Fast Fourier transform

A fast Fourier transform (FFT) is an algorithm that computes the

discrete Fourier transform (DFT) of a sequence, or its inverse
(IDFT). Fourier analysis converts a signal from its original domain
(often time or space) to a representation in the frequency domain
and vice versa. The DFT is obtained by decomposing a sequence of
values into components of different frequencies.[1] This operation is
useful in many fields, but computing it directly from the definition is
often too slow to be practical. An FFT rapidly computes such
transformations by factorizing the DFT matrix into a product of
sparse (mostly zero) factors.[2] As a result, it manages to reduce the
complexity of computing the DFT from , which arises if
one simply applies the definition of DFT, to , where
An example FFT algorithm structure,
is the data size. The difference in speed can be enormous,
using a decomposition into half-size
especially for long data sets where N may be in the thousands or FFTs
millions. In the presence of round-off error, many FFT algorithms
are much more accurate than evaluating the DFT definition directly
or indirectly. There are many different FFT algorithms based on a
wide range of published theories, from simple complex-number
arithmetic to group theory and number theory.

Fast Fourier transforms are widely used for applications in

engineering, music, science, and mathematics. The basic ideas were
popularized in 1965, but some algorithms had been derived as early
as 1805.[1] In 1994, Gilbert Strang described the FFT as "the most
important numerical algorithm of our lifetime",[3][4] and it was
included in Top 10 Algorithms of 20th Century by the IEEE
magazine Computing in Science & Engineering.[5] A discrete Fourier analysis of a sum
of cosine waves at 10, 20, 30, 40,
The best-known FFT algorithms depend upon the factorization of and 50 Hz
N, but there are FFTs with O(N log N) complexity for all N, even
for prime  N. Many FFT algorithms depend only on the fact that
is an N-th primitive root of unity, and thus can be applied to analogous transforms over any finite
field, such as number-theoretic transforms. Since the inverse DFT is the same as the DFT, but with the
opposite sign in the exponent and a 1/N factor, any FFT algorithm can easily be adapted for it.

History
The development of fast algorithms for DFT can be traced to Carl Friedrich Gauss's unpublished work in
1805 when he needed it to interpolate the orbit of asteroids Pallas and Juno from sample observations.[6][7]
His method was very similar to the one published in 1965 by James Cooley and John Tukey, who are
generally credited for the invention of the modern generic FFT algorithm. While Gauss's work predated
even Joseph Fourier's results in 1822, he did not analyze the computation time and eventually used other
methods to achieve his goal.
Between 1805 and 1965, some versions of FFT were published by
other authors. Frank Yates in 1932 published his version called
interaction algorithm, which provided efficient computation of
Hadamard and Walsh transforms.[8] Yates' algorithm is still used in
the field of statistical design and analysis of experiments. In 1942,
G. C. Danielson and Cornelius Lanczos published their version to
compute DFT for x-ray crystallography, a field where calculation of
Fourier transforms presented a formidable bottleneck.[9][10] While
many methods in the past had focused on reducing the constant
factor for computation by taking advantage of Time-based representation (above)
"symmetries", Danielson and Lanczos realized that one could use and frequency-based representation
the "periodicity" and apply a "doubling trick" to "double [N] with (below) of the same signal, where
only slightly more than double the labor", though like Gauss they the lower representation can be
did not analyze that this led to scaling.[11] obtained from the upper one by
Fourier transformation
James Cooley and John Tukey independently rediscovered these
earlier algorithms[7] and published a more general FFT in 1965 that
is applicable when N is composite and not necessarily a power of 2, as well as analyzing the
scaling.[12] Tukey came up with the idea during a meeting of President Kennedy's Science Advisory
Committee where a discussion topic involved detecting nuclear tests by the Soviet Union by setting up
sensors to surround the country from outside. To analyze the output of these sensors, an FFT algorithm
would be needed. In discussion with Tukey, Richard Garwin recognized the general applicability of the
algorithm not just to national security problems, but also to a wide range of problems including one of
immediate interest to him, determining the periodicities of the spin orientations in a 3-D crystal of Helium-
3.[13] Garwin gave Tukey's idea to Cooley (both worked at IBM's Watson labs) for implementation.[14]
Cooley and Tukey published the paper in a relatively short time of six months.[15] As Tukey did not work
at IBM, the patentability of the idea was doubted and the algorithm went into the public domain, which,
through the computing revolution of the next decade, made FFT one of the indispensable algorithms in
digital signal processing.

