The Application of Finite Element Simulation and 3

applied
sciences
Article
The Application of Finite Element Simulation and 3D Printing
in Structural Design within Construction Industry 4.0
Faham Tahmasebinia 1, * , Amir Abbas Jabbari 1 and Krzysztof Skrzypkowski 2, *
1 School of Civil Engineering, The University of Sydney, Darlington, NSW 2008, Australia
2 Faculty of Civil Engineering and Resource Management, AGH University of Science and Technology,
Mickiewicza 30 Av., 30-059 Krakow, Poland
* Correspondence: [email protected] (F.T.); [email protected] (K.S.)
Abstract: Three-dimensional (3D) printing, or additive manufacturing (AM), is a production can be

utilised to fabricate 3D shapes from a simulated file. This technology has gained global popularity
in the construction industry since 2014 due to its wide range of applications. AM promotes a more
automated, innovative, flexible, and sustainable construction method, making it an integral part
of the Construction Industry 4.0. However, there need to be more detailed studies regarding the
effectiveness of AM as the future direction in the construction industry. This paper investigates the
application of the finite element method (FEM) in assessing 3D-printed structures to get insight into
the performance of these structures. Three leading 3D-printed structures were selected, including
Dubai Future Foundation in the United Arab Emirates, Apis Cor house in Russia and PERI house
in Germany. Structural and thermal analyses, including linear static, natural frequency, spectral
response, and steady state heat, were performed using Strand7 to assess the effectiveness of AM
in construction and the reliability of FEM in analysing 3D-printed structures. Although there are
limited standards and regulations for 3D-printed structures in most countries, it was concluded
that 3D-printed structures presented a similar strength to traditional ones. Moreover, FEM can be
used to provide a reasonable analysis of the performance of these structures, while complying with
the relevant standards. This paper presents a novel numerical procedure to assess the performance
Citation: Tahmasebinia, F.; Jabbari, of small-scale 3D-printed structures under various mechanical and thermal loadings by checking
A.A.; Skrzypkowski, K. The against the relevant standards.
Application of Finite Element
Simulation and 3D Printing in Keywords: finite element modelling; 3D printing; Design and Analysis; Construction Industry
Structural Design within
Construction Industry 4.0. Appl. Sci.
2023, 13, 3929. https://doi.org/
10.3390/app13063929
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Giuseppe 1.1. Overview
Lacidogna
Three-dimensional (3D) printing, or additive manufacturing (AM), is a technology
Received: 13 February 2023 used to manufacture 3D objects from a digital file. The American Society of Testing
Revised: 6 March 2023 and Materials (ASTM) defines AM as “a process of joining materials to make objects
Accepted: 15 March 2023 from 3D model data, usually layer upon layer, as opposed to subtractive manufacturing
Published: 20 March 2023 methodologies” [1].
The first 3D printer was developed in 1984 by Chuck Hull, as a complex and expen-
sive technology for prototyping with few applications. However, due to technological
advancements, 3D printers can manufacture complex objects with increased applications
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
in various industries, such as construction. Moreover, the automated, innovative, flexible,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
and sustainable nature of 3D printing has turned AM into a promising technology in
This article is an open access article
Construction Industry 4.0 [2].
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
1.2. Problem Significance and Definition
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
The globalisation and the standardisation of 3D printing can significantly impact
4.0/). sustainable development goals (SDGs). SDGs are a collection of 17 interlinked global goals
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13063929 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 29
1.2. Problem Significance and Definition

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 The globalisation and the standardisation of 3D printing can significantly impact sus- 2 of 27
tainable development goals (SDGs). SDGs are a collection of 17 interlinked global goals to
end poverty, protect the planet and ensure the global well-being of human beings by 2030
[3].to
Hence, the adaption
end poverty, of AM
protect in construction
the planet and ensurecan the
contribute to the SDGs.of human beings by
global well-being
In addition,
2030 [3]. Hence, 3Dthe
printing
adaptionprovides
of AMconstructability
in constructionand cansustainability benefits,
contribute to the SDGs.leading
to a faster, safer, cheaper,
In addition, and more
3D printing sustainable
provides construction
constructability andmethod.
sustainability benefits, leading
toAwareness of 3D
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method. to Google Trend
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[4], the search queryof“3D3D printing
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construction hasis proliferating.
reached multipleAccording
breakouts to since
Google
Trend [4], the search query “3D printing in construction” has
2014, showing the popularity of AM over the past decade. However, there are limited reached multiple break-
outs since regulations
construction 2014, showing set the popularity
in most of AM
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use of 3D However, thereisare
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to the immaturity of AM setininconstruction
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is mainly
formance due to the immaturity
of 3D-printed structures. of AM in construction and limited research around the
performance of 3D-printed
The finite element methodstructures.
(FEM) has a wide range of applications in structural anal-
The finite element method
ysis and is used to assess the performance (FEM) has ofa3D-printed
wide rangestructures.
of applications
Onein ofstructural analysis
the benefits of
and is used to assess the performance of 3D-printed structures. One of the
FEM is its high accuracy due to the fine discretisation of the elements [5]. As a result, FEM benefits of FEM
hasisbeen
its high accuracy
deemed due tonumerical
a reliable the fine discretisation of the elements
method in structural analysis[5].
[6]As
anda result, FEMinhas
was used
thisbeen
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to analyse three numerical
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structures.
paper to analyse three 3D-printed structures.
2. Literature Review
2. Literature Review
This section aims to conduct state-of-the-art research on the problem definition.
This section aims to conduct state-of-the-art research on the problem definition. There-
Therefore, a chronological and topical order was used to investigate the application of AM
fore, a chronological and topical order was used to investigate the application of AM and
and FEM as a future direction in Construction Industry 4.0.
FEM as a future direction in Construction Industry 4.0.
2.1.2.1.
Construction Industry
Construction 4.0 4.0
Industry
TheThefourth revolution
fourth revolutionin the construction
in the constructionindustry, known
industry, knownas Construction Industry
as Construction Industry
4.0,4.0,
promotes more innovative, digitalised, integrated and automated construction
promotes more innovative, digitalised, integrated and automated construction pro-pro-
cesses [7]. There are six main steps to creating a framework for successfully implementing
cesses [7]. There are six main steps to creating a framework for successfully implementing
Construction
Construction Industry 4.0,4.0,
Industry as shown
as shownin Figure 1. 1.
in Figure
Figure 1. Implementation framework of Construction Industry 4.0.

Figure 1. Implementation framework of Construction Industry 4.0.
The first step is mapping. Mapping aims to outline the digital maturity within the
The first step is mapping. Mapping aims to outline the digital maturity within the
construction industry and sets targets for the future direction. As a result, mapping fo-
construction industry andin
cuses on digitalisation sets targets for including
construction, the future building
direction.information
As a result,modelling
mapping fo-(BIM)
cuses on digitalisation in construction, including building information modelling
BIM-based project management [8,9] automation [10], supply chain [11] and document (BIM)
BIM-based
managementproject management
[12]. The second[8,9]stepautomation [10], supply
is pilot projects. chain [11]
Pilot projects and document
are designed as proof
management [12]. The second step is pilot projects. Pilot projects are
of concept and allow digital leaders to apply innovation and digitalisation designed as proof
in theofcon-
concept and industry.
struction allow digital leadersthis
Therefore, to apply innovation
step aims and digitalisation
to collaborate with digital in the construc-
leaders to validate
tionthe
industry. Therefore, this step aims to collaborate with digital leaders to
end-to-end concept of Construction Industry 4.0 [13]. The third step is building validate the ca-
end-to-end concept of Construction Industry 4.0 [13]. The third step is building
pability. This step aims to develop pilot projects by incorporating robot usage [14] and capability.
digital fabrication [10], such as 3D printing. This highlights additive manufacturing as
a significant contributor to Construction Industry 4.0. The fourth step is data analytics.
This step integrates managerial and stakeholder objectives and BIM data using machine
learning and artificial intelligence [15]. The fifth step is the transformation of digital en-
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 3 of 27
terprises within the industry. This focuses on emerging technologies [16] and removing
obstacles [17]. The sixth step is a sustainable system that promotes the importance of having
a sustainable system that addresses supply chain continuity challenges. Therefore, this step
focuses on setting new policies and regulations [15] and the use of sustainable technologies,
including AM.
2.2. Background on 3D Printing

The first 3D printer was developed by Chuck Hull in 1984, as an AM technology with
limited application. Due to technological advancements, 3D printing has become a popular
technology with various applications in multiple industries, including construction [18].
The increased popularity of 3D printing in the construction industry led to the serial
production of 3D printers in 2015. Moreover, the emergence of building information
modelling (BIM) enhanced the capability of AM [19] by creating a holistic process of
creating and managing information for a built asset [20]. This makes AM and BIM an
integral part of Construction Industry 4.0.
2.3. Principles of 3D Printing

The 3D printing technology relies on the fundamental principle of reducing the 3D
volume into a sequence of 2D layers [21]. This process uses a BIM software, such as
Autodesk Revit 2022 [22], to apply this principle using various additive technologies.
Stereolithography (SAL) is a standard additive technology to produce 2D layers, using
a photochemical process. This process uses a high-powered laser that triggers a reaction in
monomers and oligomers in resin. This reaction forms a polymer and hardens the resin
to create 3D objects [23]. Selective laser sintering (SLS) is another additive technique that
uses a powerful laser in joints, defined by the BIM software and hardens the powdered
materials into solid 3D objects [1]. Fused filament fabrication (FFF) uses the extrusion
technique to deposit building materials through a heated nozzle by establishing the object’s
outline and filling the enclosed area [24]. One of the benefits of FFF is the flexibility of
building materials. FFF can use a wide range of filaments, including wax, plastic, ceramic,
and concrete [21]. Moreover, the nozzle size can be adjusted based on the objects and
filaments [25]. Therefore, FFF has become a popular additive technique in construction and
is widely used in construction 3D printers.
2.4. Three-Dimensional (3D) Printing Materials in Construction

Three of the most used printing materials in construction are cementitious, poly-
mer and metallic materials [24]. These materials are deposited into layers using the FFF
technique. One of the printing material limitations is incompatibility with concrete rein-
forcement, which can be addressed using a fibre-reinforced concrete composite (FRC) [26].
FRC can improve the flexural strength of concrete to a value similar to reinforced concrete
members [27].
2.5. Benefits of 3D Printing in Construction

