Electricity: A type of energy that we use to make heat, light and

power to work machines, etc.

O
R observable in positive and
A fundamental form of energy
negative forms that occurs naturally (as in lightning) or is
produced (as in a generator) and that is expressed in terms
of the movement and interaction of electrons

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND CIRCUIT

Air current: Flowing of air in atmosphere is the air

current

Water current: Flowing of water in river, ocean etc.

is the water current
Electric current: If the electric charge flows through a conductor
(metallic wire) then that charge is considered as electric current in the
conductor.
Ex: Torch

Electric circuit: A continuous and closed path of an electric current is

called an electric circuit.

Switch: A switch makes a conducting link between the cell and the bulb.
How to express electric current?

Electric current is expressed by the amount of charge flowing

through a particular area in unit time.

OR

It is the rate of flow of electric charges.

Earlier: electric current: is the flow of positive charges

Direction of electric current: is with the flow of positive charges

Now: electric current: is the flow of electrons (flow of charges).

Direction of electric current: opposite to the direction of the flow
of electrons

Electron are having –ve charges

 If a net charge Q, flows across any cross-section of a conductor
in time t, then the current I, through the cross-section is

I= Current
Q = Charge (electric charge that flows)
t = Time

The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C) means (a

charge nearly 6 × 1018 electrons)

Electron possesses a negative charge of 1.6 × 10–19 C

Ampere (A): It is the unit of expression of electric current.
A named given after Andre-Marie Ampere
(1775–1836).

1 ampere = flow of one coulomb of charge per second

1 A = 1 C/1 s
1 mA = 10–3 A
1 µA = 10–6 A

Ammeter: An instrument that measures electric current

in a circuit is called as ammeter.
Example 12.1

A current of 0.5 A is drawn by a filament of an electric

bulb for 10 minutes. Find the amount of electric charge
that flows through the circuit.
Solution
We are given, I = 0.5 A
t = 10 min = 600 s.

Thus, Q = It
= 0.5 A × 600 s
= 300 C
I (electric current) Q (Electric charge) T (time)
0.5 ? 5 min
? 350C 10 min
0.8 300C ?
1.4 ? 4 min
1.8 500C ?
? 400C 6 min

Complete the table

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

Flow of water Vs Flow of

current in a copper wire
Electric potential: It is the amount of work needed to
move a unit charge from a reference point (earth) to a
specific point against an electric field.

Potential difference: It is the difference of electrical

potential between two points.

Voltage is an electrical potential difference, the

difference in electric potential between two places.
The unit for electrical potential difference, or voltage,
is the volt.
We define the electric potential difference between two points in
an electric circuit carrying some current as the work done to move
a unit charge from one point to the other –

Potential difference (V) between two points = Work done (W)

Charge (Q)

V = W/Q
The SI unit of electric potential difference is volt (V), named after
Alessandro Volta (1745 –1827), an Italian physicist.

One volt is the potential difference between two points in a current

carrying conductor when 1 joule of work is done to move a charge
of 1 coulomb from one point to the other.
The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument
called the voltmeter. The voltmeter is always connected in
parallel across the points between which the potential difference
is to be measured.
Example 12.2

How much work is done (work done) in moving a

charge of 2 C across two points having a potential
difference 12 V?
Solution

The amount of charge Q, that flows between two

points at potential difference V (= 12 V) is 2 C.

Thus, the amount of work W, done in moving the

charge is
W = VQ
= 12 V × 2 C
= 24 J.
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
An electric circuit comprises a cell (or a battery), a
plug key, electrical component(s), and connecting
wires.
 OHM’S LAW
Is there a relationship between the potential difference
across a conductor and the current through it?

Activity 12.1
Set up a circuit??

❑ Use a nichrome (Nichrome is an alloy of nickel,

chromium, manganese, and iron metals) wire (XY
length) of 0.5 m length
❑ an ammeter
❑ a voltmeter
❑ four cells of 1.5 V each.
First use only one cell as the source in the circuit. Note the reading
in the ammeter (current, I), and reading of the voltmeter V for the
potential difference across the nichrome wire XY in the circuit.

Tabulate them in the Table given.