Definition
Let , …, be complex numbers. The DFT is defined by the formula

where is a primitive Nth root of 1.

Evaluating this definition directly requires operations: there are N outputs Xk, and each output
requires a sum of N terms. An FFT is any method to compute the same results in operations.
All known FFT algorithms require operations, although there is no known proof that lower
complexity is impossible. [16]

To illustrate the savings of an FFT, consider the count of complex multiplications and additions for
data points. Evaluating the DFT's sums directly involves complex multiplications and
complex additions, of which operations can be saved by eliminating trivial operations
such as multiplications by 1, leaving about 30 million operations. In contrast, the radix-2 Cooley–Tukey
algorithm, for N a power of 2, can compute the same result with only complex
multiplications (again, ignoring simplifications of multiplications by 1 and similar) and
complex additions, in total about 30,000 operations — a thousand times less than with direct evaluation. In
practice, actual performance on modern computers is usually dominated by factors other than the speed of
arithmetic operations and the analysis is a complicated subject (for example, see Frigo & Johnson,
2005),[17] but the overall improvement from to remains.

Algorithms

Cooley–Tukey algorithm

By far the most commonly used FFT is the Cooley–Tukey algorithm. This is a divide-and-conquer
algorithm that recursively breaks down a DFT of any composite size into many smaller DFTs
of sizes and , along with multiplications by complex roots of unity traditionally called
twiddle factors (after Gentleman and Sande, 1966[18]).

This method (and the general idea of an FFT) was popularized by a publication of Cooley and Tukey in
1965,[12] but it was later discovered[1] that those two authors had independently re-invented an algorithm
known to Carl Friedrich Gauss around 1805[19] (and subsequently rediscovered several times in limited
forms).

The best known use of the Cooley–Tukey algorithm is to divide the transform into two pieces of size N/2 at
each step, and is therefore limited to power-of-two sizes, but any factorization can be used in general (as
was known to both Gauss and Cooley/Tukey[1]). These are called the radix-2 and mixed-radix cases,
respectively (and other variants such as the split-radix FFT have their own names as well). Although the
basic idea is recursive, most traditional implementations rearrange the algorithm to avoid explicit recursion.
Also, because the Cooley–Tukey algorithm breaks the DFT into smaller DFTs, it can be combined
arbitrarily with any other algorithm for the DFT, such as those described below.

Other FFT algorithms

There are FFT algorithms other than Cooley–Tukey.

For N = N1 N2 with coprime N1 and N2 , one can use the prime-factor (Good–Thomas) algorithm (PFA),
based on the Chinese remainder theorem, to factorize the DFT similarly to Cooley–Tukey but without the
twiddle factors. The Rader–Brenner algorithm (1976)[20] is a Cooley–Tukey-like factorization but with
purely imaginary twiddle factors, reducing multiplications at the cost of increased additions and reduced
numerical stability; it was later superseded by the split-radix variant of Cooley–Tukey (which achieves the
same multiplication count but with fewer additions and without sacrificing accuracy). Algorithms that
recursively factorize the DFT into smaller operations other than DFTs include the Bruun and QFT
algorithms. (The Rader–Brenner[20] and QFT algorithms were proposed for power-of-two sizes, but it is
possible that they could be adapted to general composite N. Bruun's algorithm applies to arbitrary even
composite sizes.) Bruun's algorithm, in particular, is based on interpreting the FFT as a recursive
factorization of the polynomial zN  −  1, here into real-coefficient polynomials of the form zM  −  1 and
z2M + azM + 1.