The benefits of 3D printing can be categorised into two groups: constructability and
sustainability [21].
2.5.1. Constructability Benefits

AM can lead to faster construction than traditional methods [22]. For example, using
3D printing to create a wall reduced the construction time from 100 to 65 h [28]. Moreover,
faster construction results in faster commissioning, leading to mass production.
Using 3D printing can dramatically reduce the cost throughout the project. Due to
storing capability of 3D printing, the cost of storage and transporting materials can be
reduced [2]. Moreover, since the 3D printer only requires one operator, labour costs can
also be reduced. For example, the application of 3D printing resulted in a 60% lower labour
cost in constructing the Dubai Future Foundation (DFF) [29].
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 4 of 27
Flexible design and freedom in construction have made 3D printing a promising

technology among engineers and architects. As opposed to the traditional and expensive
construction methods, AM can build the structure of various complex geometries [30]. This
promotes freedom in structural design and can lead to innovative designs by architects [31].
The supply chain is considered a time-consuming, yet critical, part of every construc-
tion project that can be shortened using 3D printing. By printing on demand using raw
materials, the lead time of materials will reduce dramatically [32]. In addition, due to au-
tomation, AM reduces human intervention, leading to a shorter and more efficient supply
chain system [33].
2.5.2. Sustainability Benefits

One of the primary benefits of 3D printing in construction is its contribution to the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), as summarised in Table 1.
Table 1. Contribution of 3D printing to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Description

SDG 1 No poverty
SDG 9 Sustainable cities and communities
SDG 12 Responsible consumption and production
SDG 13 Climate action
The adaption of 3D printing could contribute to no poverty (SDG 1), as it significantly

reduces construction and labour costs leading to more affordable housing [34]. Moreover,
unlike traditional construction methods, 3D printing is innovative, automated and sus-
tainable [2], aligning with SDG 9 and SDG 11. Compared to the reductive manufacturing,
additive manufacturing uses a closed-loop process, leading to significantly less waste
during production, contributing to SDG 12 and SDG 13 [34].
AM in construction is considered sustainable and eco-friendly [22]. Moreover, con-
struction 3D printers can use recyclable filaments, such as concrete mixed with recyclable
materials. In addition, 3D printing builds by establishing the object’s outline and filling the
enclosed area [24]. Therefore, construction waste is estimated to reduce by 30–60% [35].
Another sustainable benefit of 3D printing in construction is reduced framework.
The frameworks used for concrete are mainly made from wood, resulting in using trees.
Since 3D printing is on-site, the need for wooden form and environmental impact reduces
significantly [32].
Three-dimensional printing can also result in a safer working site. Safety is a significant
challenge in the construction industry. Since 3D printing is automated and requires minimal
human intervention, it could reduce the work hazard and promote safer construction
sites [32].
2.6. Challenges of 3D Printing in Construction

As a new technology, 3D printing has several drawbacks. These drawbacks can be
grouped into five categories: challenges with materials, 3D printers, architecture, construc-
tion management and regulations [21].
Printability, buildability and open time are some of the challenges with the material.
Printability is the process of pumping and printing materials, such as concrete [36].
For the sake of enhancing printability, materials should have the right consistency for
the nozzle, limiting the use of reinforced bars, unlike traditional construction materials [26].
Obtaining this condition, materials should be workable and include the right mixture of
content [37]. Moreover, deposited printing materials should be able to resist deformation
subjected to different loadings. This phenomenon is known as buildability [36]. Consistency
between buildability and printability is one of the significant factors during construction.
Some of the 3D printer-related challenges are scalability and directional dependency.
Traditionally, 3D printers were able to create objects strictly smaller than the chamber
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 5 of 27
volume of the 3D printer. This situation can be challenging for large-scale construction
projects [38]. In addition, additive manufacturing uses a filament which could impact
material load-bearing capacity and strength properties [39]. This setting is due to the
directional dependency used in layered manufacturing.
Another challenge of 3D printing is related to architecture and structural integrity.
Most BIM software excludes building services such as electrical and plumbing. Therefore,
an additional reductive effort is needed to account for services. This can affect the structural
integrity of the building and could lead to structural defects [30].
Using 3D printing can also challenge construction management. Since additive manu-
facturing is a new technology in construction, it could be challenging to provide accurate
cost estimation and scheduling [21]. Moreover, 3D printing requires a complex installation
and controlled environment, making it a challenging technology.
One of the substantial challenges of 3D printing is the need for design codes and
regulations. A clear legitimate framework is required to affect the adaption of 3D printing
in construction. Moreover, developing reliable numerical design methods can lead to
overcoming liability issues for construction companies [35].
2.7. Future Direction of 3D Printing in Construction

The effort to use 3D printing as a sustainable construction method is growing. Accord-
ing to the Construction Industry 4.0 framework, discussed in Section 2.1, the successful
implementation of 3D printing requires global awareness and regulations [15]. Given the
benefits of AM and its alignment with SDGs, it can be expected to see more countries
setting regulations across the use of 3D printing in construction.
In addition, due to advancements in technology, the adaption of AM could lead to
more innovative construction methods. An example of this would be the use of cable
frames to address the scalability challenges and introduce new alternative materials instead
of steel-reinforced concrete, such as fibre-reinforced concrete composites (FRCs) [26].
2.8. Finite Element Method (FEM) and 3D Printing

The Finite Element Method (FEM) is a standard method for numerically analysing
structures. Since FEM uses the discretisation of the structure into small elements, it is
deemed an accurate and reliable method for structural analysis [6].
FEM can also be used to assess the accuracy of 3D-printed buildings. This helps
analyse the performance of a proposed 3D-printed structure prior to its construction. In
one study, it was observed that FEM could give an accurate quantitative estimation of
unconfined uniaxial compression tests (UUCT) and direct shear tests (DST) of a 3D-printed
building [40]. Since the numerical and experimental results were consistent, FEM could be
a viable method for analysing 3D-printed structures.
2.9. Reliability and Constraints of FEM

FEM is a reliable numerical method of analysis due to discretisation. Using discretisa-
tion, the structure is subdivided into smaller elements connected with nodes. Each element
is called a finite element, which has the same behaviour as the whole structure and is
analysed using a discrete system of equations. It is then integrated through the whole
system to approximate its behaviour [41].
One of the constraints of FEM is associated with the meshing process. Meshing is the
process of discretising the structure into smaller defined elements. This process controls
the accuracy of the analysis and is based on engineering judgement. Generally, finer
meshing results in more accurate results; however, it also increases the computational time
and cost [41]. Reasonable effort was made in preparation for this paper to minimise the
inaccuracy caused by meshing.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 6 of 27
3. Method
3.1. Tools and Software
Strand7 was used as the leading software in this paper. Strand7 Release 3 (R3) is a
finite element analysis (FEA) software developed in Australia that provides an all-in-one
solution to complex engineering problems. Table 2 summarises some of the benefits [42]
and limitations of Strand7.
Table 2. Benefits and limitations of Strand7.
Comprehensive library for material properties based on the standards

Benefits Integrated modelling and analysis functionality within the software
Extensive range of solvers and industry-standard libraries
Outdated user interface and initial learning curve for new users
Limitations
Limited modelling options compared to AutoCAD
In addition to Strand7, Google Maps and Google Earth were used to get basic geome-
tries of the structures of which the dimensions were not publicly published.
The effectiveness of three 3D-printed structures was investigated in this paper. These
structures are the Dubai Future Foundation in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Apis Cor
house in Russia and PERI house in Germany.
3.2. Overview of the Structures

3.2.1. Dubai Future Foundation in UAE
Dubai Future Foundation (DFF) was built in the city of Dubai in 2016 and is known as
the first 3D-printed concrete office in the world. DFF has a total office area of approximately
185 square meters, consisting of four cassettes. Each cassette comprises two U-shaped
sections with a maximum length, height, and width of 8.1 m, 2.1 m and 2.1 m, respectively.
The substructure was printed using a 6 m tall 3D printer capable of printing concrete layers,
with a maximum width and thickness of 50 mm and 20 mm, respectively.
A truss system was formed along the entire perimeter of the cassette to increase the
resistance of each cassette to vertical and lateral loads. In addition, longitudinal post-
tensioning (PT) was used to enhance the bending resistance by passing post-tensioned steel
bars through the voids and filling them with grout.
It was observed that the 3D printer was incapable of printing concrete with high
tensile strength, which resulted in low-tensile concrete, with a tensile strength of about 10%
of its compression strength. To address this limitation, steel reinforcements were added
manually between the layers to increase the flexural stiffness of the structure.
3.2.2. Apis Cor House in Russia

Apis Cor House (ACH) is the first 3D-printed residential house in Russia, which was
printed in less than 24 h. The ACH total area of 37 square meters was built entirely on-site
using a crane 3D printer. Moreover, a complex geometry was adapted to showcase the
capabilities of 3D printers.
The construction began by extruding the concrete paste to form the interior and
exterior of the walls. After, steel reinforcement bars were placed between the voids and
filled with grout [43].
According to Arch20, two main challenges were faced during the construction of
ACH. Using a flat roof made it challenging to resist the snow load effectively. This was
addressed by using polymer concrete for printing the roof system. The construction of
ACH was initiated in the severe winter of Russia, which made it challenging to meet the
ideal working temperature. Although the 3D printer could work at temperatures down to
−35 ◦ C, it was required to have a site temperature of at least 5 ◦ C for the concrete paste.
Therefore, it was proposed to isolate the site using a tent.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 7 of 27
ACH is an excellent example of the application of 3D printing for the mass construction
of affordable housing. This leads to sustainable cities and communities, contributing to
SDG 9, as discussed in Section 2.5.2. In addition, the total cost of ACH was about AUD
16,500, equating to AUD 440 per square meter. This resulted in a total saving of 70% of the
construction cost [43].
3.2.3. PERI House in Germany