Repeat for all 4 cells

Calculate the ratio of V to I for each pair of potential

difference V and current I
Plot a graph between V and I, and observe the nature of the graph
In this Activity,

We find that
approximately the same
value for V/I is obtained
in each case.

Thus the V–I graph is a

straight line that passes
through the origin of the
graph, .

Thus, V/I is a constant

ratio.
Observation: On increasing the number of batteries, the potential
difference, as well as the current across the resistance, increases
proportionally.
Explanation:
When we increase the number of batteries across a resistance, we
increase the potential difference across the resistance.

Potential difference is directly proportioned to the current flowing

through it. As a result, we see an increase in the reading of
ammeter as well as that of the voltmeter.

Consider Potential difference as pressure on water and current as

a flow of water. If we increase the pressure, it will result in an
increase in the flow of water.

The same thing happens with the current also. We call this as
Ohm’s law.
Ohm’s law state that at a fixed temperature the voltage
across the resistance is directly proportional to the
current flowing through it.

Given by a German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1827)

V∝I or
V/I = constant
=R or
V = IR
R is a constant for the given metallic wire at a given
temperature and is called its resistance
The SI unit of R (Resistance) is ohm, represented by
the Greek letter Ω.

According to Ohm’s law

R = V/I
If the potential difference across the two ends of a
conductor is 1 V and the current through it is 1 A, then
the resistance R, of the conductor is 1 Ω.
Current through a resistor is inversely proportional to its
resistance.

If the resistance is doubled the current gets halved.

In many practical cases it is necessary to increase or

decrease the current in an electric circuit.

Variable resistance or rheostat: A component used to

regulate current without changing the voltage source is
called variable resistance. In an electric circuit, a device
called rheostat is often used to change the resistance in
the circuit.
 Activity 12.2
❑ Take a nichrome wire, a torch bulb, a 10 W bulb and an ammeter (0 – 5 A
range), a plug key and some connecting wires.
❑ Set up the circuit by connecting four dry cells of 1.5 V each in series with the
ammeter leaving a gap XY in the circuit.

Complete the circuit by connecting the nichrome wire in the gap

XY, take reading then do same with 10W bulb and Torch bulb.
Are the ammeter readings different for different
components connected in the gap XY?
Ans: Yes

What do the above observations indicate?

Motion of electrons through a conductor is retarded by
its resistance.
Good conductor: A component of a given size that offers
a low resistance is a good conductor.
Resistor: A conductor having some appreciable
resistance is called a resistor.
Poor conductor: A component of identical size that
offers a higher resistance is a poor conductor. An
insulator of the same size offers even higher resistance.
FACTORS ON WHICH THE RESISTANCE OF A
CONDUCTOR DEPENDS

Resistance of the conductor depends on

(i) Its length

(ii) Its area of cross-section

(iii) The nature of its material.

Sr. Wire Type Ammeter Observation
Reading
1 18 A Reading Noted
2 9A Ammeter reading decreases to
one-half when the length of the
wire is doubled
3 24 A The ammeter reading is
increased when a thicker wire of
the same material and of the
same length is used in the circuit
4 Change A change in ammeter reading is
(increase observed when a wire of
or different material of the same
decrease) length and the same area of
cross-section is used.
Apply Ohm’s Law

Precise measurements have shown that resistance of a

uniform metallic conductor is directly proportional to its
length (l) and inversely proportional to the area of cross-
section (A).

That is,
R ∝ l and R ∝ 1/A
Combining Eqs.
ρ (rho) is a constant of proportionality and is called the
electrical resistivity of the material of the conductor.

The SI unit of resistivity is Ω m. It is a characteristic

property of the material.

The metals and alloys have very low resistivity in the

range of 10–8 Ω m to 10–6 Ω m. They are good
conductors of electricity.

Insulators like rubber and glass have resistivity of the

order of 1012 to 1017 Ω m.
Both the resistance and resistivity of a material vary with
temperature.

The resistivity of an alloy is generally higher than that of

its constituent metals.

Alloys do not oxidise (burn) readily at high temperatures.

For this reason, they are commonly used in electrical
heating devices, like electric iron, toasters etc.