Another polynomial viewpoint is exploited by the Winograd FFT algorithm,[21][22] which factorizes zN − 1
into cyclotomic polynomials—these often have coefficients of 1, 0, or −1, and therefore require few (if any)
multiplications, so Winograd can be used to obtain minimal-multiplication FFTs and is often used to find
efficient algorithms for small factors. Indeed, Winograd showed that the DFT can be computed with only
O(N) irrational multiplications, leading to a proven achievable lower bound on the number of
multiplications for power-of-two sizes; unfortunately, this comes at the cost of many more additions, a
tradeoff no longer favorable on modern processors with hardware multipliers. In particular, Winograd also
makes use of the PFA as well as an algorithm by Rader for FFTs of prime sizes.

Rader's algorithm, exploiting the existence of a generator for the multiplicative group modulo prime N,
expresses a DFT of prime size N as a cyclic convolution of (composite) size N − 1, which can then be
computed by a pair of ordinary FFTs via the convolution theorem (although Winograd uses other
convolution methods). Another prime-size FFT is due to L. I. Bluestein, and is sometimes called the chirp-z
algorithm; it also re-expresses a DFT as a convolution, but this time of the same size (which can be zero-
padded to a power of two and evaluated by radix-2 Cooley–Tukey FFTs, for example), via the identity

Hexagonal fast Fourier transform (HFFT) aims at computing an efficient FFT for the hexagonally-sampled
data by using a new addressing scheme for hexagonal grids, called Array Set Addressing (ASA).

FFT algorithms specialized for real or symmetric data

In many applications, the input data for the DFT are purely real, in which case the outputs satisfy the
symmetry

and efficient FFT algorithms have been designed for this situation (see e.g. Sorensen, 1987).[23][24] One
approach consists of taking an ordinary algorithm (e.g. Cooley–Tukey) and removing the redundant parts
of the computation, saving roughly a factor of two in time and memory. Alternatively, it is possible to
express an even-length real-input DFT as a complex DFT of half the length (whose real and imaginary
parts are the even/odd elements of the original real data), followed by O(N) post-processing operations.

It was once believed that real-input DFTs could be more efficiently computed by means of the discrete
Hartley transform (DHT), but it was subsequently argued that a specialized real-input DFT algorithm (FFT)
can typically be found that requires fewer operations than the corresponding DHT algorithm (FHT) for the
same number of inputs.[23] Bruun's algorithm (above) is another method that was initially proposed to take
advantage of real inputs, but it has not proved popular.

There are further FFT specializations for the cases of real data that have even/odd symmetry, in which case
one can gain another factor of roughly two in time and memory and the DFT becomes the discrete
cosine/sine transform(s) (DCT/DST). Instead of directly modifying an FFT algorithm for these cases,
DCTs/DSTs can also be computed via FFTs of real data combined with O(N) pre- and post-processing.

Computational issues

Bounds on complexity and operation counts

Unsolved problem in computer science:

What is the lower bound on the complexity of fast Fourier transform algorithms? Can they be
faster than ?
 (more unsolved problems in computer science)

A fundamental question of longstanding theoretical interest is to prove lower bounds on the complexity and
exact operation counts of fast Fourier transforms, and many open problems remain. It is not rigorously
proved whether DFTs truly require (i.e., order or greater) operations, even for the
simple case of power of two sizes, although no algorithms with lower complexity are known. In particular,
the count of arithmetic operations is usually the focus of such questions, although actual performance on
modern-day computers is determined by many other factors such as cache or CPU pipeline optimization.

Following work by Shmuel Winograd (1978),[21] a tight Θ(N) lower bound is known for the number of
real multiplications required by an FFT. It can be shown that only
irrational real multiplications are required to compute a DFT of power-of-two length . Moreover,
explicit algorithms that achieve this count are known (Heideman & Burrus, 1986; [25] Duhamel, 1990[26]).
However, these algorithms require too many additions to be practical, at least on modern computers with
hardware multipliers (Duhamel, 1990;[26] Frigo & Johnson, 2005).[17]