The PERI house (PERIH) is the first 3D-printed residential house in Germany. It
consists of two levels, each with an area of 80 square meters, resulting in a total area of
160 square meters.
PERIH was printed using a BOD2 printer capable of printing 1 m of concrete per
second, making it the fastest concrete printer on the market. Unlike the crane printer used
in ACH, the BOD2 printer uses a solid metallic frame, enabling the printer to travel in
any direction along the three axes. One of the advantages of the BOD2 was the consider-
ation of building services, such as pipes, electricity, and other utilities. This reduced the
project’s slack time and enabled the engineers to work on the building during the printing
process [44].
The construction of PERIH followed the same process as outlined for ACH in Section 3.2.2.
However, PERIH used an extra layer of insulation for each wall. Moreover, the construction
of PERIH highlighted the future potential of 3D printing in the construction industry and
initiated regulations in Germany [44].
This paper analysed the performance of the mentioned structures using Strand7 and
different types of analyses, which are discussed below.
3.3. Types of Analyses

Four types of analyses were performed using Strand7 to evaluate the performance
of DFF, ACH and PERIH in different conditions. These analyses are linear static, natural
frequency, spectral response, and steady-state heat.
3.3.1. Linear Static Analysis

Linear static analysis is a common solver in Strand7, which analyses the structure
based on the following two key assumptions:
(1) The response of the structure is linear.
(2) The loading on the structure is static.
This implies that the structure’s mechanical properties must follow Hooke’s law.
Moreover, the deformation of the structure must be significantly small and proportionate to
its undeformed state [45]. The linear static solver is performed by considering the stiffness,
nodal displacement, and force for each element in the discretised structure. Through an
assembly process, the individual element matrices are then assembled to form the global
matrix of the system (Equation (1)).
[K ]{d} = { F } (1)
The global matrix links the global nodal force vector, {F}, to the product of the global
stiffness matrix, [K], and unknown nodal displacement vectors, {d}. This enables finding
the stresses, strains and reactions on the nodes and elements.
Linear static solver is a widely used solution to analyse the structures and was also
used in this paper. However, the assumption of analysing the undeformed state and having
a perfectly linear relationship between stress and strain is not always valid. This introduces
another type of analysis called the non-linear static analysis, which is out of the scope of
this paper due to its negligible difference from the linear static analysis.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 8 of 27
3.3.2. Natural Frequency Analysis

The natural frequency of a structure is defined as the rate at which the structure
vibrates naturally when disturbed. The vibration rate depends on the structure’s stiffness,
mass, and vibration mode.
This relationship can be formulated using Equation (2), where [K] is the global stiffness
matrix, [M] is the global mass matrix, {x} is the vibration mode vector, and ω is the
natural frequency.
[K ]{ x } = ω 2 [ M]{ x } (2)
The equation above shows that the natural frequency is directly proportional to the
stiffness and inversely proportional to the mass. This can provide critical insights into
controlling the behaviour of the structures. For example, increasing the mass leads to a
decrease in the natural frequency of the structure. Therefore, damping is typically used in
tall buildings to reduce the vibration due to the wind and seismic load.
The vibration mode, also called mode shape, is another critical factor in the natural
frequency analysis, which is defined as the pattern of vibration the structure follows when
excited [46]. Structures can have multiple mode shapes, and each mode shape is associated
with a specific natural frequency [47].
In practice, the natural frequency analysis is used to obtain the natural frequencies
and mode shapes, which can be used to find the relative displacement. In addition, the
natural frequency can be used to check the frequency range of the structure in different
conditions [47]. For example, natural frequency analysis is often used to check the frequency
range of the structure against the external frequencies caused by the wind and seismic load.
Having a similar structure and external frequency can reinforce the vibration, leading to
the inconvenience of the occupants and potential failure of the structure.
The natural frequency solver is performed by considering the stiffness and mass
matrices for each individual element in the discretised structure. These matrices are
assembled through the assembly to form the global stiffness and mass matrices. The
frequencies and the mode shapes are obtained by solving the eigenvalue problem, using
the method of sub-space iteration [48].
3.3.3. Spectral Response Analysis

The spectral response analysis is used to analyse the behaviour of a structure during
random dynamic loading, such as an earthquake. This analysis depends on the spectral
curve of the earthquake specified by the standards and varies from one country to another.
For example, the spectral curve of the earthquake in Australia is governed by AS 1170.4 [49].
The mass participation factor is another important concept during random dynamic
loading, which can be obtained using spectral response analysis. The mass participation
factor indicates the percentage of the structure mass moving in a particular mode. A high
mass participation factor is desirable, and AS 1170.4 recommends having at least 90% of
the structure’s mass participate during dynamic loading. However, factors such as the
significant difference between members’ stiffness in the structure can reduce the mass
participation factor.
According to Strand7 [50], the spectral response solver for seismic loading is performed
by assembling the mass matrix for each element to find the vibration factors for each
vibration mode obtained in the natural frequency analysis. This, combined with the defined
spectral curves, enables finding the mass participation factor of each mode and the relative
displacement of the structure.
3.3.4. Steady-State Heat Analysis

The steady state heat analysis can be used to calculate the distribution of temperature
when the structure is in equilibrium. This analysis can be performed linearly and non-
linearly, depending on the material properties. In the linear analysis, the temperature
changes with time and the material properties do not depend on the temperature. On the
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 9 of 27
contrary, the non-linear analysis assumes the dependency between the temperature and
material properties.
The steady-state heat analysis is governed by Equation (3), where [K] is the conductiv-
ity matrix, {F} the applied force vector, and {T} the vector of nodal temperatures. The nodal
temperature, flux, and temperature gradients can be calculated using this equation.
[K ]{ T } = { F } (3)
The steady state heat analysis is performed by assembling the conductivity matrices
and the applied vectors obtained from the nodal temperatures and the coefficients of
radiation and convection. This enables finding the unknown temperature at each node and
calculating the heat flux and temperature gradients. Moreover, the node flux can be used
to derive the total heat flow, Q, of the system (Equation (4)), which can provide insights
into the energy cost and optimisation methods [51].
n
Q= ∑ ∑ NodeFlux.∆t (4)
t=0 nodes
It is important to note that realistically, the temperature varies with time, and hence the
transient heat analysis yields the most accurate result. However, due to various unknown
parameters required by the transient solver and limited standards, this paper performed
the steady-state heat analysis to get insights into the energy consumption of the structures.
3.4. Common Details of All Analyses

As mentioned in Section 3.3, four types of analyses were performed using Strand7
to evaluate the performance of each structure. This section aims to discuss the common
details used in establishing these.
3.4.1. Standards
This paper used the Australian Standard (AS) as the main standard throughout the
analyses; however, some references were also made to Eurocode 1. The specific standards
used are summarised in Table 3.
Table 3. Standards used in the analyses.
Standards Description
AS/NZS 1170.1 [52] Permanent, imposed, and other actions
AS/NZS 1170.2 [53] Wind actions
AS/NZS 1170.4 [49] Earthquake loads
AS 3600 [54] Design properties of material
AS/NZS 4859.1 [55] Materials for thermal insulation
Eurocode 1 [56] Actions on structures
3.4.2. Load Combinations

Structures are often subjected to different loads, such as dead (G), live (Q), and wind
(W) loads. Load combinations can be used to ensure the safety of the structure under
various loading conditions.
Two limit states are used to measure the load combinations of the structure. These
limit states are the serviceability limit state (SLS) and the ultimate limit state (ULS). SLS is
associated with the behaviour of the structure, such as vibration, while ULS focuses on the
failure criteria. Based on AS/NZS 1170.1 and Eurocode 1, the following load combinations,
shown in Table 4, were considered during the analyses.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 10 of 27
Table 4. SLS and ULS load combinations used in the analyses.
Serviceability Limit State (SLS) Ultimate Limit State (ULS)

Load Combination Description Load Combination Description
Permanent and wind
1.35G Net destabilising 0.9G + W
action
Permanent and Permanent and
1.2G + 1.5Q 1.35G + 1.5Q
imposed action imposed action
Permanent, imposed Permanent, imposed
G + 0.7Q + W 1.35G + 1.05Q + 1.5W
and wind action and wind action
3.4.3. Material Properties

Concrete and steel were used as the primary materials in this paper, in accordance
with AS 3600 [54] and AS 4100 [57]. The material properties of concrete and steel are
summarised in Tables 5 and 6, respectively.
Table 5. Structural and thermal properties of concrete.
Structural Properties Value

Compressive strength (After 28 days) 32 MPa
Modulus of elasticity 3.1 × 107 kPa
Poisson’s ratio 0.2
Density 2400 kg/m3
Thermal Properties Value
Thermal expansion 0.00001/C
Specific heat 880 J/kg/C
Conductivity 1.37 J/s/m/C
Table 6. Structural and thermal properties of steel.
Structural Properties Value

Modulus of elasticity 2 × 108 kPa
Poisson’s ratio 0.25
Density 7850 kg/m3
Thermal Properties Value
Thermal expansion 1.17 × 10−5 /C
Specific heat 465 J/kg/C
Conductivity 54 J/s/m/C
3.4.4. Boundary Conditions

As the structures are sitting on a rigid foundation, a rigid connection was used at the
base. This was done by selecting all the nodes at the base and restraining in the X, Y and
Z direction.
3.5. Idealisation
Various idealisations were made for DFF and PERIH to reduce the computational time,
while keeping the accuracy within a reasonable range. These idealisations are discussed in
the following sections.
3.5.1. Idealisations for DFF

