network packets.
2. Human agent: It comprises of sensors like eyes, ears, and other sensory organs and actuators or
effectors like hands, legs, mouth, and other body parts.
3. Robotic agent: It comprises of sensors like Cameras and infrared range finders and actuators or
effectors in the form of various motors.
Types of AI Agents
Agents can be grouped into five classes based on their degree of perceived intelligence and capability. All
these agents can improve their performance and generate better action over the time. These are given
below:

o Simple Reflex Agent

o Model-based reflex agent
o Goal-based agents
o Utility-based agent
o Learning agent

1. Simple Reflex agent:

1. Reflex Agent works similar to our body’s reflex action (e.g. when we immediately lift our finger
when it touches the tip of the flame). Just as the prompt response of our body based on the current
situation, the agent also responds based on the current environment irrespective of the past state of
the environment. The reflex agent can work properly only if the decisions to be made are based on
the current percept.
2. The Simple reflex agents are the simplest agents. These agents take decisions on the basis of the
current percepts and ignore the rest of the percept history.
3. These agents only succeed in the fully observable environment.
4. The Simple reflex agent does not consider any part of percepts history during their decision and
action process.
5. The Simple reflex agent works on Condition-action rule, which means it maps the current state to
action. Such as a Room Cleaner agent, it works only if there is dirt in the room.
This can be illustrated using the following image:

o Problems for the simple reflex agent design approach:

o They have very limited intelligence
o They do not have knowledge of non-perceptual parts of the current state
o Mostly too big to generate and to store.
o Not adaptive to changes in the environment.

2. Model-based reflex agent

1. These are the agents with memory. It stores the information about the previous state, the current
state and performs the action accordingly. Just as while driving, if the driver wants to change the
lane, he looks into the mirror to know the present position of vehicles behind him. While looking
in front, he can only see the vehicles in front, and as he already has the information on the position
of vehicles behind him (from the mirror a moment ago), he can safely change the lane. The
previous and the current state get updated quickly for deciding the action.
 o The Model-based agent can work in a partially observable environment, and track the situation.
o A model-based agent has two important factors:
o Model: It is knowledge about "how things happen in the world," so it is called a Model-
based agent.
o Internal State: It is a representation of the current state based on percept history.
o These agents have the model, "which is knowledge of the world" and based on the model they
perform actions.
o Updating the agent state requires information about:
a. How the world evolves
b. How the agent's action affects the world.
This can be illustrated as:

3. Goal-based agents
1. In some circumstances, just the information of the current state may not help in making the right
decision. If the goal is known, then the agent takes into account the goal information besides the
current state information to make the right decision. For, e.g., if the agent is a self-driving car and
the goal is the destination, then the information of the route to the destination helps the car in
deciding when to turn left or right.
2. ‘Search’ and ‘planning’ are the two subfields of AI that help the agent achieve its goals. Though
the goal-based agent may appear less efficient, yet it is flexible. Considering the same example
mentioned above, if the destination changes then the agent will manipulate its actions accordingly.
This will not be the case with the reflex agent as all the rules need to be rewritten with the change
in goal.
3. The knowledge of the current state environment is not always sufficient to decide for an agent to
what to do.
4. The agent needs to know its goal which describes desirable situations.
5. Goal-based agents expand the capabilities of the model-based agent by having the "goal"
information.
6. They choose an action, so that they can achieve the goal.
7. These agents may have to consider a long sequence of possible actions before deciding whether
the goal is achieved or not. Such considerations of different scenario are called searching and
planning, which makes an agent proactive.
This can be illustrated as follows:
4. Utility-based agents
1. There can be many possible sequences to achieve the goal, but some will be better than others.
Considering the same example mentioned above, the destination is known, but there are multiple
routes. Choosing an appropriate route also matters to the overall success of the agent. There are
many factors in deciding the route like the shortest one, the comfortable one, etc. The success
depends on the utility of the agent-based on user preferences.
2. The utility is a function that maps a state to a real number that describes the degree of happiness.
The utility function specifies the appropriate trade-off in case the goals are conflicting.
3. These agents are similar to the goal-based agent but provide an extra component of utility
measurement which makes them different by providing a measure of success at a given state.
4. Utility-based agent act based not only goals but also the best way to achieve the goal.
5. The Utility-based agent is useful when there are multiple possible alternatives, and an agent has to
choose in order to perform the best action.
6. The utility function maps each state to a real number to check how efficiently each action achieves
the goals.
This can be illustrated as follows:

5. Learning Agents
o A learning agent in AI is the type of agent which can learn from its past experiences, or it has
learning capabilities.
 o It starts to act with basic knowledge and then able to act and adapt automatically through learning.
o A learning agent has mainly four conceptual components, which are:
a. Learning element: It is responsible for making improvements by learning from
environment
b. Critic: Learning element takes feedback from critic which describes that how well the
agent is doing with respect to a fixed performance standard.
c. Performance element: It is responsible for selecting external action
d. Problem generator: This component is responsible for suggesting actions that will lead to
new and informative experiences.
o Hence, learning agents are able to learn, analyze performance, and look for new ways to improve
the performance.
  This can be illustrated as follows:

Agents in Artificial Intelligence

An AI system can be defined as the study of the rational agent and its environment. The agents sense the
environment through sensors and act on their environment through actuators. An AI agent can have
mental properties such as knowledge, belief, intention, etc.
What is an Agent?
An agent can be anything that perceiveits environment through sensors and act upon that environment
through actuators. An Agent runs in the cycle of perceiving, thinking, and acting. An agent can be:
o Human-Agent: A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs which work for sensors and hand, legs,
vocal tract work for actuators.
o Robotic Agent: A robotic agent can have cameras, infrared range finder, NLP for sensors and various
motors for actuators.
o Software Agent: Software agent can have keystrokes, file contents as sensory input and act on those inputs
and display output on the screen.
Hence the world around us is full of agents such as thermostat, cellphone, camera, and even we are also
agents.
Before moving forward, we should first know about sensors, effectors, and actuators.
Sensor: Sensor is a device which detects the change in the environment and sends the information to
other electronic devices. An agent observes its environment through sensors.
Actuators: Actuators are the component of machines that converts energy into motion. The actuators are
only responsible for moving and controlling a system. An actuator can be an electric motor, gears, rails,
etc.
Effectors: Effectors are the devices which affect the environment. Effectors can be legs, wheels, arms,
fingers, wings, fins, and display screen.
Intelligent Agents:
 An intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which act upon an environment using sensors and actuators
for achieving goals. An intelligent agent may learn from the environment to achieve their goals. A
thermostat is an example of an intelligent agent.
Following are the main four rules for an AI agent:
o Rule 1: An AI agent must have the ability to perceive the environment.
o Rule 2: The observation must be used to make decisions.
o Rule 3: Decision should result in an action.
o Rule 4: The action taken by an AI agent must be a rational action.

Rational Agent:
A rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models uncertainty, and acts in a way to
maximize its performance measure with all possible actions.
A rational agent is said to perform the right things. AI is about creating rational agents to use for game
theory and decision theory for various real-world scenarios.
For an AI agent, the rational action is most important because in AI reinforcement learning algorithm, for
each best possible action, agent gets the positive reward and for each wrong action, an agent gets a
negative reward.
Rationality:
The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance measure. Rationality can be judged on the
basis of following points:
o Performance measure which defines the success criterion.
o Agent prior knowledge of its environment.
o Best possible actions that an agent can perform.
o The sequence of percepts.
Structure of an AI Agent
The task of AI is to design an agent program which implements the agent function. The structure of an
intelligent agent is a combination of architecture and agent program. It can be viewed as:
1. Agent = Architecture + Agent program  
Following are the main three terms involved in the structure of an AI agent:
Architecture: Architecture is machinery that an AI agent executes on.
Agent Function: Agent function is used to map a percept to an action.
Agent program: Agent program is an implementation of agent function. An agent program executes on
the physical architecture to produce function f.
PEAS Representation
PEAS is a type of model on which an AI agent works upon. When we define an AI agent or rational
agent, then we can group its properties under PEAS representation model. It is made up of four words:
o P: Performance measure
o E: Environment
o A: Actuators
o S: Sensors
o Let's suppose a self-driving car then PEAS representation will be:
o Performance: Safety, time, legal drive, comfort
o Environment: Roads, other vehicles, road signs, pedestrian
o Actuators: Steering, accelerator, brake, signal, horn
o Sensors: Camera, GPS, speedometer, odometer, accelerometer, sonar.