A tight lower bound is not known on the number of required additions, although lower bounds have been
proved under some restrictive assumptions on the algorithms. In 1973, Morgenstern[27] proved an
lower bound on the addition count for algorithms where the multiplicative constants have
bounded magnitudes (which is true for most but not all FFT algorithms). Pan (1986)[28] proved an
lower bound assuming a bound on a measure of the FFT algorithm's "asynchronicity", but
the generality of this assumption is unclear. For the case of power-of-two N, Papadimitriou (1979)[29]
argued that the number of complex-number additions achieved by Cooley–Tukey algorithms is
optimal under certain assumptions on the graph of the algorithm (his assumptions imply, among other
things, that no additive identities in the roots of unity are exploited). (This argument would imply that at
least real additions are required, although this is not a tight bound because extra additions are
required as part of complex-number multiplications.) Thus far, no published FFT algorithm has achieved
fewer than complex-number additions (or their equivalent) for power-of-two N.

A third problem is to minimize the total number of real multiplications and additions, sometimes called the
"arithmetic complexity" (although in this context it is the exact count and not the asymptotic complexity
that is being considered). Again, no tight lower bound has been proven. Since 1968, however, the lowest
published count for power-of-two N was long achieved by the split-radix FFT algorithm, which requires
real multiplications and additions for N > 1. This was recently reduced to
(Johnson and Frigo, 2007;[16] Lundy and Van Buskirk, 2007[30]). A slightly larger count
(but still better than split radix for N ≥ 256) was shown to be provably optimal for N ≤ 512 under additional
restrictions on the possible algorithms (split-radix-like flowgraphs with unit-modulus multiplicative factors),
by reduction to a satisfiability modulo theories problem solvable by brute force (Haynal & Haynal,
2011).[31]

Most of the attempts to lower or prove the complexity of FFT algorithms have focused on the ordinary
complex-data case, because it is the simplest. However, complex-data FFTs are so closely related to
algorithms for related problems such as real-data FFTs, discrete cosine transforms, discrete Hartley
transforms, and so on, that any improvement in one of these would immediately lead to improvements in
the others (Duhamel & Vetterli, 1990).[32]

Approximations
All of the FFT algorithms discussed above compute the DFT exactly (i.e. neglecting floating-point errors).
A few "FFT" algorithms have been proposed, however, that compute the DFT approximately, with an error
that can be made arbitrarily small at the expense of increased computations. Such algorithms trade the
approximation error for increased speed or other properties. For example, an approximate FFT algorithm by
Edelman et al. (1999)[33] achieves lower communication requirements for parallel computing with the help
of a fast multipole method. A wavelet-based approximate FFT by Guo and Burrus (1996)[34] takes sparse
inputs/outputs (time/frequency localization) into account more efficiently than is possible with an exact
FFT. Another algorithm for approximate computation of a subset of the DFT outputs is due to Shentov et
al. (1995).[35] The Edelman algorithm works equally well for sparse and non-sparse data, since it is based
on the compressibility (rank deficiency) of the Fourier matrix itself rather than the compressibility (sparsity)
of the data. Conversely, if the data are sparse—that is, if only K out of N Fourier coefficients are nonzero—
then the complexity can be reduced to O(K log(N) log(N/K)), and this has been demonstrated to lead to
practical speedups compared to an ordinary FFT for N/K  >  32 in a large-N example (N  =  222 ) using a
probabilistic approximate algorithm (which estimates the largest K coefficients to several decimal
places).[36]

Accuracy

FFT algorithms have errors when finite-precision floating-point arithmetic is used, but these errors are
typically quite small; most FFT algorithms, e.g. Cooley–Tukey, have excellent numerical properties as a
consequence of the pairwise summation structure of the algorithms. The upper bound on the relative error
for the Cooley–Tukey algorithm is , compared to for the naïve DFT formula,[18]
where ε is the machine floating-point relative precision. In fact, the root mean square (rms) errors are much
better than these upper bounds, being only for Cooley–Tukey and for the naïve
DFT (Schatzman, 1996).[37] These results, however, are very sensitive to the accuracy of the twiddle
factors used in the FFT (i.e. the trigonometric function values), and it is not unusual for incautious FFT
implementations to have much worse accuracy, e.g. if they use inaccurate trigonometric recurrence
formulas. Some FFTs other than Cooley–Tukey, such as the Rader–Brenner algorithm, are intrinsically less
stable.