The substructure of DFF was ignored during the modelling due to probable incom-
patibility between the types of elements. However, a similar effect to the foundation was
created by fully fixing the node on the base of the cassette in all the directions, as illustrated
in Figure 2.
Appl.
Appl.Sci.
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13,x3929
FOR PEER REVIEW 1227of 29
11 of
Figure 2. Fully fixed nodes on the base of the cassette to provide a foundation effect.
The original structure consisted of four cassettes. However, only one cassette wa
analysed
Figure
Figure 2. due
2. Fully
Fully to nodes
fixed
fixed the principle
nodes onthe
on thebase
baseof
ofofsuperposition.
the
the cassette
cassette Moreover,
to provide
to provide theeffect.
a foundation
a foundation rounded
effect. corners of the
structure were also ignored because of their negligible effect on the behaviour of the struc
ture.The
The original
originalstructure
structureconsisted of four
consisted cassettes.
of four However,
cassettes. only one
However, cassette
only one was anal-was
cassette
ysed due to the principle of superposition. Moreover, the rounded corners
analysed due to the principle of superposition. Moreover, the rounded corners of the of the structure
were also ignored because of their negligible effect on the behaviour of the structure.
structure were also ignored
3.5.2. Idealisations for PERIHbecause of their negligible effect on the behaviour of the struc-
ture.
3.5.2. PERIH is a for
Idealisations two-level
PERIH residential house. However, the thermal analysis was per
formed
PERIHonly
is aon one level,
two-level and thehouse.
residential resultHowever,
was expanded to the
the thermal other was
analysis levelperformed
using the princi
3.5.2. Idealisations for PERIH
ple ofonsimilarity.
only one level, and the result was expanded to the other level using the principle
PERIH is a two-level residential house. However, the thermal analysis was per-
of similarity.
formed only on one level, and the result was expanded to the other level using the princi-
4. Results
4. Results
ple of similarity.
The behaviour of each structure was studied using different types of analyses, a
The behaviour of each structure was studied using different types of analyses, as
specified
ResultsininSection
specified
4. Section
3.3.3.3.
EachEach analysis
analysis waswas selected
selected to capture
to capture a unique
a unique application
application of FEM of FEM
in the
in theanalysis
analysisofof
thethe 3D-printed
3D-printed structures.
structures. Figure
Figure 3using3 summarises
summarises thetypestheoftypes
types of analysis
analysis
The behaviour of each structure was studied different of analyses, as
performed on each structure.
specified in Section 3.3. Each analysis was selected to capture a unique application of FEM
in the analysis of the 3D-printed structures. Figure 3 summarises the types of analysis
Figure3.3.Types
Figure Typesof of analyses
analyses performed
performed on each
on each structure.
structure.
Figure 3. TypesResults
4.1. Strand7 of analyses performed on each structure.
for DFF
4.1.1.
4.1. Linear
Strand7 Staticfor
Results Analysis
DFF of DFF
4.1.1. Linear Static Analysis of DFF
Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929
2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of13
27 of 29
4.1. Strand7 Results for DFF

The linear static solver was used to obtain the maximum deflection of the structure
4.1.1.
TheLinear
linearStatic
staticAnalysis of DFF
solver was used to obtain the maximum deflection of the structure
in the vertical and lateral directions. This was done by measuring the maximum nodal
in the vertical
displacement and
The linear of lateral
static directions.
the solver wasin
structure used This
each toof was
obtain done by measuring
the maximum
the load combinations the maximum
deflection
specifiedof the nodal
structure
in Section 3.4.2.
in theThe
vertical
displacement of and
the lateral
structuredirections.
in each of This
the was
load done by measuring
combinations the
specified maximum
in
vertical displacement of the structure was mainly influenced by the effect of the Section nodal
3.4.2.
displacement
The vertical ofdisplacement
the structure in ofeach
the of the loadwas
structure combinations
mainly specifiedby
influenced in Section
the effect3.4.2.
of the
permanent (dead) and imposed (live) loads. Figure 4 illustrates the deformed shape of the
The
permanent vertical
(dead) displacement
and imposed of the
(live) structure
loads. was
Figure 4mainly influenced
illustrates the by the
deformed effect
shape ofof
thethe
structure, with a displacement scale of 10%. The maximum vertical displacement occurred
permanent
structure, (dead) and imposed (live) loads. Figure 4 illustrates the deformed shape of
in the with a displacement
mid-span scale
of the structure, of 10%.
which The is maximum
associatedvertical
with thedisplacement
maximum occurred
moment of
the structure, with a displacement scale of 10%. The maximum
in the mid-span of the structure, which is associated with the maximum moment of vertical displacement
𝑀
occurred= in the
. mid-span of the structure, which is associated with the maximum moment
𝑀 = . W L2
of Mmax = 8 .
Figure 4. Deformed shape of DFF influenced by the dead and live loads.
Figure
Figure 4. Deformed
4. Deformed shapeofofDFF
shape DFFinfluenced
influencedby
by the
the dead
dead and
and live
liveloads.
loads.
Toobtain
To obtainthethe critical
critical loadload combination,
combination, the maximum
the maximum downward
downward vertical displace-
vertical displacement
To obtain
ment for theload
each critical load combination,
combination was the maximum
recorded and downward
summarised in vertical
Figure 5. displace-
for each load combination was recorded and summarised in Figure 5.
ment for each load combination was recorded and summarised in Figure 5.
Figure5.5.Maximum
Figure Maximumvertical
displacement of DFF
of DFF for for
eacheach
loadload combination.
combination.
Figure 5. Maximum vertical displacement of DFF for each load combination.
ItItwas
wasobserved
observedthat
thatthe
themaximum
maximumvertical
verticaldisplacement
displacement ofof
the structure
the is is
structure equal
equal to
to It
0.00218 m and occurred under 1.35G + 1.5Q.displacement
This load combination is considered
0.00218 m and occurred under 1.35𝐺 + 1.5𝑄. This load combination is considered thetocrit-
was observed that the maximum vertical of the structure is equal
the critical
0.00218 m andload combination
occurred under of1.35𝐺 + 1.5𝑄. This
the structure andload
is associated withisthe
combination ULS. Moreover,
considered the crit-
ical load combination of the structure and is associated with the ULS. Moreover, this load
icalcombination
load combination of the structure
is influenced and is
by the dead andassociated
live loadwith
and the ULS.
hence, it Moreover,
is expectedthis load in
to occur
combination is influenced by the dead and live load and hence, it is expected to occur
the mid-span of the structure due to the configuration similar to a simply supported beam. in
the mid-span of the structure due to the configuration similar to a simply supported beam.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 13 of 27

this load combination is influenced by the dead and live load and hence, it is expected
to occur in the mid-span of the structure due to the configuration similar to a simply
supported beam.
Themaximum
maximum lateraldisplacements
displacementswere wereobtained
obtainedby byconsidering
consideringthe thewind
windeffects
effects
The lateral
The maximum lateral displacements were obtained by considering the wind effects
ininthe
thelateral
lateraldirections.
directions.Figure
Figure66represents
representsthe thedeformed
deformedshape shapeofofthe
thestructure
structuredue
duetoto
in the
the lateral
wind directions.
load in the X Figure 6 represents
direction, with a the deformed
displacement shape
scale of of theThe
20%. structure dueswayed
structure to
the
the wind
wind load
load in the
in theXXdirection,
direction,with
witha adisplacement
displacement scale
scale of 20%.
of joints.
20%. The
The structure
structure swayed
swayed
due
due to
to the
the wind
wind effect,
effect, with
with a 90-degree
aa90-degree angle
angle at
at the
the rigid
rigid joints. This
This caused
caused tension
tension and
and
due to the wind
compressionzones effect, with
zonesinineach 90-degree
eachsection,
section,with angle
withthe at
thepoint the rigid joints.
pointofofcontraflexure This
contraflexureininthe caused tension
themiddle
middleofofeach
each
compression
and compression zones in each section, with the point of contraflexure in the middle of
section.
section.
each section.
Figure 6. Deformed shape of DFF influenced by the wind load in the X direction.
Figure
Figure 6. Deformed shapeof
Deformed shape ofDFF
DFFinfluenced
influencedbyby the
the wind
wind load
load in the
in the X direction.
X direction.
Moreover,the
Moreover,
Moreover, themaximum
the maximum
maximum lateral
lateral
lateral displacements
displacements
displacementsin ininthe
the theXXdirection
direction
X direction were
were recorded
recorded
were and
andand
recorded
summarised in
summarised in
summarised Figure
in Figure 7.
Figure7.7.
Figure7.7.Maximum
Figure Maximumlateral
lateraldisplacement of of
displacement DFF in the
DFF X direction
in the for each
X direction loadload
for each combination.
combination.
Figure 7. Maximum lateral displacement of DFF in the X direction for each load combination.
In this
thiscase,
case,the
thecritical load combination waswas
1.35G + 1.05Q
1.35𝐺 + 1.5W ( X ), and isand
asso-is as-
ciated
Inthis
In with case, the
the ULS,
critical
critical
which
load
load
resulted
combination
combination
in a maximum 1.35𝐺
wasnodal ++1.05𝑄
1.05𝑄
displacement++1.5𝑊
1.5𝑊 𝑋𝑋 , , and
of 0.00275 is as-
m in
sociatedwith
sociated withthe
theULS,
ULS,which
whichresulted
resultedininaamaximum
maximumnodalnodaldisplacement
displacementofof0.00275
0.00275mminin
the X direction. Moreover, the load combination 1.35G + 1.5Q also resulted in a similar
theXXdirection.
the direction.Moreover,
Moreover,the theload
loadcombination 1.35𝐺++1.5𝑄
combination 1.35𝐺 1.5𝑄 alsoresulted
resulted inaasimilar
similar
displacement, which indicates the significant influence of the dead also
and live loadsin applied
displacement,
displacement,
to whichindicates
the structure.which indicatesthe thesignificant
significantinfluence
influenceofofthe
thedead
deadand
andlive
liveloads
loadsapplied
applied
totothe
thestructure.
structure.
The effectofoflateral
The effect lateraldisplacement
displacementininthe
theZZdirection
directionwas
wasalso
alsostudied
studiedbybycapturing
capturingthethe
deformedshape
deformed shapeofofthe
thestructure,
structure,as
asshown
shownininFigure
Figure8.8.As
Asmentioned
mentionedearlier,
earlier,the
thestructure
structure
consists of four cassettes. Hence, the lateral displacement in the Z direction is
consists of four cassettes. Hence, the lateral displacement in the Z direction is less prob-less prob-
lematic in practice. This is because of the support provided by the other cassettes, leading
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 14 of 27
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW The effect of lateral displacement in the Z direction was also studied by capturing
15 of 29
the deformed shape of the structure, as shown in Figure 8. As mentioned earlier, the
structure consists of four cassettes. Hence, the lateral displacement in the Z direction
is less problematic in practice. This is because of the support provided by the other
to a significant
cassettes, leading reduction in the lateral
to a significant displacement.
reduction Moreover,
in the lateral it is reasonable
displacement. Moreover,toitanalyse
is
the
to deformed
a significant
reasonable shapethe
reduction
to analyse in in
the Z lateral
the direction
deformed similar
in the Zto
displacement.
shape a cantilever
Moreover,
direction it isbeam,
similar with to
reasonable theanalyse
to a cantilever maximum
beam,
bending
the
with and shape
deformed
the maximumdisplacement experienced
in the Zand
bending direction at the
similar
displacement to abottom and
cantilever
experienced topbottom
at beam,
the ofwith
theand
structure,
the maximum respec-
top of the
tively. and
bending
structure, displacement experienced at the bottom and top of the structure, respec-
respectively.
tively.
Figure
Figure 8.8.Deformed
Figure8. Deformedshape of of
shape DFF influenced
influenced
DFF by
by the
influenced wind
thethe
by wind load in
in the
loadload
wind inZZ
the direction.
direction.
the Z direction.
A
AAmaximum
maximumlateral
maximum lateraldisplacement
lateral displacement
displacement of of
of 0.0000128
0.0000128
0.0000128 m was
m was recorded
recorded
m was in the
in
recorded the Z
in Z direction.
direction.
the Z direction.
This
This displacement occurred under the critical load combination 1.35G + 1.05Q
1.35𝐺 ++1.5W ( Z+
1.05𝑄 ),
This displacement
displacement occurred
occurredunder
underthethecritical load
critical combination
load combination 1.35𝐺 + 1.05𝑄 +
which
1.5𝑊 𝑍is associated
, which is with the
associated ULS.
withThe
thevalues
ULS. of
The the maximum
values of the lateral
maximumdisplacements
lateral in the
displace-
1.5𝑊 𝑍 , which is associated with the ULS. The values of the maximum lateral displace-
Z direction
ments in theare
Z summarised
direction are in Figure 9. in Figure 9.
summarised
ments in the Z direction are summarised in Figure 9.
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Maximum lateral displacement of
of DFF
DFF in
in the
the Z
Z direction
direction for
for each
each load
load combination.
combination.
Figure 9. Maximum lateral displacement of DFF in the Z direction for each load combination.
4.1.2. Natural Frequency Analysis of DFF
4.1.2.The
Natural Frequency
natural frequencyAnalysis of DFF
solver was used to obtain the structure’s different mode
shapes and frequencies, and its relative displacement.
The natural frequency solver was used to obtain This information is helpful
the structure’s in as-mode
different
sessing the behaviour of the structure when excited by a frequency range, such as
shapes and frequencies, and its relative displacement. This information is helpful in as-an earth-
quake
sessing orthe
vibration due of
behaviour to the
human activities.
structure when excited by a frequency range, such as an earth-
quakeTheornine modesdue
vibration weretodefined
humaninactivities.
Strand7, resulting in the associated natural frequen-
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 15 of 27
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
4.1.2. Natural Frequency Analysis of DFF