Tungsten is used almost exclusively for filaments of

electric bulbs, whereas copper and aluminium are
generally used for electrical transmission lines.
 RESISTANCE OF A SYSTEM OF RESISTORS

What we know? Simple electric circuits

What about complex electric circuit and how Ohm’s law

can be applied to combinations of resistors?
There are two methods of
joining the resistors together

Resistors in Series Resistors in Parallel

 Activity 12.4
Resistors in Series

1. The value of the current in the

ammeter is the same, independent of
its position in the electric circuit.

1. It means that in a series combination

of resistors the current is the same in
every part of the circuit or the same
current through each resistor.
Activity 12.5
Observation: The potential difference V is equal to the sum of
potential differences V1 , V2 , and V3

Means total potential difference across a combination of

resistors in series is equal to the sum of potential difference
across the individual resistors.
V= V1 + V2 + V3
Applying the Ohm’s law to the entire circuit
V = IR
On applying Ohm’s law to the three resistors separately

V1 = IR1
V2 = IR2
V3 = IR3
We can conclude that when several
resistors are joined in series, the
resistance of the combination Rs
equals the sum of their individual
resistances, R1 , R2 , R3 , and is thus
greater than any individual resistance.
Example 12.7
An electric lamp, whose resistance is 20 Ω, and a
conductor of 4 Ω resistance are connected to a 6 V battery.
Calculate

(a) the total resistance of the circuit,

(b) the current through the circuit, and
(c) the potential difference across the electric lamp and conductor.
Solution:
The resistance of electric lamp, R1 = 20 Ω
The resistance of the conductor connected in series, R2 = 4 Ω.
Then the total resistance in the circuit R = R1 + R2
Rs = 20 Ω + 4 Ω = 24 Ω.

The total potential difference across the two terminals of the

battery V = 6 V.

Now by Ohm’s law, the current through the circuit is given by

I = V/Rs
= 6 V/24 Ω
= 0.25 A.
Applying Ohm’s law to the electric lamp and conductor
separately, we get potential difference across the electric lamp
V1 = 20 Ω × 0.25 A
= 5 V; and,
that across the conductor,
V2 = 4 Ω × 0.25 A = 1 V.

Suppose that we like to replace the series combination of

electric lamp and conductor by a single and equivalent resistor.
Its resistance must be such that a potential difference of 6 V
across the battery terminals will cause a current of 0.25 A in the
circuit.
The resistance R of this equivalent resistor would be R = V/I
= 6 V/ 0.25 A
= 24 Ω.
This is the total resistance of the series circuit; it is equal to the
sum of the two resistances.
 Resistors in Parallel
Activity 12.6
Make a parallel combination, XY, of three resistors having
resistances R1 , R2 , and R3 , respectively.

Connect it with a battery, a plug key and an ammeter

Also connect a voltmeter in parallel with the combination of

resistors.
Plug the key and note the ammeter reading. Let the current be I.
Also take the voltmeter reading. It gives the potential difference
V, across the combination.

The potential difference across each resistor is also V. This can be

checked by connecting the voltmeter across each individual
resistor.

Take out the plug from the key. Remove the ammeter and
voltmeter from the circuit. Insert the ammeter in series with the
resistor R1. Note the ammeter reading, I 1.

Similarly, measure the currents through R2 and R3 . Let these be

I 2 and I 3 , respectively. What is the relationship between I, I 1 , I
2 and I 3 ?
 Example 12.8
In the circuit diagram given in Fig. 12.10, suppose the resistors R1 , R2 and R3
have the values 5 Ω, 10 Ω, 30 Ω, respectively, which have been connected to a
battery of 12 V. Calculate
(a) the current through each resistor,
(b) the total current in the circuit, and
(c) the total circuit resistance.

Solution
R1 = 5 Ω, R2 = 10 Ω, and R3 = 30 Ω.

Potential difference across the battery, V = 12 V.

This is also the potential difference across each of the individual resistor;
therefore, to calculate the current in the resistors, we use Ohm’s law.

The current I 1 , through R1 = V/ R1

I 1 = 12 V/5 Ω
= 2.4 A.
HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

A battery or a cell is a source of electrical energy.