In fixed-point arithmetic, the finite-precision errors accumulated by FFT algorithms are worse, with rms
errors growing as for the Cooley–Tukey algorithm (Welch, 1969).[38] Achieving this accuracy
requires careful attention to scaling to minimize loss of precision, and fixed-point FFT algorithms involve
rescaling at each intermediate stage of decompositions like Cooley–Tukey.

To verify the correctness of an FFT implementation, rigorous guarantees can be obtained in

time by a simple procedure checking the linearity, impulse-response, and time-shift properties of the
transform on random inputs (Ergün, 1995).[39]

Multidimensional FFTs
As defined in the multidimensional DFT article, the multidimensional DFT
transforms an array xn with a d-dimensional vector of indices by a set of d nested
summations (over for each j), where the division n/N, defined as
, is performed element-wise. Equivalently, it is the composition of a
sequence of d sets of one-dimensional DFTs, performed along one dimension at a time (in any order).

This compositional viewpoint immediately provides the simplest and most common multidimensional DFT
algorithm, known as the row-column algorithm (after the two-dimensional case, below). That is, one
simply performs a sequence of d one-dimensional FFTs (by any of the above algorithms): first you
transform along the n1 dimension, then along the n2 dimension, and so on (or actually, any ordering
works). This method is easily shown to have the usual complexity, where
is the total number of data points transformed. In particular, there are N/N1
transforms of size N1 , etcetera, so the complexity of the sequence of FFTs is:

In two dimensions, the xk can be viewed as an matrix, and this algorithm corresponds to first
performing the FFT of all the rows (resp. columns), grouping the resulting transformed rows (resp.
columns) together as another matrix, and then performing the FFT on each of the columns (resp.
rows) of this second matrix, and similarly grouping the results into the final result matrix.

In more than two dimensions, it is often advantageous for cache locality to group the dimensions
recursively. For example, a three-dimensional FFT might first perform two-dimensional FFTs of each
planar "slice" for each fixed n1 , and then perform the one-dimensional FFTs along the n1 direction. More
generally, an asymptotically optimal cache-oblivious algorithm consists of recursively dividing the
dimensions into two groups and that are transformed recursively
(rounding if d is not even) (see Frigo and Johnson, 2005).[17] Still, this remains a straightforward variation
of the row-column algorithm that ultimately requires only a one-dimensional FFT algorithm as the base
case, and still has O(N  log  N) complexity. Yet another variation is to perform matrix transpositions in
between transforming subsequent dimensions, so that the transforms operate on contiguous data; this is
especially important for out-of-core and distributed memory situations where accessing non-contiguous data
is extremely time-consuming.

There are other multidimensional FFT algorithms that are distinct from the row-column algorithm, although
all of them have complexity. Perhaps the simplest non-row-column FFT is the vector-radix
FFT algorithm, which is a generalization of the ordinary Cooley–Tukey algorithm where one divides the
transform dimensions by a vector of radices at each step. (This may also have cache
benefits.) The simplest case of vector-radix is where all of the radices are equal (e.g. vector-radix-2 divides
all of the dimensions by two), but this is not necessary. Vector radix with only a single non-unit radix at a
time, i.e. , is essentially a row-column algorithm. Other, more complicated,
methods include polynomial transform algorithms due to Nussbaumer (1977),[40] which view the transform
in terms of convolutions and polynomial products. See Duhamel and Vetterli (1990)[32] for more
information and references.

Other generalizations
An generalization to spherical harmonics on the sphere S2 with N2 nodes was described
by Mohlenkamp,[41] along with an algorithm conjectured (but not proven) to have
complexity; Mohlenkamp also provides an implementation in the libftsh library.[42] A spherical-harmonic
algorithm with complexity is described by Rokhlin and Tygert.[43]

The fast folding algorithm is analogous to the FFT, except that it operates on a series of binned waveforms
rather than a series of real or complex scalar values. Rotation (which in the FFT is multiplication by a
complex phasor) is a circular shift of the component waveform.