The natural frequency solver was used to obtain the structure’s different mode shapes
and frequencies,
Table and itsmodes
7. Different relativeand
displacement.
associatedThis information
natural is helpfulof
frequencies inthe
assessing the
structure.
behaviour of the structure when excited by a frequency range, such as an earthquake or
vibration
Mode due to human activities. Value
The nine modes were defined in Strand7, resulting in the associated natural frequencies
Mode
shown in 1
Table 7. 8.21 Hz
Mode 2 15.14 Hz
Table 7. Different modes and associated natural frequencies of the structure.
Mode 3 21.66 Hz
Mode Value
Mode 4 33.86 Hz
Mode 1 8.21 Hz
Mode
Mode 2 5 15.14 Hz 41.65 Hz
Mode
Mode 3 6 21.66 Hz 44.65 Hz
Mode 4 33.86 Hz
Mode
Mode 5 7 41.65 Hz 57.83 Hz
Mode 6 44.65 Hz
Mode 8
Mode 7 57.83 Hz
66.29 Hz
Mode
Mode 8 9 66.29 Hz 68.14 Hz
Mode 9 68.14 Hz
Each mode caused the structure to deform in a certain way, as illustr

Each mode caused the structure to deform in a certain way, as illustrated in Figure 10.
It10.
wasItobserved
was observed that the
that the structure structureflexural,
experienced experienced
torsional,flexural,
and fl torsional,
and flexural–torsional
sional deformation
deformation at different frequencies.
at different frequencies.
Figure
Figure 10. Deformed
10. Deformed shape ofshape of the
the building building
associated withassociated
each mode. with each mode.
The deformation of the structure was investigated by obtaining the maximum nodal
The deformation of the structure was investigated by obtaining the m
displacement in the vertical and lateral directions for each of the modes, as summarised in
displacement
Figure 11. in the vertical and lateral directions for each of the modes,
It was observed
in Figure 11. that mode 7 resulted in a maximum displacement of 0.017 m in the X
direction. The displacement increased to 0.0272 m in the Y direction, caused by mode 6,
and dropped to 0.0148 m in the Z direction in mode 4.
Figure 10. Deformed shape of the building associated with each mode.
The deformation of the structure was investigated by obtaining the maximum nodal
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 16 of 27
displacement in the vertical and lateral directions for each of the modes, as summarised
in Figure 11.
Figure 11.Maximum
Figure11. Maximumvertical
verticaland
andlateral
lateralnodal
nodaldisplacement
displacementfor
foreach
eachmode.
mode.
4.1.3.Spectral
4.1.3. SpectralResponse
ResponseAnalysis
Analysis ofDFFDFF
It was observed that mode 7ofresulted in a maximum displacement of 0.017 m in the
The
The spectral
spectral response
response solver
solver was
was used
used
X direction. The displacement increased to 0.0272 to to analyse
analyse inthe
m the behaviour
behaviour
the ofcaused
of the
Y direction, the structure
structure dur-
during
by mode 6,
ing
random random
and dropped dynamic
dynamic loading,
loading,
to 0.0148 m insuchsuch
the as as an earthquake.
an earthquake.
Z direction in mode This
This was done by obtaining the
4. was done by obtaining the mass mass
participationfactor
participation factorinineach
eachmode
modeanalysed,
analysed,using
usingthe
thenatural
naturalfrequency
frequencysolver.
solver.
Based on Figure 12, it was observed that the structure had a total mass
Based on Figure 12, it was observed that the structure had a total mass participation participation
of
of 31.01%, with mode 2 having the highest contribution of almost
31.01%, with mode 2 having the highest contribution of almost 25%. Moreover, modes 25%. Moreover, modes
3, 4,
6,3,7,4,and
6, 7,8and
had8nohad no contribution,
contribution, which which
is notisideal
not ideal during
during an earthquake.
an earthquake. The The reason
reason for
for this
this is discussed
is discussed in Section
in Section 5. 5.
Figure12.
Figure 12.Mass
Massparticipation
participationofofdifferent
differentmodes.
modes.
The
Thebase
baseshear
shearand moment
and moment were alsoalso
were obtained to measure
obtained the effect
to measure of an of
the effect earthquake
an earth-
on the base of the structure. This was done by using the method of square
quake on the base of the structure. This was done by using the method of square root of the sum
root of
of the squares (SRSS). The base shear and moment are shown in Table 8.
the sum of the squares (SRSS). The base shear and moment are shown in Table 8.
Table8.8.Base
Table Baseshear
shearand
andmoment
momentusing
usingSRSS.
SRSS.
Direction
Direction Base
Base Shear(kN)
Shear (kN) Base Base Moment
Moment (kN.m)
(kN.m)
XX 427,000
427,000 1,030,000
1,030,000
YY 1,140,000
1,140,000 −786,000
−786,000
ZZ 81,300
81,300 5,020,000
5,020,000
4.1.4.
4.1.4.Steady-State
Steady-StateHeat
HeatAnalysis
AnalysisofofDFF
DFF
AAsteady-state
steady-stateheat
heatsolver
solverwas
wasused
usedtotoinvestigate
investigatethe
thetemperature
temperaturevariation
variationwithin
within
the structure. This was done by defining the convection coefficient and convection ambient.
the structure. This was done by defining the convection coefficient and convection ambi-
ent. The convection coefficient is a material property which influences the rate of heat
transfer, while the convection ambient is the temperature of the environment. Figure 13
represents the temperature distribution from the interior to the exterior of the structure.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 17 of 27
The convection coefficient is a material property which influences the rate of heat transfer,
Appl.
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29
while the convection ambient is the temperature of the environment. Figure 13 represents
the temperature distribution from the interior to the exterior of the structure.
Figure
Figure13.
Figure 13.Distribution
13. Distributionof
Distribution oftemperature
of temperaturebetween
temperature betweenthe
between theinterior
the interiorand
interior andexterior
and exteriorsurface.
exterior surface.
surface.
ItIt was
was observed
observed that
observed that the
thatthe temperature
thetemperature decreased
temperaturedecreased from
decreasedfromfrom
thethe
the exterior
exterior
exterior surfacetoto
surface
surface thethe
to the inte-
inte-
interior
rior
riorsurface.
surface.
surface. This
ThisThis was
waswas caused
caused
caused due
duedue to
to toa higher exterior
a higherexterior
a higher ambient
exteriorambient temperature, defined
ambient temperature, defined based
defined based
on
on the
the historical
historical temperature
temperature in in Dubai.
Dubai. The
The temperature
The temperature variation
temperature variation experienced
variation experienced by
experienced by the
the
structure
structure isis captured
captured in in Figure
Figure 14,
14, with
with 37.5 ◦°C
37.5 °CCand
and 19.1 ◦°C
19.1 °C Cbeing
being the
the highest
highest and
and lowest
lowest
temperatures
temperaturesrecorded,
recorded, respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
Figure
Figure14.
14.Temperature variation of
Temperaturevariation of the
the structure.
structure.
structure.
The total
The
The totalheat
total heatflux
heat fluxwas
flux wasobtained
was obtainedby
obtained bysumming
by summingthe
summing thenodal
the nodalflux
nodal fluxwithin
flux withinthe
within theboundary,
the boundary,
boundary,
resulting
resulting in
resultingin a total
inaatotal flux
totalflux of
fluxof 64.4
of64.4 J/s.
64.4J/s.
J/s.
4.2. Strand7 Results for ACH
4.2.
4.2.Strand7
Strand7 Results
Results for
forACH
ACH
4.2.1. Natural Frequency Analysis of ACH
4.2.1.
4.2.1.Natural
NaturalFrequency
Frequency Analysis
Analysis ofof ACH
ACH
The natural frequency solver was used by defining nine modes, resulting in nine
The
Thenatural
different naturalfrequency
natural frequency
frequenciessolver
solver was
wasused
summarisedusedinby
by defining
defining
Table 9. nine
ninemodes,
modes,resulting
resultingin
innine
ninedif-
dif-
ferent
ferent natural
naturalfrequencies
frequencies summarised
summarisedin in Table
Table9.9.
Table
Table9.
9.Different
Differentmodes
modesand
andassociated
associatednatural
naturalfrequencies
frequenciesof
ofthe
thestructure.
structure.
Mode
Mode Value
Value
Mode
Mode11 57.1
57.1 Hz
Hz
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 18 of 27

