CHAPTER SIX SINGULARITIES AND ‘ CALCULUS OF RESIDUES SECTION I ZEROS, SINGULARITIES AND RESIDUES. In this chapter we shall consider those complex valued functions which are analytic at all points except at a finite number of points. such exeptional points are known as singular points or singularities. In this context the first section will naturally consist in tissifying singular points in terms of the behaviour of the function in their neighbourhood __ Therefore in this chapter we shall discuss zero of a function, shgularities and Branch points and related theorems. lero of a function : Let f (Z) be a complex valued function ‘iiied in Dyand Z = a is also a point in Dy, such that iffla) = 0 then Z aisknown as zero of f (Z).. ° Lor ge urther iff (a) = 0 and. s' (a): # 0 then the zero is called of order simple zero. = egy Tf @ = O and f(a) = 0 but f(a) # 0 then the zero is called of T2. te inet) 5 Ingeneral iff (a) =0,f’ (@@)=0,.-4 f @) = ero is called of order n. at Z = a o Obut f (a) #0 179 \FUNUAMENTALS OF COMPLE 4 TR EXAMPLES (a) Consider f(Z) = (Z-a) at Z =a sta) = 0 but f(a) = 1 Z = a iszero of order 1 of f(Z) = Z-a, u (b) Likewise for (Z) = (Z-a)® fla =0,s'@ = 0... sf" (a) = 0 but f(a) #0. £(Z) has zero of order 6 at Z = a (c) Consider f(Z) = sinZ at Z = nm Here a = nt f(a) = 0 f’(@) = cos(nm) = (-1)" ¢ 0 2 = n,n = 0, +1, +2,.... have simple zeros of f (2) = sin (@) (2) = 1- cost at Z = 0 0 f(a) = 1-cos(a) = 1-1 = 9 f'(Z) = sinZ fila) = 0 f'\Z) = cosz »f"’ 0) =1 For fiZ) = 1~cosZ at 2 = 0 Tt has a zero of order 2 fe) Consider fZ) = % sinhz at Z=0 £0) = 0 s'(2) = Zoos hZ + sinh Z PO = 0s" @ = 2 sinhz + coshd + cosht. ” 0 =2 i has Zero of order 2 at Z = 0 Singularities : A point z = a ig Fi « lled a si * point or a singulat of the funetion /(2) , if ¢ (z) i singular point or a sift pl are of different types, “eases to be analytic at Z = a . Singtlat Here a (1) Isolated singularit, i 4 ‘singularity of a function f wept z= a is said to be Er a eighbouhood of.» a except ith for enatie. at each point 8) example (a) The function ¢(zy 1 : a?! ; Jaq "San Isolated singularity # () s@ = 245 I. —— if B+ SZ) possesses three Ieotated sind”LCULUS OF RESIDUES, points ie Z= 0, tc) ‘The function f(z) = — 1 sin(1/2) has an infinite number of Jsolated singularities all of which lie on the real axis from Z=- 1 to Z = 1. These Isolated singularities are at. Z = 1/k where k = +142, 4 2, Non - Isolated singularities : ‘The function (2) has a non Isolated singularity at Z = a if in the ighbourhood of Z = a there exist other points where the function /(Z) not analytic. For example a y= —L sin (1/2) AtZ = 0 it possesses a singularity but this singularity is non- lated because in the neighbourhood of Z = 0 there exist an infinite umber of points (Z = 1/K , K = 106 , 109, .... etc. ) where the funetion also non - analytic and these points are very close to zero. (b) ‘The function ((Z) = log Z has a singularity at Z = 0, which is not Isolated, since every neighbourhood of Z = 0 contains points especially on the negative part. of the real axis, where log Z is not analytic. lassification of Singularities Isolated singularity t f £ removable _ poles _ essential singularity Isolated Singularity We shall explain these singularities with the help of Laurents' ansion © bn J(Z) = ant & (an 2" + yy, ne mn it has two parts ay + ay Z + ag Z2 + an Z" +... which js called the analytic part ang bE ~7 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLE 182 ANA which is called the principal part. Singularities of various types are distinguished by Pringj Pal be of the Laurents’ expansion. Definition 1 ; Removable singularity: (Artificial Singularity) Ifthe Principal part of f(Z) at Z = Zo consists of no terms then is called a removable or artificial singularity of f (Z) (a) The function f(Z) defined by (2) = Sind has removable singularity at Z = 0 since sing 1 = = 4-28 /31425/5) - zg ~ Biyat428/ we) = 1 = 22/314Z4/51-., Thus pq = sind Z contains no negative powers of Z and f @) is analytic at 2! and has a removable singularity atZ=0 JZ) = A= cost , ‘ Be * pr = 22/14 74/4) — .) -llw@ a ag et It has no Principal singularity at Z = ae therefore f (Z) has a remot! Definition 2 If the Pringj number of terms ther PRET ® azo Zo contains anit f@). ~ vo called an Isolated essentia! ingulatl Consider /(Z) = el = ied + oes 2 pa + has an infinite numbey Of terms j Z = Ois an essential Tsolateg si ale Fie a8. nthe princi ther ular} pal part of f (Z). (0) $2) = sing) My. fSINGULARITIES AND CALCULUS oF RESIDUES, 183 ae | 1 >t fe zZ 3! 28 BIZ has an essential singulari Definition 3 } If the Principal Part of a function finite Pumber of terms say m then we say tl at Z = a ityat Z = 0 { 2) at Z = 2 consists of a hat f (Z) has a bole of order m Paraci ret Pak 7 / ie, F(Z) =e DE 'be 4 I pa may I 2-2, @-Z, 8” 1m 5 - i et Fant-25" = Zaym neg 20 2x % = 2 for m = 1 the pole is of order 1 or (a) f(Z) = a 3 basapole of order 1 at Z = 3 ) f(z) = = Be 4.78/31425/51427/114 29/914...) 7 Zz 1, 4 1 1, 2 "Sp aa aa tat at | has a pole of order 6at Z = 0 = 5 — 8 6,2 has apole oforder satz = 6 1) YMC) =e he pole Ba 2, 4 41 hasapoleoforder7 atZ = 0 '(d) f(Z) = a Ww Zw 1 _ + 1 5 © (@ =a 7 Z + 23/3! + 2/51 +... = 1+ 2/3! + 251+... Zz - Lp-@ya+ ZA/5!) + (2?