o Example of Agents with their PEAS representation

Agent Environment in AI
An environment is everything in the world which surrounds the agent, but it is not a part of an agent
itself. An environment can be described as a situation in which an agent is present.
The environment is where agent lives, operate and provide the agent with something to sense and act
upon it. An environment is mostly said to be non-feministic.
Features of Environment
As per Russell and Norvig, an environment can have various features from the point of view of an agent:
1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable
2. Static vs Dynamic
3. Discrete vs Continuous
4. Deterministic vs Stochastic
5. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
6. Episodic vs sequential
7. Known vs Unknown
8. Accessible vs Inaccessible
1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable:
o If an agent sensor can sense or access the complete state of an environment at each point of time
then it is a fully observable environment, else it is partially observable.
o A fully observable environment is easy as there is no need to maintain the internal state to keep
track history of the world.
o An agent with no sensors in all environments then such an environment is called as unobservable.
Examples:
o Chess – the board and the opponent’s movements are both fully observable.
o Driving – the environment is partially observable because what’s around the corner is
not known.
2. Deterministic vs Stochastic:
o If an agent's current state and selected action can completely determine the next state of the
environment, then such environment is called a deterministic environment.
o A stochastic environment is random in nature and cannot be determined completely by an agent.
o In a deterministic, fully observable environment, agent does not need to worry about uncertainty.
Examples:
o Chess – In its current state, a coin has just a few alternative moves, and these moves
can be determined.
o Self-Driving Cars– The activities of self-driving cars are not consistent; they change
over time.
3. Episodic vs Sequential:
o In an episodic environment, there is a series of one-shot actions, and only the current percept is
required for the action.
o Examples- Consider the Pick and Place robot, which is used to detect damaged
components from conveyor belts. In this case, the robot (agent) will make a
choice on the current section every time, implying that there is no dependency
between past and present decisions.
o However, in Sequential environment, an agent requires memory of past actions to determine the
next best actions.
o Examples – Checkers- A game in which the previous move affects all following
movements.
4. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
o If only one agent is involved in an environment, and operating by itself then such an environment
is called single agent environment.
o However, if multiple agents are operating in an environment, then such an environment is called a
multi-agent environment.
 o The agent design problems in the multi-agent environment are different from single agent
environment.
Examples:
o A person left alone in a maze is an example of the single-agent system.
o Football is a multi-agent game since each team has 11 players.
5. Static vs Dynamic:
o If the environment can change itself while an agent is deliberating then such environment is called
a dynamic environment else it is called a static environment.
o Static environments are easy to deal because an agent does not need to continue looking at the
world while deciding for an action.
o However for dynamic environment, agents need to keep looking at the world at each action.
o Taxi driving is an example of a dynamic environment whereas Crossword puzzles are an example
of a static environment.
Examples:
o A roller coaster ride is dynamic since it is in motion and the environment changes all
the time.
o An empty house is static because nothing changes when an agent arrives.
6. Discrete vs Continuous:
o If in an environment there are a finite number of percepts and actions that can be performed within
it, then such an environment is called a discrete environment else it is called continuous
environment.
o A chess gamecomes under discrete environment as there is a finite number of moves that can be
performed.
o A self-driving car is an example of a continuous environment.
Examples:
o Chess is a discrete game since it has a finite number of moves. The amount of moves
varies from game to game, but it is always finite.
o Self-driving cars are an example of continuous environments since their activities,
such as driving, parking, and so on, cannot be counted.
7. Known vs Unknown
o Known and unknown are not actually a feature of an environment, but it is an agent's state of
knowledge to perform an action.
o In a known environment, the results for all actions are known to the agent. While in unknown
environment, agent needs to learn how it works in order to perform an action.
o It is quite possible that a known environment to be partially observable and an Unknown
environment to be fully observable.
8. Accessible vs Inaccessible
o If an agent can obtain complete and accurate information about the state's environment, then such
an environment is called an Accessible environment else it is called inaccessible.
o An empty room whose state can be defined by its temperature is an example of an accessible
environment.
o Information about an event on earth is an example of Inaccessible environment.