Various groups have also published "FFT" algorithms for non-equispaced data, as reviewed in Potts et al.
(2001).[44] Such algorithms do not strictly compute the DFT (which is only defined for equispaced data),
but rather some approximation thereof (a non-uniform discrete Fourier transform, or NDFT, which itself is
often computed only approximately). More generally there are various other methods of spectral estimation.

Applications
The FFT is used in digital recording, sampling, additive synthesis and pitch correction software.[45]

The FFT's importance derives from the fact that it has made working in the frequency domain equally
computationally feasible as working in the temporal or spatial domain. Some of the important applications
of the FFT include:[15][46]

fast large-integer multiplication algorithms and polynomial multiplication,

efficient matrix–vector multiplication for Toeplitz, circulant and other structured matrices,
filtering algorithms (see overlap–add and overlap–save methods),
fast algorithms for discrete cosine or sine transforms (e.g. fast DCT used for JPEG and
MPEG/MP3 encoding and decoding),
fast Chebyshev approximation,
solving difference equations,
computation of isotopic distributions.[47]
modulation and demodulation of complex data symbols using orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM) for 5G, LTE, Wi-Fi, DSL, and other modern communication systems.

An original application of the FFT in finance particularly in the Valuation of options was developed by
Marcello Minenna.[48]

Research areas
Big FFTs
With the explosion of big data in fields such as astronomy, the need for 512K FFTs has
arisen for certain interferometry calculations. The data collected by projects such as
WMAP and LIGO require FFTs of tens of billions of points. As this size does not fit into
main memory, so called out-of-core FFTs are an active area of research.[49]
Approximate FFTs
For applications such as MRI, it is necessary to compute DFTs for nonuniformly spaced
grid points and/or frequencies. Multipole based approaches can compute approximate
quantities with factor of runtime increase.[50]
Group FFTs
The FFT may also be explained and interpreted using group representation theory
allowing for further generalization. A function on any compact group, including non-cyclic,
 has an expansion in terms of a basis of irreducible matrix elements. It remains active area
of research to find efficient algorithm for performing this change of basis. Applications
including efficient spherical harmonic expansion, analyzing certain Markov processes,
robotics etc.[51]
Quantum FFTs
Shor's fast algorithm for integer factorization on a quantum computer has a subroutine to
compute DFT of a binary vector. This is implemented as sequence of 1- or 2-bit quantum
gates now known as quantum FFT, which is effectively the Cooley–Tukey FFT realized as
a particular factorization of the Fourier matrix. Extension to these ideas is currently being
explored.[52]

Language reference
Language Command/Method Pre-requisites

R stats::fft(x) None

Scilab fft(x) None

Octave/MATLAB fft(x) None

Python fft.fft(x) numpy or scipy

Mathematica Fourier[x] None

Fortran fftw_one(plan,in,out) FFTW

Julia fft(A [,dims]) FFTW

Rust fft.process(&mut x); rustfft (https://docs.rs/rustfft/latest/rustfft/)

Haskell dft x fft (https://hackage.haskell.org/package/fft)

See also
FFT-related algorithms:

Bit-reversal permutation

Goertzel algorithm – computes individual terms of discrete Fourier transform

FFT implementations:

ALGLIB – a dual/GPL-licensed C++ and C# library (also supporting other languages), with
real/complex FFT implementation
FFTPACK – another Fortran FFT library (public domain)
Architecture-specific:

Arm Performance Libraries[53]

Intel Integrated Performance Primitives
Intel Math Kernel Library
Many more implementations are available,[54] for CPUs and GPUs, such as PocketFFT for
C++

Other links:
 Odlyzko–Schönhage algorithm applies the FFT to finite Dirichlet series
Schönhage–Strassen algorithm – asymptotically fast multiplication algorithm for large
integers
Butterfly diagram – a diagram used to describe FFTs
Spectral music (involves application of DFT analysis to musical composition)
Spectrum analyzer – any of several devices that perform spectrum analysis, often via a DFT
Time series
Fast Walsh–Hadamard transform
Generalized distributive law
Least-squares spectral analysis
Multidimensional transform
Multidimensional discrete convolution
Fast Fourier Transform Telescope