/81424/51)2, = 2] Z ‘og ; 1 a a [Q) = ar ay a6 has a pole of order 1 at Z = 0 alari : is called a pole. ; t_A Singularity ofinite order is cal : / te Bo, cae (Saguide Sn)FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEX ANALY ge 184 Definition 4 A function which has pol part of the plane is called a merom les as its only singularities in the finite orphic function. g+i for example f(Z) = Ta+n@+4) 0,- 1,424 therefore iti . Fl A t Z it has finite’ number of poles a! 0,- 1, + 2é the functionj, meromorphic function because except 2 analytic everywhere Definition 5 Entire Function (Integral function) A function /(Z) is said to be an entire function if it has m seine in the finite part of the plane or it is analytic every wher xcept at point at infinity. For example (a) (2) = e* — isanentire function. (b) f(Z) = sinhZ is anentire function Behaviour of a function at point at infinity : If we desire to investigate the zeros, poles and singularities # the point at infinity, the following, are the procedural steps. j (i) _ make the substitution Z = 1/t or t = 1/Z. Gi) -f Z) will become ¢(t). Now the zeros, ‘ poles and singulatitis of g (t) att = 0 , e ar fen at a © will be the zeros, poles and singularities EXAMPLE 1 : Investigate ; i AMPLE _Unvestigate zeros, poles and singularities of ig @ 2 Gd e* ay 2@4 [ Solution :(i) /(Z) = 2? put z = Vt = 2 ¢ yt » OO hasapole of order 2at t = 0 f@) = 7% has a pole of Order Jat Zs Gi)" $B =F pores ip ie oi) = =1l+2 (2p tkgnGULARITIES AND CALCULUS OF RESIDUES 7 185 ¢ (t) has an essential Isolated singularity at = 0 , Therefore (2) = e** has an essential Isolated singularity at Z = © Gi) fQ= 22+) pus = it 1 1 t+1 i ot) = —— (+1) = = + eet ) 8 Bt ¢ (t) has a pole of order 3 at = 0, therefore f (Z) = Z? (2+) has a pole of order 3 at Z = ©, ° EXAMPLE 2 Investigate whether the following functions are entire or meromorphic. cosh Z (Z - 21) (2? + 16)? Solutions (i) f(Z) = 2? e% (i). 22 0% Gi) (iii) Zsin @. 2 3 Baht on eee | 2! 3! Zl 5 = 2420+ 42, oa 2! 3 It is analytic for all finite Z in the finite part of the plane or we can say f(Z) is analytic everywhere in the finite part of the plane except at point at infinity. Therefore the function is an entire function. cosh Z G+ 21) @ + 16)” f (Z) is analytic everywhere in the finite part of the plane except at finite number of poles i.e. Z = -2i (simple pole) and Z = + 4é (poles of order 2). Therefore f (Z) is meromorphic. awl 1 aa * ae ~~ (i) f¢@) = Gi) fay = 2 sina/z = 20 ibe 1 = 1- ot ar % ee Oe Bt ZA S(Z) has an essential singularity at Z = 0 £@) is neither entire nor meromorphic function.FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEX Ang, fee [EOREM : ; a / a t A function's (Z) which has no singularity in the finite ny jtatement i of the plane or at infinity is a constant. i has no singularity jn th ince the function f (Z) ‘ Proof re eects plane, we can expand f a as a Tayloy, series in any circle |Z| = R where R is very large. Q ‘ Thus f(Z) = 2 an 2M n= StepII Also f (Z) has no singularity at Z = © therefore f (1/2) is analytic at Z = 0, hence we can expand f (1/Z) as Taylory series ie f(/Z) = 2MB by ZF @ =o Replacing Z by 1/Z in (1) we get $Q/2) = Zan 20 @ aa from (2) and (3) we can conclude 2 o % jan Zh = ES by ZM @ n=0 nzo (4) can hold only If a = by = 0 forn = 12,3... and ao = bo = Constant, Hence f (Z) = Constant = Residue at a Pole. ; Let Z = Z, beapole of order m can lt , expanded as a Laurents’ series of f(Z) so that f (2) a = bo all other terms being-zero. sl 3 b)” b; FM —Z.an (Z— Zn 4 bd +b bn a ° U7, wat if =~ Im20" Gan * GRO Where bm # 0 then th . 7 © coeffici certain cases) is called the resid bag it bi (whi zero ue of f(Z) at mich ee Mf 2 = Zolsa simple ole then Residue at Z = 2 ig b= Lim Zz ~ ZZ 0) F(Z) -—Al nGULARITIES AND CALCULUS OF RESIDUES 187 Thus the residue at a pole Z = Zo is the coefficient of ein the Principal part of the Laurents expansion of / @ fe . THEOREM 1 1 statement : Let f@) be a function such that for some positive integer m,a value & (Zo) exists with g(Z,) # 0 such that the function g(Z) = Z-Za)™ / (2) is analytic at Zy then /(Z) has a pole of order m at Zo proof: Since g(Z) is analytic at Zo, therefore, it can be expanded as a series in Taylor’s form. g(Z) = gZot+Z—-Zo) = g (Zo) + (Z- Zo) B’ (Zo) + Now g(Z) = (Z—Zo)™ f(Z) = g (Zo) + (Z- Zo) g’ Zo)... (Z = Zo)™ (m) & (Zo) + ne m! (m-1) 4 g(Zo) g’ (Zo) g"Zo) g (Zo) | {@) = ——~+ — — } Faz + (Z=2Z)™_ Z=Zy)"™1 WZ—Zo)™ (m1)! (Z-Zo) i (m+). ae) (Ee) (Z- 20) ml (met)! + Foes (A) We conclude from (A) that since g (Zo) # 0 J(Z) has a'pole of Order m at Z = Zp further the Residue fl (m1) (Zo) tz 7 i i 1 whichis 2——"~_--= b 2, is the Coefficient of > — Ze (m-D! z i Zo further if I Remark : If /(Z) has poles of Order m at Z = 2 = —1— then g(@) has zeros of order m at Z = Zn | 2) THEOREM 2 Sistement Let a function f (Z) be analytic in a domain D and g(2) be fined by g (Z) = 1//(Z) where (2) # 0, then prove that f (Z) has a zere Glorder m at a point Zo in Dif and only if ¢ (Z) has a pole of order m er os eer188 Proof: Step I Also Step II oe | FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEx ANALY The Condition is necessary: Suppose g(Z) = 1/f(Z) has a pole of order m atZ = 2 to prove f(Z) hasa zero of order m. Since g(Z) has a pole of order m also g(Z) can be Written a. $@ (2) = = : ZZ.) further ¢ (Z.) # 0 _aWhere ¢ (Z) is analytic at Zo and Near 7, : ate y (Z) == —_—_— {® g(Z) (2) in (1) since’? (Z) is analytic and ¢ (Zo) # 0 Therefore to is alsoanalyticat Z= Zp ¢ and from (1) we conclude that /(Z) has zero of order m atZ, Condition is sufficient : Suppose that /(Z) has a zero of f order m at Z, to prove that & (Z) has a pole o forderm at Z,. Since f (Z) has zero of order m at Z, 80 : ID = Z~2)™ $ (2) where $ Z) #0 1 eZ) = jay = ZZ" ey ©. G (Zo). #0) 1 (Z=Z,)m $@ Ta ° From (2) itis obvious that aS analytic in a 9 (Z) neighbourhood of z, series as 1 —— - a $@) Ag+ AL Z)+ Ag (Z~2,)2 + + Am (Z~ Zo) io oa Since g(Z) = 1_ S@ It follows from (2) ana (3) thatGULARITIES AND CALCULUS OF RESIDUES. 