Mode 2 57.1 Hz
Table 9. Different modes and associated natural frequencies of the structure.
Mode 3 58.34 Hz
Mode
Mode 4 Value 78.45 Hz
Mode 2 57.1 Hz
Mode 15
Mode 57.1 Hz
86.68 Hz
Mode
Mode 23 58.34
57.1 Hz Hz
Mode
Mode 36
Mode 4 78.45
58.34 86.68
HzHz Hz
Mode
Mode 47
Mode 5 78.45
86.6896.88
HzHz Hz
Mode 5 86.68 Hz
Mode
Mode
Mode 66
8 86.68
86.68
96.88 Hz
HzHz
Mode
Mode 79
Mode 7 96.88
96.88 100.66
HzHz Hz
Mode 88
Mode 96.88
96.88HzHz
Mode 9 100.66 Hz
Mode
It 9was observed that some of the modes
100.66resulted
Hz in the same frequencies. This
due to the shape and geometry of the structure, resulting in the same frequencies.
ItItwas
wasobserved
observedthat some
that of of
some thethe
modes
modesresulted in the
resulted same
inare
the frequencies.
same This This
frequencies. was was
behaviour and the deformed shape of the structure shown in Figure 15.
due
duetotothe
theshape
shapeand
andgeometry of of
geometry thethe
structure, resulting
structure, in the
resulting in same frequencies.
the same This This
frequencies.
behaviour and the deformed shape of the structure are shown in Figure
behaviour and the deformed shape of the structure are shown in Figure 15. 15.
Figure
Figure 15. Deformedshape
15. Deformed shapeofof
thethe building
building associated
associated withwith
each each
mode.mode.
Figure 15. Deformed shape of the building associated with each mode.
In
In addition,
Inaddition,
addition,thethecritical
the critical
critical modes
modes
modes were
were
were found
found
found by by obtaining
by obtaining
obtaining the the maximum
themaximum
maximum nodal nodal
dis- displ
nodaldisplace-
ment
ment in the
placement the vertical
in vertical
the and
and
vertical andlateral
lateral directions
directions
lateral for
for for
directions eacheach mode.
mode.
each mode.These These displacements
displacements
These areare
displacements are re
repre-
sented in Figure
sented
representedFigure 16.
16.16.
in Figure
Figure 16. Maximum vertical and lateral nodal displacement for each mode.
16.Maximum
Figure 16.
Figure Maximum vertical and and
vertical lateral nodal nodal
lateral displacement for each mode.
displacement for each mode.
Overall, it was observed that mode 1 was the critical mode, causing a maximum
nodal displacement of 0.0215 m and 0.00372 m in the Y and Z directions, respectively.
Overall,
Moreover, the itmaximum
was observed that mode
displacement in the1Xwas the critical
direction mode, as
was measured causing a maxim
0.0196 m, re-
nodal
sultingdisplacement
from mode 2. of 0.0215 m and 0.00372 m in the Y and Z directions, respectiv
Moreover, the maximum displacement in the X direction was measured as 0.0196 m
sulting from mode
4.2.2. Spectral 2. Analysis of ACH
Response
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 19 of 27
Overall, it was observed that mode 1 was the critical mode, causing a maximum nodal
displacement of 0.0215 m and 0.00372 m in the Y and Z directions, respectively. Moreover,
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
the maximum displacement in the X direction was measured as 0.0196 m, resulting from 20
mode 2.
4.2.2. Spectral Response Analysis of ACH

Themass
The mass participation
participation factor
factor of of the was
the structure structure was
obtained obtained
using using
the spectral the spectra
response
sponse
solver solver
and andinisFigure
is shown shown 17.in Figure 17.
Mass
Figure17.17.
Figure participation
Mass of different
participation modes.modes.
of different
The total mass participation of the structure was measured as 46.2%. Moreover, it was
The total mass participation of the structure was measured as 46.2%. Moreov
observed that ACH experienced a more distributed mass participation along all the modes,
wasmode
with observed thatthe
6 having ACH experienced
highest a moreofdistributed
mass participation masshaving
9.9%. In practice, participation
a uniformalong al
modes, with
distribution mode
among all6the
having
modesthe highest
increases themass participation
effectiveness of 9.9%.during
of the structure In practice,
the havi
uniform
seismic distribution among all the modes increases the effectiveness of the structure
load.
The seismic
ing the base shear and moment were obtained by summing the nodal forces on the base
load.
of the structure, using the SRSS method. These values are summarised in Table 10.
The base shear and moment were obtained by summing the nodal forces on the
of the structure, using the SRSS method. These values are summarised in Table 10.
Table 10. Base shear and moment using SRSS.
Direction
Table Base Shear
10. Base shear and moment using(kN)
SRSS. Base Moment (kN.m)
X 274,000 217,000
Direction
Y Base Shear
277,000 (kN) Base Moment
−6900 (kN.m)
XZ 1,350,000
274,000 −19,000
217,000
Y 277,000 −6900
4.3. Strand7 Results for PERIH
Z 1,350,000 −19,000
4.3.1. Linear Static Analysis of PERIH
Residential structures, including PERIH, are often impacted by floor vibration. This
4.3. Strand7 Results for PERIH
vibration can be caused by factors such as human activity and the type of floor system.
4.3.1. Linear
Therefore, Staticstatic
the linear Analysis
solver of
wasPERIH
used to mainly assess the behaviour of the level one
floor system.
Residential structures, including PERIH, are often impacted by floor vibration.
Figure 18 represents the deflected shape of the floor due to the dead and live loads,
vibration
with can be caused
a displacement by factors
scale of 10%. The floorsuch as human
experienced activity
the largest and the
deflection type
in the of floor sys
middle,
Therefore,
depicted withthe
thelinear static solver
blue colour. This waswas used
due to mainly
to the assess
floor span of 15the behaviour
m with of the leve
no internal
floor system.
secondary beams. The deflection decreased along the boundaries due to the support
provided by the
Figure 18walls.
represents the deflected shape of the floor due to the dead and live lo
with a displacement scale of 10%. The floor experienced the largest deflection in the
dle, depicted with the blue colour. This was due to the floor span of 15 m with no inte
secondary beams. The deflection decreased along the boundaries due to the support
vided by the walls.
Therefore, the linear static solver was used to mainly assess the behaviour of the level one
floor system.
Figure 18 represents the deflected shape of the floor due to the dead and live loads,
with a displacement scale of 10%. The floor experienced the largest deflection in the mid-
dle, depicted with the blue colour. This was due to the floor span of 15 m with no internal
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929
secondary beams. The deflection decreased along the boundaries due to the support20pro- of 27
vided by the walls.

In addition, the maximum downward nodal displacement for each load combin
Figure
Figure 18.
18. Deformed
Deformedshape
shape of
of the
the first
first floor
floor influenced
influenced by
by the
the dead
dead and live loads.
was measured
In addition, and
theismaximum
shown indownward
Figure 19. nodal
It wasdisplacement
seen that thefor floor could
each load experien
combin
maximum downward
wasInmeasured
addition, and
the is deflection
maximumshown of 0.0134
in Figure
downward nodal mItunder 1.35𝐺
19.displacement
was seen + 1.5𝑄.
forthat
eachthe Thiscould
loadfloor is theexperie
combination critical
maximum downward deflection of 0.0134 m under 1.35𝐺 + 1.5𝑄. This is the critical
combination
was measured of
and the
is floor
shown system
in and
Figure 19. is
It associated
was seen with
that the the ULS.
floor could experience a
maximum downward deflection of 0.0134 m under 1.35G + 1.5Q. This is the critical load
combination of the floor system and is associated with the ULS.
combination of the floor system and is associated with the ULS.
Figure 19. Maximum vertical displacement of the floor for each load combination.
Figure
Figure Maximum
19.19. vertical
Maximum displacement
vertical of the floor
displacement for floor
of the each load combination.
for each load combination.
4.3.2. Steady-State Heat Analysis of PERIH
4.3.2. Steady-State Heat Analysis of PERIH
4.3.2.ASteady-State
steady state Heat Analysis
heat solver wasofused
PERIHto examine the temperature distribution thro
A steady state heat solver was used to examine the temperature distribution through
the walls.
the walls.
Thisstate
A steady was
This was
done
heat
done
by defining
bysolver wasthe
defining
thetoconvection
used examine
convection
coefficient
the and convection
temperature
coefficient and convectiondistribution
ambi-
amb
thr
Figure
theFigure
ent. 2020
walls. represents
This the
was done
represents temperature
by defining
the temperature distribution
fromfrom
the convection
distribution the interior
coefficient
the interior to the exterior
andexterior
to the convection
of ambo
structure.
Figure
the 20 represents the temperature distribution from the interior to the exterior o
structure.
structure.
Figure20.20.
Figure Distribution
Distribution of temperature
of temperature between
between theand
the interior interior and
exterior exterior surface.
surface.
Figure 20. Distribution of temperature between the interior and exterior surface.
ItItwas
wasobserved
observedthatthat
the temperature increases
the temperature by moving
increases by from the interior
moving from the to the
interior to
exterior surface. This was due to the lower ambient temperature defined in the analysis,
exteriorwas
surface. This was due to the lower ambient
increasestemperature defined theininterior
the anat
which It observed
was obtained from that the temperature
the historical average temperature inby movingThe
Germany. from
temperate
which was
exterior obtained
surface. Thisfrom
was the
duehistorical average
to the lower temperature
ambient in Germany.
temperature The
defined in thetemp
ana
variation is shown in Figure 21 using a gradient, with 17.7 °C and 0.5 °C being
which was obtained from the historical average temperature in Germany. The temp the hig
and lowestistemperatures
variation shown in Figurerecorded,
21 usingrespectively.
a gradient, with 17.7 °C and 0.5 °C being the hi
and lowest temperatures recorded, respectively.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 21 of 27