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Further reading
Brigham, E. Oran (2002). The Fast Fourier Transform. New York: Prentice-Hall.
Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E.; Rivest, Ronald L.; Stein, Clifford (2001).
"Chapter 30: Polynomials and the FFT". Introduction to Algorithms (2 ed.). MIT Press /
McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-262-03293-7.
Elliott, Douglas F.; Rao, K. Ramamohan (1982). Fast transforms: Algorithms, analyses,
applications. New York, USA: Academic Press.
Guo, Haitao; Sitton, Gary A.; Burrus, Charles Sidney (1994). "The quick discrete Fourier
transform". Proceedings of ICASSP '94. IEEE International Conference on Acoustics,
Speech and Signal Processing. Vol. 3. pp. 445–448. doi:10.1109/ICASSP.1994.389994 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1109%2FICASSP.1994.389994). ISBN 978-0-7803-1775-8.
S2CID 42639206 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42639206).
Johnson, Steven G.; Frigo, Matteo (2007). "A modified split-radix FFT with fewer arithmetic
operations" (http://www.fftw.org/newsplit.pdf) (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Signal
Processing. 55 (1): 111–119. Bibcode:2007ITSP...55..111J (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/2007ITSP...55..111J). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.582.5497 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/su
mmary?doi=10.1.1.582.5497). doi:10.1109/tsp.2006.882087 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2Ftsp.
2006.882087). S2CID 14772428 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14772428).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20050526050219/http://www.fftw.org/newsplit.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on 2005-05-26.
Press, William H.; Teukolsky, Saul A.; Vetterling, William T.; Flannery, Brian P. (2007).
"Chapter 12. Fast Fourier Transform" (http://apps.nrbook.com/empanel/index.html#pg=600).
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University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-88068-8.
Singleton, Richard Collom (June 1969). "A Short Bibliography on the Fast Fourier
Transform". Special Issue on Fast Fourier Transform. IEEE Transactions on Audio and
Electroacoustics. Vol. AU-17. IEEE Audio and Electroacoustics Group. pp. 166–169.
doi:10.1109/TAU.1969.1162029 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTAU.1969.1162029). (NB.
Contains extensive bibliography.)
 Elena Prestini: "The Evolution of Applied Harmonic Analysis", Springer, ISBN 978-0-8176-
4125-2 (2004), Sec.3.10 'Gauss and the asteroids: history of the FFT'.

External links
Fast Fourier Transform for Polynomial Multiplication (http://www.cs.pitt.edu/~kirk/cs1501/ani
mations/FFT.html) – fast Fourier algorithm
Fast Fourier Transforms (http://cnx.org/content/col10550/), Connexions online book edited
by Charles Sidney Burrus, with chapters by Charles Sidney Burrus, Ivan Selesnick, Markus
Pueschel, Matteo Frigo, and Steven G. Johnson (2008)
Fast Fourier transform — FFT (http://www.librow.com/articles/article-10) – FFT programming
in C++ – the Cooley–Tukey algorithm
Online documentation, links, book, and code (https://www.jjj.de/fxt/)
Sri Welaratna, "Thirty years of FFT analyzers (http://www.dataphysics.com/30_Years_of_FF
T_Analyzers_by_Sri_Welaratna.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2014011223574
5/http://www.dataphysics.com/30_Years_of_FFT_Analyzers_by_Sri_Welaratna.pdf) 2014-
01-12 at the Wayback Machine", Sound and Vibration (January 1997, 30th anniversary
issue) – a historical review of hardware FFT devices
ALGLIB FFT Code (http://www.alglib.net/fasttransforms/fft.php) – a dual/GPL-licensed
multilanguage (VBA, C++, Pascal, etc.) numerical analysis and data processing library
SFFT: Sparse Fast Fourier Transform (http://groups.csail.mit.edu/netmit/sFFT/) – MIT's
sparse (sub-linear time) FFT algorithm, sFFT, and implementation
VB6 FFT (https://web.archive.org/web/20130928020959/http://www.borgdesign.ro/fft.zip) – a
VB6 optimized library implementation with source code
Interactive FFT Tutorial (https://www.karlsims.com/fft.html) – a visual interactive intro to
Fourier transforms and FFT methods

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