189 1 1 g(Z) = = —____ f (2) GZ) (Z = Zy)™ y=, E Ams alZ—Z0 giZ) =" + aA, men(Z Zo Za Byr Daye AMAT (4) From (4) it is evident that g(Z) has a pole of order m at Z=Zo0 THEOREM 3 Statement : Let Zo be an Isolated singularity of f (2) and if |/(2)| is pounded in some neighbourhood of Zo then prove that Zo is a removable singularity. : Proof: Suppose |/(Z)| is bounded in some neighbourhood of Zo then \fiZ)| < Mwhere M is the maximum value of /(2) on a circle C: |Z - Zol = rv where r is chosen so small that C lies entirely within the neighbourhood of Zo then By Laurents’ Theorem we have © f(Z) = Z an(Z- Zo)" where i 1 (2) Now |an| = + J Le on a eb fet : Now (Zl Thus an = 0 for every negative value of n since yj small. Hence the principal part of /(Z) does not ee very negative power of (7: ~ 7) in the Laurents' expansion of ize, i.e. Zo is a removable singularity of /(Z) ion of f(Z) , Remark: Consider f(Z) = sin ( Consider /(Z) = sin (1/2). The zeros of (Z) are given bySoU FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEX ANAL, Z= —,n=4142,43,.. The Limit point of these zeros is Z = 0 thus Z = Ois an Tsolatey singularity of /(Z) = sin (1/2). sin (1/2), - 2 = 1/2) = ———~'it has poles atZ = —— Also If f (Z) = tan ( /2) cos (1/2) nt Le. zeros of cos (1/2) n = tit By eee quence of poles is Z = 0 which is a non The limit point of this se Isolated essential singularity, Auer 1 Discuss the nature of the singularities of the functions, . z Z-sinZ ® (@= "Gy pq = ae Z~ 1s or 2 Gil) £(Z) = elm 2 Solution : (iyf(Z) = a _ has a pole of order 3at Z = 1 Gi pay = 2 () Since (1) has no ne, a removable singulay 1/22, e Bative pow, rity of f (Z). erof Z, Therefore Z = 0i8 Gil) ¢@) = (@=14+4 ,4 Z = 0 isan Isolated essential singularity, IPLE 2: Find the nature and : location of the singularities of t? function f(Z) = Te ke phd sy 2 22 Bm te Brag, when 0 < [Z| < 2% Find the values of ag ‘ang agSINGULARITIES AND CALCULUS OF RESIDUES . 191 : 1 ution :StepI Given f(Z) ———_ , Soluti Pp if We=1) Now the zeros of Z(e” - 1) are the singularities of /(Z). Either Z = 0 or e* =Os e@=1 ie. Z = QnKi (K = 041,42...) when K = 0 then Z = 0 is a double pole of f(Z) the other singularities are at Z=2mKi , K= 41,42... which are simple poles. Step II (Z) can be expanded as a Laurent’s series b be —"t Zz 2 7 Ze-) f) tap + ap Zt+agZ?+.... qd) Also (2) 1 ” Bi+Z+ 22/2 + B/6+...-1) 1 * Pil + G2 + P/O) +224 + 2/120) +. : 5 [1+ G24 22/6 + 24/24 + zA/r20)y7 7 = [1-@/2+ 27/6 + 23/24 + 24/120) + (2/2 + 22/6 + 23/24 + 2 ~ (2/2 + 22/6)3 +( 2/2 + 4h = gp EIB Bas 02h + 4 +..J i il 1 1) =a - Stes ozg~ Be ww 12% m0 (2) Comparing (1) and (2) by ==1/2 be =1 89 =.1/12 and ay = 1/360FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEx ANALY, EXAMPLE 3 Find the nature of the singularities of the following. | | x 1 = @ sin (=, at Z=1 1- +e i) atZ= © ) | 1 Solution : (i) given f(Z) = sin ( er. Now zeros of f(Z) are given by sin )=0 or = nt ( Zz o Z= 1-1 (n= 4142. 0 nm 7 The Limit point of (1) is Z = 1 which is arf Isolated esséentid singularity. a 1-¢ ji) s@ = f 1+ ee ~ The poles of /(Z) are given by 14+ ¢% = 0 # Z = (n+ 1) n= OQ+142,0. As n is very large therefore Z = © is a non - Isola x essential singularity of (z) | EXAMPLE 4 Show that Z = isan Isolated essential singularity of ti function 2°" eI ke cfu ofa Solution :Let f(z) = £°7* ete evita eltz/at iy e(elz0)/a)-1 [Dz 14 ama ae \ efi+apiTIES AND CALCULUS OF RESIDUES c ct 3 Z-a +,—— +,..] [ite (1+ +...) 2(Z—a)* 6(Z—a)9 Tli+e a eek(4 2284 4] From (A) it is obvious that the expansion of f (Z) Contains an infinite number of terms involving negative powers of Z — a . Hence Z = ais an Isolated essential singularity of /(Z) EXAMPLE 5 The function /(Z) has poles of order’ I and 2at Z = — 1 and 4,= 2with residues 1-and 2 respectively at these poles, the function is analytic at all other points of the plane and is bounded as |Z| + © , If J) = 7/4 and f(1) = 5/2 then find f (2). _ " + «| 0 B+ Solution : Since f (Z) has poles of order ] and 2 at Z = — Land atZ = 2 with residues 1 and 2 respectively we have yp) = toe @ —_—— TF 2 Z+1 Z-2: (2-28 Since f (2) is bounded as |2Z| + ® then by Liouville’s theorem. 1 2 b (2) - —— - = ,= Constant = a fo) Z+1 2)? . cone 2,_» " = at+—— +779 * WG-2 (2) om f@)= att are” a= 2 put Z = 0 and Z = 1 in (2) weget. JO) = 1/4 = a+1-1+d/4 @) “4 sf = 5/2 sar 572+ (4) (3) and (4) can be rewritten as da+b=7 oo ae 4 6) from (5) and (6) Ba=3 2s a=lFUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEX. Ay 194 rd putting in (5) we get _ ‘ da+b = = 1-423 from (2) f (Z) can be written as 1 oenOenaEES f(2) = fe ES a+ Y Z-2 (2-2)? Remark : The problem can be extended to 3 unknown quantities ef, Rin S: Let f (2) and g(Z) be analytic functions. If Z = ai fePeated root of g(Z) = 0 such that f(a) #0, the residue off Zig te Zz 6f'(@) B"(a) - 2fla) g(a) | 3[g" @? | Solution :Step I We know of the function, I@ PY —— is 1 (Z= ayn (=D! (al Now since Z = that the residue at a pole Z = a of orders = aisa double Zero of g(Z) we have 8(Z) = (Z-a2h (Z) Where h (a) #0 £@) _ fay 82” Zaha fl f(2) In(1) Ta has a double Poleat 7 = and so by (A) the Tesidue at 7 — ais d £2) — h¢ WW dey (ABLE ~ pe 41g) ; o the Step II Now we evaluate he) ana h’(ay, = wehave § @) = @~ap yom 8'(Z) = (Z~ ae bh’ 2 ~ g'(Z) = (Z~ az vm, ah (2) Tah’ y 2h (2) hia) = g"(a)/2 and g”’(a) = 6 h'(a) > h’(a) = 2g” (a)/6. putting these values in (2) we get that the residue at Z = ais , “(a) f @ £2 - sa 2 — le = e"@)? [= e"@l _ Gf (a) g(a) - 2f (a) g(a) 3 [g” (a) ]? Remark : Let f (Z) be a function defined in some domain D further let function g be defined as g(t) = f(1/t) ‘Then the behaviour of g(t) at t = @is the same as of f(1/t) at t= 0 as regards zeros, poles and singularities. , haracterization of Polynomials. : EOREM : Prove that a function which has no singularity in the finite it of the plane and has a pole of order n at infinity is a polynomial of egree n. Toof: Step I Since f(Z) has no singularity in the finite part of the plane, it can be expanded as a Taylor's series about Z = 0 in the form. : © f(2) = ian oa (A) Ifwe replace Z by 1/2 ‘ + 3pe = PIT Since f (Z) has a pole of Order n at Z = @ therefore, /(1/Z) has a pole of Order n-at Z = 0 Hence f(1/Z) can be expanded as a Laurents’ series valid in any region which does not contain n = 0, therefore, we can writeFUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEX Ay, 6 Step III That a (A) =2@+ E Am a 4 Zz m= From (1) and (2) we conclude A © LAm 2m ( -n = g(Z) + Am q from (3) it follows that equality will hold if g(Z) = a) = constant and an¢| = ant? Hence from (A) J (2) = ag + a1 Z +...