variation is shown in Figure 21 using a gradient, with 17.7 ◦ C and 0.5 ◦ C being the highest
and lowest temperatures recorded, respectively.
Figure 21.
Figure 21. Temperature
Temperature variation
variation of
of the
the structure.
structure.
In addition,
addition, aatotal
totalheat
heatflux
fluxofof 75.1
75.1 J/sJ/s
waswas recorded
recorded for wall
for the the wall boundaries,
boundaries, by
by sum-
summing the nodal flux within that
ming the nodal flux within that region. region.
5.
5. Discussion
Discussion
Strand7
Strand7 was
wasused
usedtoto
investigate three
investigate 3D-printed
three structures,
3D-printed by performing
structures, four types
by performing four
of analyses. Each analysis aimed to assess the performance and examine the application
types of analyses. Each analysis aimed to assess the performance and examine the appli- of
FEM in the analysis of the 3D-printed structures as a future direction in the Construction
cation of FEM in the analysis of the 3D-printed structures as a future direction in the Con-
Industry 4.0. However, the validation of results is required to assess the reliability of FEM
struction Industry 4.0. However, the validation of results is required to assess the reliabil-
in analysing 3D-printed structures. It is also important to obtain the source of errors and
ity of FEM in analysing 3D-printed structures. It is also important to obtain the source of
ways to address them.
errors and ways to address them.
5.1. Validation of the Results
5.1. Validation of the Results
The validation process was done by comparing the results obtained in Section 4 with
The validation
the available process
standards. was11
Table done by comparing
summarises the resultsstandards
the available obtained for
in Section 4 with
each type of
the available standards.
analysis performed. Table 11 summarises the available standards for each type of anal-
ysis performed.
Table 11. Validation of the analyses, in accordance with the available standards.
Table 11. Validation of the analyses, in accordance with the available standards.
Analysis Main Objective Relevant Standards
Analysis Main Objective Relevant Standards
Vertical and lateral AS 3600
Linear Static Vertical and lateral displace- AS 3600
Linear Static displacement ACI
ment ACIAS 3600
Natural Frequency Structural vibration
AS 3600
EN 1991-1 [58]
Natural Frequency
Spectral Response
Structural vibration
Mass participation factor EN EN 1998-1
1991-1 [59]
[58]
Spectral Response Mass participation factor EN 1998-1 [59]
5.1.1. Validation of Linear Static Results
5.1.1.The
Validation of Linear
linear static Static
analysis wasResults
performed on DFF and PERIH to find the structure’s
critical
Theload combination
linear andwas
static analysis associated
performedmaximum
on DFF vertical
and PERIHand to
lateral displacement.
find the structure’s
AS 3600load
critical andcombination
ACI were used to check the
and associated maximum
maximum permissible
vertical vertical
and lateral and lateral
displacement. AS
displacements,
3600 and ACI were respectively.
used to check the maximum permissible vertical and lateral displace-
ments,According to Table 2.4.2 of AS 3600-2001, it is recommended to have a total vertical
respectively.
deflection
According of
limit L/2502.4.2
to Table for all
of structural members.
AS 3600-2001, Since DFF has
it is recommended to ahave
spana of 8.1vertical
total m, the
maximum recommended
deflection limit of L/250 for vertical deflection
all structural according
members. to AS
Since DFF3600
hasisa0.032
span m. Figure
of 8.1 22
m, the
compares
maximum DFF’s maximum
recommended vertical
deflection for each
according to ASload
3600combination with the
is 0.032 m. Figure 22
suggested deflection limit.
compares DFF’s maximum vertical displacement for each load combination with the sug-
gested deflection limit.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 22 of 27
Figure 22. Deflection limit and the maximum vertical deflection for each load combination for DFF.
Figure
Figure
Figure22. Deflection
22. Deflection limit
limit and
andthe
and the maximum
maximum vertical
verticaldeflection
vertical deflection for
foreach
for eachload
each load combination
combination for
for DFF.
DFF.
All22.
theDeflection limitwere
deflections the maximum
observed to comply deflection
with the deflection load combination
limit specifiedfor
byDFF.
AS
3600,All
with an average difference of approximately 174%. deflection limit specified by AS
thedeflections
Allthe deflectionswere
wereobserved
observedto tocomply
complywithwiththe
the deflection limit specified by AS
3600,Similarly, a total floor deflection limit of 0.06 m was obtained for PERIH, based on a
3600,with
withananaverage
averagedifference
differenceofofapproximately
of approximately174%.
approximately 174%.
174%.
floorSimilarly,
span of 15a m. Asfloor
total shown in Figure
deflection 23,ofthe
limit maximum
0.06 floor deflection
m was obtained in all
for PERIH, the load
based on a
Similarly, a total floor deflection limit of 0.06 m was obtained for PERIH, based on a
combinations is below the suggested limit by approximately 127%.
floor span of 15 m. As shown in Figure 23, the maximum floor deflection in all the load
floor span of 15 m. As shown in Figure 23, the maximum floor deflection in all the load
combinations is below the suggested limit by approximately 127%.
combinations is below the suggested limitby byapproximately
approximately127%.
127%.
Figure 23. Deflection limit and the maximum vertical deflection for each load combination for
PERIH.
Figure
Figure 23. Deflection limit and the maximum vertical deflection for each load combination for PERIH.
Figure 23.
23. Deflection
Deflection limit
limit and
and the
the maximum
maximum vertical
vertical deflection
deflection for
for each
each load
load combination
combination for
for
PERIH.
PERIH.
For the lateral deflection, ACI recommends a total limit of H/500 for all structural
For the lateral deflection, ACI recommends a total limit of H/500 for all structural
members.
For This equates to a lateral deflection limit of 0.0084limit
m for DFF,
DFF, based on the height
Forthe
thelateral
lateraldeflection,
deflection,ACI
ACIrecommends
recommendsaatotal total limit of
ofH/500
H/500forforall
allstructural
structural
of 4.2 m
members. used
used in
in each
each cassette.
cassette. Figure
Figure 24
24 compares
compares the
the maximum
maximum lateral
lateral displacement
displacement with
members.ThisThisequates
equatesto
toaalateral
lateraldeflection
deflectionlimit
limitof
of0.0084
0.0084m mfor
forDFF,
DFF,based
basedononthe
theheight
height
the
of suggested limit.
of4.2
4.2mmused
usedinineach
eachcassette.
cassette.Figure
Figure24
24compares
comparesthethemaximum
maximumlateral
lateraldisplacement
displacementwith
with
the suggested limit.
the suggested limit.
Figure 24. Deflection limit and the maximum lateral deflection for each load combination for
for DFF.
DFF.
Figure
Figure24.
24.Deflection
Deflection limit and the maximum lateral
lateraldeflection
deflectionfor each load
loadcombination for
forDFF.
It was observedlimitthatand
thethe maximumlateral
maximum deflection for
of each combination
the structure complies DFF.
with
the ACI limit, with an average difference of 101.3%.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 23 of 27