The chemical reaction within the cell generates the

potential difference between its two terminals that sets
the electrons in motion to flow the current through a
resistor or a system of resistors connected to the battery.

To maintain the current, the source has to keep

expending its energy.

Where does this energy go?

A part of the source energy in maintaining the current may be
consumed into useful work (like in rotating the blades of an electric
fan).

Rest of the source energy may be expended in heat to raise the

temperature of gadget.

For example, an electric fan becomes warm if used continuously for

longer time etc.

Heating effect of electric current: If the electric circuit

is purely resistive, that is, a configuration of resistors only
connected to a battery; the source energy continually gets
dissipated entirely in the form of heat. This is known as the heating
effect of electric current.

Ex- electric heater, electric iron etc.

Consider a current I flowing through a resistor of resistance R.

Let the potential difference across it be V

Let t be the time during which a charge Q flows across.

The work done in moving the charge Q through a potential

difference V is VQ.

Therefore, the source must supply energy equal to VQ in time t.

Hence the power input to the circuit by the source is

Or the energy supplied to the circuit by the source in time t is P
× t, that is, VIt.

What happens to this energy expended by the source?

This energy gets dissipated in the resistor as heat.

Thus for a steady current I, the amount of heat H produced in

time t is

Applying Ohm’s law

2
H = I Rt
This is known as Joule’s law of heating
 The law implies that heat produced in a resistor
is

(i) directly proportional to the square of current

for a given resistance

(ii) directly proportional to resistance for a given

current

(iii) directly proportional to the time for which

the current flows through the resistor.
 Practical Applications of Heating
Effect of Electric Current
The generation of heat in a conductor is an inevitable
consequence of electric current.
Disadvantages:

In many cases, it is undesirable as it converts useful electrical

energy into heat. In electric circuits, the unavoidable heating can
increase the temperature of the components and alter their
properties.

Advantages:
The electric laundry iron, electric toaster, electric oven, electric
kettle and electric heater are some of the familiar devices based
on Joule’s heating.
Electric bulb:
The filament must retain as much of the heat generated as is possible, so that it
gets very hot and emits light. It must not melt at such high temperature. A strong
metal with high melting point such as tungsten (melting point 3380°C) is used for
making bulb filaments. The filament should be thermally isolated as much as
possible, using insulating support, etc. The bulbs are usually filled with chemically
inactive nitrogen and argon gases to prolong the life of filament. Most of the
power consumed by the filament appears as heat, but a small part of it is in the
form of light radiated.

Fuse used in electric circuits.

It protects circuits and appliances by stopping the flow of any unduly high electric
current. The fuse is placed in series with the device. It consists of a piece of wire
made of a metal or an alloy of appropriate melting point, for example aluminium,
copper, iron, lead etc. If a current larger than the specified value flows through the
circuit, the temperature of the fuse wire increases. This melts the fuse wire and
breaks the circuit. The fuse wire is usually encased in a cartridge of porcelain or
similar material with metal ends.
The fuses used for domestic purposes are rated
as 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 10 A, etc. For an electric
iron which consumes 1 kW electric power when
operated at 220 V, a current of (1000/220) A,
that is, 4.54 A will flow in the circuit. In this case,
a 5 A fuse must be used.
ELECTRIC POWER:

Power: The rate of doing work is power.

The rate of consumption of energy.

The power P is given by

P = VI Or
2 2
P=I R = V /R
The SI unit of electric power is watt (W).

It is the power consumed by a device that carries 1 A of

current when operated at a potential difference of 1 V.
Thus,
1 W = 1 volt × 1 ampere = 1 V A
The unit ‘watt’ is very small. Therefore, in actual
practice we use a much larger unit called ‘kilowatt’.

It is equal to 1000 watts. Since electrical energy is the

product of power and time, the unit of electric energy
is, therefore, watt hour (W h).

One watt hour is the energy consumed when 1 watt of

power is used for 1 hour. The commercial unit of
electric energy is kilowatt hour (kW h), commonly
known as ‘unit’.
1 kW h = 1000 watt × 3600 second
= 3.6 × 106 watt second
= 3.6 × 106 joule (J)