+ anZ" which is a polynomial of degree, Remark ; A polynomial of degree n has no singularities in the finit part of the plane but has a pole of order nat Z = © Characterization of Rational functions. THEOREM: If a single valued function f (Z) has no singularities other thar poles in the finite part of the plane or at infinity, then prove that (2) st rational function. . Proof: Step II Step I We know that a function f (Z) is a rational functiot of Z ifitisin the form f (2) = P(Z)/Q(Z) where P(Z) and Q(Z: Iynomials ant Q(z) 40 Q(Z) are polyno Now Let /(2) have poles at Z = Z1, Zy y sssny Zk of Order Mm» mg, |... Mg respectively j i = plant pa ly in the finite part of the Z - P f= ——_P@) 7m, ——. (Zt) ~ ay? Zany ® Where P(Z) is analytic for all finite values of Z, 4) Therefore P (2) = (Z~ 24)" _ 7 )™ 2), t 2 m Peo) TD | . nite values of Z , therefor’ can expand it as a Taylors’ Series Piz = : an 2 ¢ n=o Since p (Z) is analytic for all fi putting 2 = 1/t in (2) we haveULARITIES AND CALCULUS OF RESIDUES 197 Pat) = £ t) = 7 ney ae (3) Now the behaviour of P (Z) atZ = oi. jour of P(1/t) att = 0. is the same as behaviour Since the singularity of P(Z) at Z = @ is a pole and singularity of P (1/t) at t = 0 is also a pole from relations (2) and (3). We conclude that the series in (3) will consist of finite number of terms due to poles, Likewise the series in (2) will also have only a finite number of terms, therefore P(Z) is a polynomial. Since the denominator of f(Z) is a polynomial, we conclude that f(Z) = P(Z)/Q(Z) is a rational function. arks 1 A Rational function has no singularities other than poles. 2. A Rational function f (Z) has no singularities other than poles either in the finite part of the plane or at infinity. ‘imum Modulus Principle IEOREM : Let f (Z) be analytic (Harmonic) within and on a simple closed tour C , then |/(Z)| attains its maximum value on C (not in side), J (2) is constant. In other words, if M is the maximum value of )| on and within C, then unless fis a constant, |/(Z)| < M for every IntZ within C, f: Step I Since f (2) is analytic and hence continuous within and on C, it follows that [/(Z)| must attain its maximiun value M at some point on or within C. Now suppose that f (Z) is not constant and we desire to prove that |f(Z)| takes the value M at some point on C. Suppose this value is not attained on the boundary of C but it is attained at a point within Cat Z = aso that |/(Z)| = M. ircle insi vith centre at Z = a then sin Let C; be a circle inside C wit meres Was M is the maximum value of [/(Z)| and (2) is not a constant, there must exist a point Z = b inside C) such that yoy] < M ’ ree > 0 Let |f(b)| = M - € where € > since [f(Z)| is continuous at b for our chosen € > 0, there exists a & > 0 such that Fig.)Al IF 198 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLE, Au |i] = |i] < 6/2) where |Z-b| < 5 . Step II Also since |f(Z)| ~ [stb] < | IZ] - ey] | we conclude from (A) that [MZ] - |ftb)| < €/2 or |f(Z)|_ < [flb)| + €/2 =M-€+¢/2=M- €/ | Thus [/(Z)| < M- €/2 \ For all points Z satisfying |Z - b| < & ic. for all poingy inside a circle C3 with centre b and radius 6 (see fig (i) ) Now draw a circle Cp with centre at Z = a such that it pa through the point Z = b. The are Q R of circle Cp lies wit the circle C3 so that on this are we have Wl < M~e/2 by, on the remaining are of Cp we have \Z)|"< M. The radius s Cris evidently = > = |b =a. Step III By Cauchys’ integral formula we have fa) =. f LQ © Qn cae Now on C2 wehave Z = a 4 rd sothat = LF flatre'sy é ort a rea > § rd? ag in 12 wd S (a+ rd0) do If we m r i : anti, rection 3 QR enon PQ in the anticlockwise direction « el i Sia) ~ aq Lf + dey ag cae ' 2: 2a 2, fa+rd® a 1 * Inta)| Se { Vas do] am inj +1 Fas vétl an : 1 an : “ae f Ot~e72) a0 [ww mkgNGULARITIES AND CALCULUS OF RESIDUES 199 « = ™- Moog - \ om ( €/2) + ae «) = Mee 4n Thus M = ([f(a)| < M - “& (D) 4n | (D) is absurd and M Cannot be less than M ~ «e /4m and it is | a contradiction and our supposition, that |f(Z)| can attain its maximum value at any point within C, is wrong and therefore, |/(Z)| attains its maximum value M only at some point on C. Minimum Modulus Principle : THEOREM : Let /(Z) be analytic inside and on a closed contour C and let f(2) # 0 inside C. Then prove that [f(Z)| must attain its minimum value say m on Cand not inside C). In other words If m is the minimum of |/(Z)| inside and on C then unless f is constant |/(Z)| > m for every point Z = Zo inside C, . Proof: Since f (Z) is analytic inside and on C and f(Z) # 0 therefore, 1/f(Z) is analytic on and within C. By maximum modulus principle theorem 1 Gannot attain its maximum value inside C and _ YI \ consequently |/(Z)| cannot attain its minimum value inside C. Also (Z) is continuous on and within C Therefore, \f(Z)| must attain its minimum value at some point on C (not inside C.) TNEOREM (The argum tatement : If /(Z) is meromorphic inside a closed contour C and has no "0s on C then . Principle theorem). 1s fia yep 2né © f(Z) . "te N is the number of zeros and P the number of poles inside C.FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEX ANALY gg . dn times inted n th Note: A pole or zero of order n may be cow! a jote: Leta, (i = 2 _ m) be the zeros of f( ) whieh : StepT a, = 14 ae Giasecan x be the order of 4. a rletb. @@ = 1,2,-.