It was observed that the maximum lateral deflection of the structure complies with
the ACI limit, with an average difference of 101.3%.
Overall, DFF and PERIH had a maximum displacement below the recommended
Overall, DFF and PERIH had a maximum displacement below the recommended
limits. This indicates the compliance with the standards ULS and SLS.
limits. This indicates the compliance with the standards ULS and SLS.
5.1.2. Validation
5.1.2. Validationof ofNatural
NaturalFrequency
FrequencyResults
Results
Thenatural
The naturalfrequency
frequencyanalysis
analysiswas
was performed
performed onon
DFFDFF
andand ACH
ACH to obtain
to obtain the the vibra-
vibration
tion
of theofstructure
the structure and relative
and relative deflection
deflection for each
for each mode. mode. AS 3600
AS 3600 was was
usedused to compare
to compare the
the maximum deflection for each mode, with the deflection limit and EN 1991-1
maximum deflection for each mode, with the deflection limit and EN 1991-1 to examine the to exam-
ine the frequency
frequency of the structure.
of the structure.
Figure 25 shows
Figure 25 shows the themaximum
maximumvertical
verticaldeflection
deflectionthat
thatoccurred
occurredby byeach
eachmode
modeagainst
against
the suggested total limit specified by AS
the suggested total limit specified by AS 3600. 3600.
Figure 25. Deflection limit and the maximum vertical deflection for each frequency mode.
Figure 25. Deflection limit and the maximum vertical deflection for each frequency mode.
It was observed that the deflection of the structure complies with the standard, even
It was observed that the deflection of the structure complies with the standard, even
at higher frequencies. Moreover, a minimal gap between the deflection and limit was
at higher frequencies. Moreover, a minimal gap between the deflection and limit was ob-
observed caused by the dead load and wind load in the Z direction, influencing mode 6
served caused by the dead load and wind load in the Z direction, influencing mode 6
0.9G + W ( Z ). This is important to ensure the stability of the structure during dynamic
0.9𝐺 + 𝑊such
loadings, 𝑍 . This is important
as seismic loads. to ensure the stability of the structure during dynamic
loadings, such as seismic
EN 1991-1-1-1 loads. a minimum natural frequency of 8.4 Hz for the structure.
recommends
EN 1991-1-1-1 recommends
The minimum natural frequency obtained a minimum fornatural
ACH was frequency
54.1 Hz,ofwhich
8.4 Hzsatisfies
for the structure.
the limit.
The minimum natural frequency obtained for ACH was 54.1 Hz, which
However, DFF had a minimum natural frequency of 8.21 Hz, slightly below the suggested satisfies the limit.
However, DFF had a minimum natural frequency of 8.21 Hz, slightly below
8.4 Hz limit, by 2.3%. This is an acceptable tolerance and would not affect the performance the suggested
8.4the
of Hzstructure
limit, by 2.3%.
[60]. This is an acceptable
However, the reasontolerance
for this and would can
difference not affect the performance
be justified using the
of the structure
formula [60].
for natural However,
frequency, as the
shownreason for this difference
by Equation (5). can be justified using the
formula for natural frequency, as shown by Equation (5).
17.8 18
f = √17.8 ≈ √ 18 (5)
𝑓=δ δ (5)
√𝛿 √𝛿
The
Themaximum
maximumdeflection
deflection(δ)(δ)isisdependent
dependent ononthe
thegross
grosssecond
secondmoment
moment of area, loading
of area, load-
and
ing mesh
and meshquality, which
quality, were were
which influenced by thebyidealisations
influenced mademade
the idealisations in Section 3.5.1. 3.5.1.
in Section This
affected the maximum deflection and resulted in a slightly different natural
This affected the maximum deflection and resulted in a slightly different natural fre- frequency.
quency.
5.1.3. Validation of Spectral Response Results
5.1.3.The spectral of
Validation response
Spectralanalysis
Responsewas performed on DFF and ACH, to investigate the
Results
performance under seismic load. This was done by obtaining the mass participation factor
The spectral response analysis was performed on DFF and ACH, to investigate the
and calculating the base shear and moment.
performance under seismic load. This was done by obtaining the mass participation factor
There are no standards regarding the permissible base shear and moment, and the
and calculating the base shear and moment.
obtained results were only informative data that can be used to ensure the stability of the
base of the structure.
The mass participation factor was compared to EN 1998-1. Based on this standard,
the structure is recommended to have a total mass participation of at least 90%. Figure 26
There are no standards regarding the permissible base shear and moment, and the
obtained results were only informative data that can be used to ensure the stability of the
base of the structure.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 24 of 27
The mass participation factor was compared to EN 1998-1. Based on this standard,
the structure is recommended to have a total mass participation of at least 90%. Figure 26
shows the suggested limit against the mass participation factors obtained for DFF and
shows
ACH. the suggested limit against the mass participation factors obtained for DFF and
ACH.
Figure 26.Mass
Figure26. Massparticipation
participationfactor
factorofofDFF
DFFand
andACH
ACHagainst
againstthe
thesuggested
suggestedlimit.
limit.
Both
Bothstructures
structuresfailed
failedto
tocomply
complywith
withthis
thisstandard.
standard. The
Themain
mainreason
reasonfor
forthis
thisisisthe
the
stiffness
stiffnessof
ofthe
the elements.
elements. Both structures used
Both structures used concrete
concrete as
as the
the main
mainmaterial,
material,which
whichhas hasa
a high stiffness. As a result, the mass participation of the structure was governed by the
high stiffness. As a result, the mass participation of the structure was governed by the
stiffness of the concrete members, resulting in a less dynamic response and a lower mass
stiffness of the concrete members, resulting in a less dynamic response and a lower mass
participation factor. Another reason is related to the standards. The spectral response
participation factor. Another reason is related to the standards. The spectral response
analysis depends on the spectral curve of the earthquake specified by the standards, and
analysis depends on the spectral curve of the earthquake specified by the standards, and
varies from country to country. In both analyses, AS 1170.4 was used, resulting in an
varies from country to country. In both analyses, AS 1170.4 was used, resulting in an un-
underestimation of the results due to limited earthquakes in Australia. This could have
derestimation of the results due to limited earthquakes in Australia. This could have been
been adjusted by accessing UAE’s and Germany’s spectral curves, which this paper could
adjusted by accessing UAE’s and Germany’s spectral curves, which this paper could not
not access.
access.
5.1.4. Validation of Steady-State Heat Results
5.1.4. Validation of Steady-State Heat Results
The steady-state heat analysis was performed on DFF and PERIH to investigate the
The steady-state
temperature variation heat analysis
within was performed
the interior and exterior on DFF and PERIH
surfaces. to investigate
There are no standards the
temperature
governing thevariation
required within the interior
temperature and however,
variation; exterior surfaces. There are
this information cannobestandards
used to
governing the
approximate therequired temperature
energy cost variation;
of the structure, usinghowever,
the totalthis information
heat flux. can be used to
approximate the energy cost of the structure, using the total heat flux.
The total flux of DFF was obtained as 64.4 J/s, equivalent to 64.4 W. Assuming constant
The total
heat flux, flux flux
the total of DFF
for was
one obtained
week canasbe64.4 J/s, equivalent
calculated to 64.4 W.
by multiplying theAssuming
total fluxcon-
by
stant heat
0.168. This flux,
resultstheintotal flux
a total forofone
flux 10.8week
kWhcan perbe calculated
week. Assumingby multiplying
an energy rate the total
of AUDflux
by 0.168. This
0.28/kWh, results in
this equates toaAUD
total3.02
fluxperof 10.8
weekkWh perthe
to heat week. Assuming
corner shown in anFigure
energy 13.rate of
AUD 0.28/kWh,
Similarly, this equates
PERIH to AUD
had a total flux of3.02
75.1per
J/sweek to heat
or 75.1 the cornerthe
W. Following shown
aboveinprocedure,
Figure 13.
Similarly,
it results PERIH
in a weekly had acost
energy totalofflux
AUD of 75.1
3.53J/s
to or 75.1
heat W.corner
the Following the above
represented procedure,
in Figure 20.
it results in a weekly energy cost of AUD 3.53 to heat the corner represented in Figure 20.
5.2. Errors and Improvements
5.2. Errors and Improvements
Reasonable effort was made in this paper to minimise the errors. These errors are
mainly due to meshing,
Reasonable effort was idealisations,
made in and this standards.
paper to minimise the errors. These errors are
mainly due to meshing, idealisations, andofstandards.
Meshing can influence the accuracy the results; however, having a fine mesh can
significantly increase the computational
Meshing can influence the accuracy of the time andresults;
cost of however,
the analysis. This awas
having fineaddressed
mesh can
by introducing finer mesh only in the areas of interest, such as corners and
significantly increase the computational time and cost of the analysis. This was addressed mid-spans.
DFF and PERIH
by introducing finer were
meshidealised,
only in the asareas
discussed in Section
of interest, such3.5. This was
as corners done
and to run the
mid-spans.
analysis
DFF and PERIH were idealised, as discussed in Section 3.5. This was done tooverall
without modelling the fine details that have negligible influence on the run the
performance.
analysis without The errors due to
modelling theidealisation
fine detailsare insignificant
that in the performed
have negligible influence on analysis and
the overall
were addressed by alternative approaches covered in Section 3.5.
Standards had the most effect in this paper, as they govern the analysis and vary
for each country. Errors caused by the standards did not lead to incorrect results or
discussion; instead, they reflected the results based on the country of the standard, mainly
Australia. This could have been improved by using the relevant standards for UAE, Russia,
and Germany.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 25 of 27
5.3. Recommendation for Future Research

This paper aimed to analyse the critical performance of 3D-printed structures. How-
ever, future research is required to improve the implementation of 3D printing in the
construction industry.
Currently, manual work is required to place the reinforcing bars between the concrete
layers. However, there is a potential to replace the reinforcing bars by introducing a stronger
concrete mix, such as ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC).
Quality control is another key area that needs to be investigated to ensure the consis-
tency of the concrete paste. This can be further enhanced by the application of artificial
intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), and image processing.
It is also recommended to conduct further research on the legislative requirements of
3D printing in construction. The framework provided by the Construction Industry 4.0 and
discussed in Section 2.1 can be used as a guideline for undertaking this research.
6. Conclusions
The 3D printing technology is a promising AM method in construction. It is automated,
flexible, innovative, and sustainable. Moreover, it aligns with SDGs, making it an attractive
solution in the Construction Industry 4.0. Given the future potential of AM, this paper
performed a detailed analysis of 3D-printed structures.
Three 3D-printed structures were analysed based on FEM, to examine the performance
of the structures and the application of FEM in assessing 3D-printed structures. Four
analyses were performed, including linear static, natural frequency, spectral response,
and steady-state heat. The obtained results provided an overview of the behaviour of
each structure. However, validation was required to ensure the results’ accuracy and the
structures’ compliance with the relevant standards, which was done by comparing the
results with the requirements of the standards. It was seen that FEM reasonably analysed
the 3D-printed structures, and most of the results complied with the relevant standards.
This highlights the application of AM and FEM as the future direction in the Construction
Industry 4.0.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.T. and A.A.J.; Software, F.T. and A.A.J.; Validation,
F.T.; Formal analysis, F.T. and A.A.J.; Investigation, F.T., A.A.J. and K.S.; Resources, F.T. and K.S.;
Data curation, F.T. and K.S.; Writing – original draft, A.A.J.; Writing – review & editing, F.T. and
K.S.; Visualization, F.T.; Supervision, F.T. and K.S.; Project administration, F.T. and K.S.; Funding
acquisition, F.T. and K.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: There is no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: There is no conflict of interest between the authors.
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Abstract: Three-dimensional (3D) printing, or additive manufacturing (AM), is a production can be

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13063929 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

1.2. Problem Significance and Definition

Figure 1. Implementation framework of Construction Industry 4.0.

2.2. Background on 3D Printing

2.3. Principles of 3D Printing

2.4. Three-Dimensional (3D) Printing Materials in Construction

2.5. Benefits of 3D Printing in Construction

2.5.1. Constructability Benefits

Flexible design and freedom in construction have made 3D printing a promising

2.5.2. Sustainability Benefits

Table 1. Contribution of 3D printing to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Description

The adaption of 3D printing could contribute to no poverty (SDG 1), as it significantly

2.6. Challenges of 3D Printing in Construction

2.7. Future Direction of 3D Printing in Construction

2.8. Finite Element Method (FEM) and 3D Printing

2.9. Reliability and Constraints of FEM

Table 2. Benefits and limitations of Strand7.

Comprehensive library for material properties based on the standards

3.2. Overview of the Structures

3.2.2. Apis Cor House in Russia

3.2.3. PERI House in Germany

3.3. Types of Analyses

3.3.1. Linear Static Analysis

3.3.2. Natural Frequency Analysis

3.3.3. Spectral Response Analysis

3.3.4. Steady-State Heat Analysis

3.4. Common Details of All Analyses

Table 3. Standards used in the analyses.

3.4.2. Load Combinations

Table 4. SLS and ULS load combinations used in the analyses.

Serviceability Limit State (SLS) Ultimate Limit State (ULS)

3.4.3. Material Properties

Table 5. Structural and thermal properties of concrete.

Structural Properties Value

Table 6. Structural and thermal properties of steel.

Structural Properties Value

3.4.4. Boundary Conditions

3.5.1. Idealisations for DFF

4.1. Strand7 Results for DFF

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 29

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW

4.1.2. Natural Frequency Analysis of DFF

Each mode caused the structure to deform in a certain way, as illustr

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 29

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 29

4.2.2. Spectral Response Analysis of ACH

vided by the walls.

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 29

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 3929 23 of 27

5.3. Recommendation for Future Research

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