™ be the poles of f(Z) inside ¢ aed the order ofb,. We want to prove that m 0 1 [@ qe 3rj,-2 $8 oni FD inv il Step II We enclose each zero and pole by non - over lapping cirds | Aj, Ag, ... Am and By, Bo, «-. By respectively each of radii. j is contained in C then f /(Z) az, this result we have. “e 1 "(2) ue Z ‘ob tf a Mp JE@ ap 5 1 2Qmi “ce f(Z) isl Qmi “a zy ict ont Bw Step III Now since isa zero of order y v off (Z) , we may write $@) = (Z-ayi g (2) a Where g, is analyti 4 y if logarithm of sy igee Cae mara at' 2 =" 3 a 1, log (2~a,)+10g 9. (zy ®) we have log Differentiating we get . ’ f@ _» 48 @ @ [@ dma > &(Z)gNGULARITIES AND CALCULUS OF RESIDUES 201 Since is analytic at Z = a so we have g',(2) lqa- aZ = 0 (using C.F. Theorem) % ani eeu - dZ =r J —___ = Also { 5 J ix foo = nt 5 using relations (c) and (A), we get ; 7 yp £@ ges mindy i=l Qmi A Za i=l Qmi vei: Step IV Now since b, is a pole of order S, of f(Z) ena () (Z -b)* when h(Z) is analytic and non - zero at b, taking Logarithmic differentiation of (E) we get JQ W@~ § f@ h@ Z2-b L@ az = 0-2 wehave .f(Z) = As in step III we have 4% f(Z) : m pt [ fo. az = 3 1 @-2ng) i=l Qmi “By f(Z) i=l Qné m aac ®) isl Hence from (A), (D) and (F) we conclude m 0 J pL@ we 34-33 =N-P. CG Mi “ce f(Z) i=l iat athe, ® N-p = Ac arg Y@) on Vere Ac denotes the variation in arg (f (Z)) as.Z moves onceFUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEX ANA) moe (2) If) is analytic then P = 0 (No of poles = 0) and Retatg, (G) becomes | nea ii S'@ az = 1 he arg (f(Z)), omic F(Z) on Let /(Z)and g(Z) be analytic inside and on a simple closed cuny Cand let |g(Z)| < [f(Z)| on C. Then prove that f (Z) and f(Z) + gq Rouche’s Theorem : have the same number of zeros inside C. Proof: StepI Suppose N and M be the number of zeros of f(Z) + g(Z) and (Z) respectively. Since f (Z) and f(Z) + g(Z) are analytic inside and on C so By remark 2 above, we have P = poles=0 and N= Ac arg(f(Z) + g(2)) » Et and M = he arg(f(2)) A [he arg (f+ ) ~ de arg (9) 2n Le arg + Bip = he ang Qn (Nl st Che (argy + arg (+ - rf Qn g/f} — Ac arg (fl -J py (Ae ates + Acarg(1 + g/p - Acarg () 1 ) 4 Ac arg(1 + e/p Cy Step I Now we have to show that Ac arg (1+ g/p = 0 Since Jel < [/| it means the point W = 1+ eff ai inside the circle with centr 4 ews adi ity $0 always lies to the right of land radius unity. ce “ar the Imagi ig, Hen’ w-arg(1+ g/p always lies bebweene wi oe. i It follows that arg (1 4 ‘I : 8/P) returns to its original valle, ibes C, s to its original Z describes C. Since arg (1+ 8/7) cannot inerease OFguGULARITIES AND CALCULUS OF RESIDUES 203 I , by a multiple of 2m, we ce een » Wwe conclude that Ac arg from (A) we conclude N-M=02N=2=M The functions f (Z) + g (2) and f(Z) have same number of zeros inside C. VA #XAMPLE 1 . Use Rouches’ theorem to prove that the Equation 1+ 15Z + 1 = 0 has one root in the disc. |Z| < 3/2 and four roots in theannulus 3/2 < |Z] <2 Solution : StepI: Let /(Z) = 2 and g(Z) = 15Z + 1on the circle |Z| = 2 we have If(Z)| = [Z]5 = 25 = 32 and |g(Z)| = 15|Z| +1 = 31 Thus | g(Z)| < |f(Z)| on the circle |Z| = 2 it follows by Rouches’ theorem that the function /(Z) + g (Z) = 2° + 152 + 1 has as many zeros in |Z| < 2 as the function Z). since /(Z) = 2° has a zero of order 5 gt/Z=0 ie. all the five roots of Z°+152+1= 0 must lie in the disc |Z| < 2. Step 11~ On the other hand since for |Z| = 3/2 [241] < [Z[5+1 E2498 ee 22 5 (2) 6 12) 3/2) 32. 2 The function has as many zeros in the disc |Z| < 3/2 as the function 15Z , that is, it has exactly one zero there. Consequently four of the zeros of Z° + 15Z + 1 must lie in the ring 3/2 < [Z| < 2- EXAMPLE 6: In which quadrant do the roots of the equation Zi 473+ 422 +2Z+3 = Olie? Zi+23+422+22+3=0 Soluti, olution Step 1 Given (2) = Since all the coefficients are real and have the same sign i.e. positive, therefore the equation /(Z) = 0 has no positive root. Also if we put Z = —* Then f(y) = xt oad + 42 Oe +3 = 0or Also Thus Now Step II (a) (b) So that (c) FUNDAMENTALS OF MATA ANALY 9 fren = arent 4) +20 = qe 1a + 15/4 +? > Owhend 0 when x > 1 sex) > Oforallx> 0 This means that the equ: root putting Z = iy weget fliy) = yl iy? dy? + 2iy + 3 +1 da-xt1 3 = (yl 4y? + 8) -iy G? - 2) From (2) it is evident that the real and imaginary parts {fliy) cannot vanish together so that equation /(Z) = 0 haste purely imaginary root. ation f (Z) = 0 has no negative rea) Q) We now search for complex roots of f (Z) = 0 in the firs quadrant by using argument principle. we shall find A arg /(Z) or change in arg f(Z) as 2 move round the part of the first quadrant bounded by |2| = where R is large We write f(Z) = W = U+iV on thé x ~ axis A arg f(Z) = 0 since as Z moves from 01" along-x — axis w moves alon; " i : g the real axis from 0 to that arg /(Z) = 0 at Each point of the positive part of the axis. For the circle |Z| = R wewriteZ = R ef y@-=@h+t,4,2 Zz mt gst = Re” [1+ FQ] pene periaty niformly a Z+ ©, Thus when Z moe ‘ » the change in arg /(Z) is 4. 1/2 = 3 2] on the y ~ axis, taking Z = iy , weh » ave fly) = vite 42 4 avg g °. ered on| saws AND CALCULUS OF RESIDUES 205 sothatarg/(éy) = tan! ( | Now the numerator of ( Vanishes at y = 0 and y = fe and its denominator vanishes at y= 1, y ={3 - 4? +3 Hence ifwe write U V = Q-y? v ; ' — varies as follows as y varies from @ to0 — 9d -0, +0, . + 0 Considering these variations in some detail we observe (when [3 =7i/2 in general itis | | 1 ; : Zz = Mi/2 + WKmi, K = 0,4+1,42,43,... aa £142,+3, Thus e!/* = i will be satisfied h by an infinite sequence 2% ' | approaching Z = 0, namely u~=—1 2 1,426 mi2+ mi \ Asawa = tht EXAMPLE 2 Find the Residues et 2(Z=niy! Solution :StepI Given f{(Z) = : — mi) (Z) has a pole of. Y t G2 Msapole oforder 2 at\z = 9 and pole of order! # Step Il NowResidue of (2) at % = 9 > d R ¢,0) = ~ 12 f a Ws) Z=0 = [2 az @~niyiz.,- 4, ARITIES AND CALCULUS OF RESIDI | cu UES 207 1 @ — — [a-ni' se opin ates oe [eee Zari Bt dZs sep Rf, mi) = 1 Lim Ze?=2 e® a1 Lim @ [2 ern2Zery _ 6 2-7"! az [| 2. _ 1 lim @ pe@-2) Ge Zon! dz? Ze 23 (07 1 + (Z- 2) e*) 1 tim 47 = F(Z - 2)32? 1 — Ch ee 6 z-ni dz 76 Zet+ Det — 20% 1 tim 21 782+ be 6 z-ni dz Zz dL Lim A pease s bey 6 Z-ni ae Zz! ZZ? et +e? 2Z-4e" - 4Ze” + 6e”) 3 p72 24 pam [ee OD 6 Zn 78 ZB et + 222 e% — 420% — 4720 A Lim pp OZetn 42 et + 16Zer~ 24 et | 6 Zant 2 1 Lim posit 182.6% ~ 24e% y 6 Zn @FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLE, Ay 08 x) ra i 2 + 18(Mi) ~ 94 7 ptmiy? - 6(ni ) ef . (mi) ] rin + 6M + 1812 ~ 24) ea eee 6 1 6 R (ini) = ora [13+ 6022 - 18" - 247] EXAMPLE 8 Calculate the residues of f(Z) = tan hz sin hZ cos hZ Now zeros of cos hZ are the poles of (2). Solution :StepI Given f@) = tanhZ = 4 et _ Since cosh Z = SS = 05 e&%+1=0 er +1as eF =] = 72 = gi in general 2 = (K+) ni K = 041,42. ets hZ ie. the poles of (2). Now <> (coshZ) = sin hZ and at Z, sin hZ #0 roe the poles are simple Limp sin hZ (@% ~ 43/2) Z~ni/2 cos hZ - [Sinh2 @~ ni/ 0 ) form . A = i /2) 2 wn cos hZ, ] oa Step R (f,Z0) 0 Differentiating wrt, z = Limp cosa ~ n}/2) + sin WZ] i Sao = Lim sin hZ Z~ni/2 el =1 In general at Z = 2 the m RG <4 for K = 0,41, 49. EXAMPLE 4 Use Rouches’ 7 Theorem aZ> — e* = 0 has n roots in the in; int wt Prove that the ef erior of t th jal? Unit circle C when —_—_—rt agua TIES AND CALCULUS OF RESIDUES et caution :Step T f(2) = a2" and g(z) = -e « andZ=x+iy=,y b . CBI = De, Zn eT ante any, Boe on the wit circle (equality holds when y = 0 inZ = x +iy) qrerefore (Z| = [a2] = Jal |Z” = Jal > e lg(Z] = le’| = fev.et| = fer}. fer] Cc. fer] = D lg@| = |e] =e ce (equality holds when x = 1 in |Z| = 1) step. Hence for all Z on the unit circle C, we have lge@| < |p| Now by Rouches’ theorem f(Z) + g (Z) = ad" ~ e® has as many roots (zeros) interior to the unit cirele C as of f(Z). But £(Z) has n zeros in the interior of C, therefore, we conclude that f(Z) + g(Z) = az" - e” has also n zeros in the interior of the unit circle |Z| = 1 | EXAMPLE 5 2 Find the residue at Z =/ of the function 1 Z@) = ———, | Ae (Z2 + 1)? log (2 +/2)- [Solus . . = 1 Pution: — Step t given Z=i and SO = Gey a Piog @ +12) let g(Z) = log (@eiZ) for Z =! g6) = log (@-1) = log d= 9° gia si #0 giz) = + 24+iZ rincipal branch of Thus considering the P. j g(Z) =Oand g'(Z) #0 8 (2) = log (2 + #2) order 1 oflog (2 +/2) at Z = is a zero of a eof order 3 of /(2)- % =i isa pol J(Z) can be written-as210 Step II Now’ @ Gi) (iii) Step I FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEX Ay G +i)? log (2 +42) 1 f Zs $2) @-i 1 2) = gz) and ID = ap gM) F0 (0 GW = % form ultimately # 0) Lim 1 _@? -13 fZ Ry = him 2 a -* .7) HO* a wae . + ow Z-i (Z +i)? log (2 +2) GZ +i)? log (2 +12) $ @) = Bi wv w We shall express each side of (A) as a power series in (2-i) (Zi)? = (Zi + 21)? (28)? % wi)? +2228 (Zi) -44(Z-i)? + 4i'Z-i) Also log (2 +12) = log(1 +i (Z-i)) = i(Z-i)-(1/2)Ui (2-1) 12+ (1/3) Zit = i (Zi) +(1/2)(Z-1)? -G /3)(Z—-7 B+ (2) = $12) = $6 42-0) =$O)4(%-1) 9g! G) 4+ =i Bn gye- 2! putting in (A) we get. (444i (Z-i)+(2-1)4 (i (Z-1)4 2-12 - igi 2 3 [6604-4 WHE prey goo” = Z-i é In (B) equating Coefficients of (Z-i), (Z-i)?, Z=iy3 -4i $M =1 -6¢(i)- 4 b' (i) = 9 etc. we getgInGULARITIES AND CALCULUS OF RESIDUES mii 13; 4 oe and PO 68 Ww) ~2i eG) =0 Solving Equations in (C) we get. gi) = i/4 oi) = - 3/8 graye 12i Thus the residue at Z = i is RGf,i) = 2 gniy 2 dx De 1 2 ili 2 2 127 241 24 EXERCISES @1 Discuss the nature of singularities of the following functions and also calculate the residues at the poles. A ns zZ sas sinZ @ s@=tanZ Gi) f@ = ——, ti) sD = f ™ f 1+2! f (2-1)? Ans () (2n+1) 1/2 when n = 0, + 1, +2,, each point is a pole of order 1 with residue by = ~ 1 where n is an integer. Gy et, ett, Bt, eave simple poles with residues -i/4, i/4,1/4 ~i/4 respectively (ii) 7 isa simple pole with residue ~ 1 i 2. Find the zeros and discuss the nature of the singularities of f@) = i sin (= ) Also calculate the residues at the poles. Ans: 2,1 4 1/nm are zeros. , 2 = 0 is a pole of order 2, Z = Lis an essential singularity. The residue at Z = 0 is 2cos 1- sin 1). 8. Let (Z) = el/2, show that there are an infinite number of 2210s in every neighbourhood of 2 = Owhich satisfy e'/* = - 1 4. Determine the poles, order of each pole and the value of the residue of the function at each pole. , Bo 4 iy @ Cot Z did oe (iii) Pant ;FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEx 212 ANAL ae Ans(i) all the poles are simple Zn = N11 1,42, Res ¢ ng) _ Gi) At Z = 0, the poleis of order 3, at z ja ae the poles are simple R(f,0) = 3, RY,+) = - (ii) ~AtZ = 0 pole is of order 3, at Z = 0%, n = +149 poles are simple. Res (f, 0) = 1/6 (-1 n? 72 Res (f,n™) = n= +142... Q.5. Prove that the equation Z e™” = 1, a > 1 has only in the interior of the unit circleC : |Z] = 1 Hint Given Z et = 1 2 Z = 1/,@*LetH (2) = f(Z) - ga) where f(Z) = Z and g(Z) = 1/,0, ONE roy Since a>1, we have for all Z on CG, |g(Z)|<1 and |/@)| « [Z| = 1 Now apply Rouches’ theorem to conclude that H (Z) has oth one zero in the interior of C as f(Z) has only one zero in the unit cite |Z] = 1) Q.6. Find the poles of the function f (2) = e% (cos hZ + cos f)" where 0 <« < 1,0 < B <1. Find the residues at these poles Poles are pi = ~i (2nm +m ~ B) and p2 = -é (2nm+n +B) RE py =i eMOrnt ee pane. See "aie aa eal Ans sin B RY, po) =i etn Tg Q.7. Prove that the residue of the function f(2) = BT cotnZ cothnZ at Z = 0 is (19 567 x 25 Q.8. Find all the zeros and poles with their orders and the esse singularities of 1 aT Braye: sin (— (2? ~ 12 ( 7 Ans Thepoints Z = singularity, Z = i +1 are poles of order 2, z = 0 is an es AM are simple zeros where n is an inteB®™ =RG-y=-1(, RGD = RY~1 Gin 1 + 0051).yuariieS AND CALCULUS OF RESIDUES 213 prove that the residue at Z = af A of ina a e™" (na + 2) 4a! 10. Find the residue of the function a" (°° Farm * (2) = Z* cosee Z cosech Z at the origin R¢,0) = 1/90) 11, Show that the polynomial /(Z) = Z5 + Z3 + 22 + 3 has just one zero in the first quadrant of the plane. 12, Find the residues of each of the following functions f (Z) at all ofits finite Isolated singular points. @ s@ = worite, Meiyge- ZZ fq = 2% Fallocs(staeeYQALLAH_ qudAro Z+i93 fa) = Sched 4oyoy aoe onel Go Free iallamic mg (® F(Z) = sinZ.sin (1/2) , a) RYO) = 4 RG*D = -1/2 “% (Or Mobile ) Ri-1) = 2sin 2 © RY nm) = (- DP (W= 041,42...) ® R Go = 0). '3. Evaluate the pole, its order and Residue for the following functions. ft 3 +e ® f@ = 2 e"/2 Pole is at Z = 0 of Order 3 and Residue = 1/2) ti) pig) sinZ 2 ; Pole isat Z = 0 oforder 1 and residue = 1] - gt Zs sin 1Z 1 * Cateutate the residue of f(Z) = SD" nt + 2 Sd at +n) 1 )aya FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLE Ay SECTION II CAUCHYS’ RESIDUE THEOREM AND APPLICATIONg Before we embark on the study of the Cauchys’ residue the we recall that residue of . f (2) at Z = Zp is bi a ny, (Z- Zo) f (2) 7 Zo e ie. by is the Coefficient of 7 nthe Laurents’ expansion of 40 1 . EXAMPLE Find the residue of/(Z) = [y-— at Z =i 2? + 198 Solution : . y : 1 1 StepI Given f(Z) = ——___ = —__—__ p u (22 + 1)3 (2 +i Zi) = 812) @=i8 1 Where g(Z) = ——~__ (Z +i) r Now Residue of f (Z) at Z which is a pole of order $4 F 1 @r@ RGi) = — 2 hi 2! az2 = yy , wl Now g(Z) = — itt Zi eZ) = 2 ,e"G) = 12 _ 12 @+i¥ Qe “32 = 8 1 .; 8 wo QC ood RGD = > eG) = 3-3;r apiTieS AND CALCULUS OF RESIDUES. * 215 jave at point at infinity : Residue at point at infinity is defined as Lim ¢_ £4/2)] _ Lim waa e F J= gay BLD) provided this limit has a definite value. es In other words the residue of /(7) at infinity is the coefficient of ts sign changed in the expansion of /(Z): ‘e EXAMPLE, Calculate the residues of f(Z) = —— @-1) 2-2) (2-3) at Z = 1, 2,3,and at Z = and prove that their sum is zero. pith Solution : 3 Step 1 Given f (2) = ~——— | (Z-1) (2-2) Z-3) The poles are at Z = 1,2and3. “a 1 R (1) = L@-1 (Z)) = a (0 = (e-v/Q), “gryazat. 2 B R 2) = [(Z-2) (2) = l—=———T =-8 2) [@-2/ 21, (shark 2 27 n (8) = (a-9s9), lana Isa -- i For tdeg eT aT ‘or R (f,) Consider fiz 7/al tr =2/al0 - 3/al oe f-Lyp-27b- 3/21’ “ Zz ficient of 1/2 therefore, calculate the coe’ f1/Z is not In (A) we want to tt ; ding higher powers of the expansion regal required. , 2 3) = G+2)G+2)Gtg Bary a @ is coefficient of 1 6 1 1+24+0(5) ©® Zz Be : in (B) with Now Residue of f at 2. = /Zin ¢ sign changed. HenceR f,®) = ~§ 4a 4 = RY DERG PARC I Ry. FRG: idue Step 11 Sum of the res! Weer a = 0 | 2 Cattchys* Residue Theorem. ; )(Z—3) form Ithas been seen that integrals of the i) 7 i ii tial fractions Using ressing the integrand into pal : F 'heotem and C1 form, Cauchy's Residue theorem enable a ieee for such integrals without this preliminary algebra. i ic (re :) except at a finite numberg| it : If f (Z) is analytic (regular e poles within a Seed contour C and continuous on the boundary of¢} a then prove that f f(Z) dZ = 2ni ZR, c 7 aye ZR, is thgsum of the residues of (2) at its poles within C. 0 vé ¥ 3 roof: Step Let Z1, Z2,...., Zn ( be the A” poles within’ C. Further Let C1, Co, ... Cy be the circles with centres Z, , 22, ... Zn respectively and each of radius r. Now. is so small that all these circles lie entirely within C and they do hot overlap. So f(Z) is analytic in the region between C and the circles, so that we have by “Cauchys’ fundamental theorem 5 J) az~ { J Lim awe 4 & LID ae= fre wy, “264 Step Now iff (2) has a Pole of, orde; 0) {++ Sym a : "Mm at Z = Z, then by Laurents’ theorem we have AZ) = $(2) z _ + ) where $ (2) ig Tegulay = oa V. Within and on CyAND CALCULUS OF RESIDUES 217 et? Taking integral of both sides of (2) along C; we have Jaz =f paans fe a a La ‘1 GB mI 1 (Z-Zy)™ Since ¢ (Z) is analytic within and on Cy , therefore, by Cauehys' F. theorem f $¢Z) dz = 0 el c (3) 1 Ya eben ofthe pele Now consider f ——___ az 3) cy (Z-Z)™ put Z-Z, = re dZ = ri edd O<0<2n put in (4) bat aZ b 2m vi & ad if ———_ = m ———. hu er Z—Zy™ oe gt Asda BM omy 7? at cen e ae : : Pole. xm’ 8 ‘ = 0 for my #1 2 c a when mi = ¥lo7 ~ br ae $8 Poni Ra Cris the residue at Z = 2) a 2-21 putting in (3) we get J p@ az = 2mi by = ami Rs : 1 tRewise f f(Z) dZ = 2mi Re my ani Rn and ff f(Z) az Sn Where Ry, Ry, Ra, Rn are residues at poles Z), 22, Z3,..., Zn 1, Ra, Rayo respectively. putting values in (1) we get.FUNDAM Rn] f p@ aa = 2m [Ri + Rat . n = oni a is Remark 1The residue at Z = @ in the form of an integral is defined a5 m: 1 =— Jf sma RHO) = oy Is Remark 2If a function f (Z) is analytic in the whole plane exert tte finite number of poles say Z) , Z2, .. Zn then the sum of the residues, at Zi, %2,0y%n andat Z = ©, iszero. Proof: _ By Cauchys’ Residue theorem » Js@ az = emi ZR c i=l 1 Lr a “ a 2ni Ja By Definition of Residue at Z = © 1 Ryo = f pa az a! (9) = a, L gm from (1) and @) wehave ZR; + R (f,w) = 0 EXAMPLE 1 Evaluate f 2¢°a@2 ,,, “‘c (aq) Solution :Step I : here C encloses the pole at Z= ~t! (2 he J (2) has poles at’Z = 4:07 of on jen enclosed by CisZ = i, “der 2 the only pole whieh The integrand f(z) = 2” ta RG,-ai) = © Grd = [era yey =i pe ] . w@ Grail? zg : _ [Gna ; | aL i et + e+ tet 2- a @=aiyl aegnGULARITIES AND CALCULUS OF RESIDUES 6" 19 siep II. Using Cauchys’ Residue theorem. Zet ad _ o.5 ——,, =. mi 2 Rl= Qui ————_ bee age ON 8 Ree Ot a7 ew | 2a | EXAMPLE 2 Prove that [ 82° az = - Ti 2G . where C encloses the point Z = 0 Solution : The integrand (2) = f(Z) has pole at Z = 0 a 4 «) 42) f 02 ag = oni x (4/8) ot ZA 3 c -7Z! 5 =. EXAMPLE 3 Evaluate J) if e2dZ where Cis a tmit circle [Z| = 1 Solution : Step 1 (2) = 22 82Z3 162! : =i +e Se. -Gile econ Eo ] | 7 = bree «..) aM The residue of f(Z) atZ = 0 is the coefficient of 1/2 in (1) 16 _,.78 RYO = oF 1 24PLEX ANALY! FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEX | 220 “yaw neve d Step II Using Cauchys’ Residue theore! a | 1-2 oo, ag = oni (-1/3) =~ z a d 2 ; f w-2+1 dz ; EXAMPLE 4 Evaluate f G-paloG+ sy { where C isthe circle |Z] = 5 Solution : StepI f(Z) = @-2+ /Z-1) (2-4) (Z + 3) This points Z = 1,4, -8 allliein the circle [Z| = 5and are simple poles. F 2 -1 Ry = Mm pBaZel pli Z+1 @-42+3) 2 i 2 Rg,4) = Lim [2 Z+1 = 18 Z>4 (Z-1) (Z + 3y 21 i 2 Rg-a 5 im | 2@-Z+1 13 G-)G-4 ~ 98 =~ 338 1 | s2439-7 94 ZRety Bild —-_/. 21° 38 Wp 84 “84 By Cauchys’ Residue theorem 2-241 f ate & Z-NZ-HGey = MIR =1 Step I = 2mi x 1 = ont EXAMPLES Evaluatef © cosh(mZ) where C isthecitele [2] = 4 Solution :StepT Theintegrand qq) _ _ e2 —_ cosh (12) The poles of f (2) are the Zeros of Cosh 1Z, cosh (™Z) = 9 >{gULARITIES AND CALCULUS OF RESIDUES sn 221 =i r i | Zee oi are the simple poles of SZ) RE) =n Ee (2 tom) 2 Zi /2 coshnZ = Lim [Gri /2)2 0% + or ] 24/2 sinh) _ Lin em j= é | Zi /2° msinhnZ° oi ni/2 @ mZ nd mi/2 (sinhnz = £ 7& = © = 2 2 (cos 1/2 +; sin 1/2) — (cosm/2-; sin%/2)_ _ i ) 2 i in) Likewise putting i = Rf, -i/2) = et/-ni StepII__ Using Cauchys’ Residue theorem. 27, iu 2 ag = oni [4+ = © cosh TZ mi = 2[e-et] i oe = 2x2i [22%] = 4i sina) Multiple valued functions or (Branches). We shall close this chapter with the discussion of an important {ss of singularities known as branch points. These singulatities are of ‘i ‘uliar type and belong to the multiple valued functions. So far we have Scussed the singularities of analytic functions (single valued functions). ile defining analytic functions, we have noticed that an analytic "ction must be one - valued or uniform. . ¢ number of functions which are many Ther a larg ere are however, @ “7 Fgonometric functions cos" Z, tan" Z ete Valued |. For verse Trigono! e 4 example In re « is a fraction (not an integer). = To explain the Idea of many valuedness we consider W = TeaFUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEX ANALY gg Putting Z = r (cos @ +i sin@) = re# eens and 6 between 0 and 2m. Two obvious values of w can be From (1) W, = |r & and We = - ei 042M) = Ir 0/2 | Qn We 0? Wi , W2 are called two branches of two valued function Ww Definition 1 Branch: A branch of a multiple valued function W = S(Z) is any single valued function which is analytic in some domain D, Definition 2 - Branch Point It is a point round which the completion of th description of a circuit alters the value of the function or yields a nev value of the function. As above Wj and W. is a branch point. Definition 3 2 are two branches and Z = 0 (the origtl | Branch cut or cross cut or Branch line: It is an obstacle,hurdle or barrier which prevents the description of a 0 complete circuit round a branch point such a barrier is called a branch cut, In the above example W 2 [7 If OA = a(@ = 0) the value ot w i 7 “Ta our the cut, a complete circuit about thy origin ie, ae Sr yale wy at B(8 = 2nvis - Ja hot possible ani The part of the real axis from » rant? cut for the branch W), °™* = 0 tox = wis called a bY Therefore, cross cut is g b th corresponding branch is single valuey eae So introduced is at plane. analytic throughow gt 5 is the branch cut. ese the positive part of the rea! ##oe 5 '- pranch point If Z describes a circle of radius r about the origin of wiz wi- lr? ao=0 w; at @ = 2n We W and Wy are two branches. a We now distinguish the point Z.= 0 from all other points. We see that ifZ describes a circle about any point P. x and the origin lies outside this circle 0 then arg Z is not increased by 2m but returns to its initial value. Hence the y values of W) and W2 are exchanged only when Z turns about the origin on account of this fact, the point Z = 0 is called a branch - point of the function W=IZ EXAMPLES : (a) Consider the function W = [2 Z = reo w= ri? eft = Wi Now completing a circuit (circle) round 0 8 = 6420 w= -[red? = We Ge = - a) Ho) ‘After completing another circle around 0 O=604+4n 7 we [roe = wi Ge = 1») and after another circle around 0 O=60+6 w--Jr 0/2 = We(2) FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPLEX ANAL ya Consider the function we ]zei “aye = [@+)@-a) Z-; = ft Z+j = 2 fe B+. = ry rye (8, + 09)/2 After Completing a circuit around Z = i we get. 0) = 60,4 2n 02 = Og Oi +9748. W= {22415 rere el le T—— 101+) : =-Inn e '% . wy @) G. et =-1) Whereas the first value is W = (+i) Gia = [py Wor+82 After Completing the second circle 61 = 61 + 4m /%= Ww around Z =i 82 = 89 we Tan ee Sir ol), 2 then 1 = 6; ana 02 We - Iriel +0 - : We [en = -1] After completing two circleg around Z = _; : as w-ln nr gi + O99 = Ww, Hwe complete a circle aronng z i =~ en 61 = O+2n & 9, £ & Z = ~-% both th 82 + on_nGULARITIES AND CALCULUS OF RESIDUES 205 — i81+8 bw Sir Sitio, r—— 8148. . ry rg e. "2 L. et = 1] ie. Z=i &Z= ~i are two branch points the descriptions of the circles around these points separately give all the two values | of W. Conclusion. (i) Branch points Z = +i — 1104489), ky (i) Branches Wi = |r e | /2xe, k= 0,1 (ii) Branchcuts -1 2 and (ii) r < 2 (gs @ i (sin ht - cosh1) (i) mi/2 (sin ht -cosh1) | dz | 9,6. Evaluate along the cir 4 = Q J Pind ng the circleC: |Z| = 1 ans 17/3 22 dZ .1, Evaluate [ © —°" — alongthecircleC: [Z| = 2 Q i eon long the circle |Z| Ans 1/e . Q8 Evaluate J eae along tie circles C : ce + IN + + D i) |Z) = 8/2 Gi) |Z-é| = 3/2 Ans ° (i) Zero , Gi) -"/5) 9. Evaluate the Integral J 2182 where cisacirele [Z| = 2 (21) ; Ans gnie/(n-1)! Q%0, Evaluate f 02 — where C isa circle y2ey? = Be c Zit. Ans - mi /2 - 1 a2 ___ where Cisacirdle [2-2] = > je (Z-WE-2) 2 Ans @ oni 12, Find the Branches, Bran’ Ans ch points & branch cuts of W =| Z?-1 Branch points Z = +1 i(01+8) e i Branches = W =J 1112 —g— ooo) "OK = 0,1 Brarich cuts ~1<4<1, 970