INFORMATION GATHERING TECHNIQUES

Information gathering is a Process of Collecting the user needs to solve a problem or

issues and achieve an objective.

Managing information involves gathering and distributing necessary information and

assimilating them on the project management activities and processes. The information
gathering techniques are repeated processes that are used to create and organize data
across different kinds of sources (www.techrepublic.com).

TYPES OF INFORMATION GATHERING TECHNIQUES

There are four types of information gathering techniques as follows:

Brainstorming: This method is used to get a list of all project lists. All ideas are
generated with the help of a facilitator through an open discussion and mass interviewing
techniques. Commonly, the brainstorming technique can be done during a scheduled
meeting with peers, individual brainstorming, or even at an informal meeting.

Delphi technique: This technique in project management requires the presence of a

facilitator that gives out questionnaires to solicit different ideas. The responses are
summarized and recirculated to the participants.

Root cause analysis: One of the information gathering techniques is the root cause
analysis. It is used in identifying problems and its underlying causes thus developing a
preventive action.

Interviewing: Stakeholders, participants, and experts are interviewed to identify risks

(www.techrepublic.com).

TECHNIQUES FOR GATHERING INFORMATION

1. One-on-one interviews

The most common technique for gathering requirements is to sit down with the clients
and ask them what they need.
There are many good ways to plan the interview, but generally you want to ask open-
ended questions to get the interviewee to start talking and then ask probing questions to
uncover requirements.

Open-ended interview questions allow interviewees to respond how they wish, and to
what length they wish, appropriate when the analyst is interested in breadth and depth of
reply. (Nihal and Dawal, 2021).

2. Group interviews

Simply, Group interviews are similar to the one-on-one interview, except that more than
one person is being interviewed. These interviews work well when everyone is at the
same level or has the same role. Group interviews require more preparation and more
formality to get the information you want from all the participants. Usually, IF the
number is 5 or more, the interview will be named as “Facilitated Session” (Nihal and
Dawal, 2021).

3. Joint application development (JAD)

Is a technique that allows the analyst to accomplish requirements analysis and design the
user interface with the users in a group setting.

In another meaning, JAD sessions are similar to general facilitated sessions. However,
the group typically stays in the session until the session objectives are completed. For a
requirements JAD session, the participants stay in session until a complete set of
requirements is documented and agreed to (Evergreen and Metzner, 2013).

4. Questionnaires

Questionnaires are much more informal, and they are good tools to gather requirements
from stakeholders in remote locations or those who will have only minor input into the
overall requirements. Questionnaires can also be used when you have to gather input
from dozens, hundreds, or thousands of people.

Questionnaires are useful in gathering information from key organization members about:
Attitudes – what people in the organization say they want.

Beliefs – what people think is actually true.

Behavior – what organizational members do.

Characteristics – properties of people or things.

5. Prototyping

Prototyping is a relatively modern technique for gathering requirements. In this approach,

you gather preliminary requirements that you use to build an initial version of the
solution — a prototype. You show this to the client, who then gives you additional
requirements. You change the application and cycle around with the client again. This
repetitive process continues until the product meets the critical mass of business needs or
for an agreed number of iterations (Evergreen and Metzner, 2013).

6. Use cases

Use cases are basically stories that describe how discrete processes work. The stories
include people (actors) and describe how the solution works from a user perspective. Use
cases may be easier for the users to articulate, although the use cases may need to be
distilled later into the more specific detailed requirements (Evergreen and Metzner,
2013).

7. Following people around

This technique is especially helpful when gathering information on current processes.

You may find, for instance, that some people have their work routine down to such a
habit that they have a hard time explaining what they do or why. You may need to watch
them perform their job before you can understand the entire picture. In some cases, you
might also want to participate in the actual work process to get a hands-on feel for how
the business function works today (Evergreen and Metzner, 2013).
8. Request for proposals (RFPs)

If you are a vendor, you may receive requirements through an RFP. This list of
requirements is there for you to compare against your own capabilities to determine how
close a match you are to the client's needs (Evergreen and Metzner, 2013).

9. Brainstorming

On some projects, the requirements are not "uncovered" as much as they are
"discovered." In other words, the solution is brand new and needs to be created as a set of
ideas that people can agree to. In this type of project, simple brainstorming may be the
starting point. The appropriate subject matter experts get into a room and start creatively
brainstorming what the solution might look like. After all the ideas are generated, the
participants prioritize the ones they think are the best for this solution. The resulting
consensus of best ideas is used for the initial requirements (Evergreen and Metzner,
2013).

10. Demo Screens

This technique is especially helpful when gathering information from a client how is
totally not related to Information technology field or the client does not know exactly
what he needs. By providing basic screens “Not necessary to be active” and explaining
the concept of the estimated system, the client will understand more and start to give the
analyst the information and the requirements(Evergreen and Metzner, 2013).

METHODS OF INFORMATION GATHERING

There are the following three methods of information gathering:

 Footprinting
 Scanning
 Enumeration
Footprinting

In this technique, the information of a target network or system or victim is collected as

much as possible. Footprinting provides various ways to intrude on the system of an
organization. The security posture of the target is also determined by this technique. It
can be active as well as passive. In Passive footprinting, the information of any user is
collected without knowing him. If the user's sensitive information gets released
intentionally and consciously or by the direct contact of the owner, active footprinting
will be created (Gilan and Richman, 2014).

Footprinting techniques are three types. These are as follows:

 Open source footprinting

 Network-based footprinting
 DNS interrogation

Scanning

Another essential step of footprinting is scanning, which contains the package of

techniques and procedures. In the network, hosts, ports and various services are identified
by it. It is one of the components of information gathering mechanism and intelligence
gathering, which is used by an attacker to create an overview scenario of the target. To
find out the possibility of network security attacks, pen-testers use vulnerability scanning.
Due to this technique, hackers can find vulnerabilities like weak authentication,
unnecessary services, missing patches, and weak encryption algorithms. So an ethical
hacker and pen-tester provide the list of all vulnerabilities they found in an organization's
network (Gilan and Richman, 2014).

There are three types of scanning

 Port scanning
  Network scanning
 Vulnerability scanning

Enumeration

Enumeration is the process in which information is extracted from the system like
machine names, user names, network resources, shares and services. In enumeration, an
active connection is established with the system by the hacker. Hackers use this
connection and gain more target information by performing direct queries. If the attacker
wants to directly exploit the system, the outcome of the enumeration phase is very useful
for them. That's why, in penetration testing, the enumeration phase is considered risky
(Markham, 2010).

There are various types of enumeration. These are as follows:

NetBIOS Enumeration: NetBIOS means Network Basic Input Output System. It is

developed by IBM. If you want to enumerate NetBIOS on Windows OS, printer and file
server should be enabled. Using NetBIOS, an attacker can perform a DOS attack on a
remote machine(Markham, 2010).

SNMP Enumeration: SNMP means Simple Network Management Protocol. If the

network device is run on Internet Protocol (IP) like a router, SNMP will be used for
managing the device. It is based on the client-server architecture. Every network device
has the SNMP client or agent, and using the request and response; it communicates with
the SNMP managing station. Agent software can access the SNMP request and response,
which are the configurable variable. Using the SNMP enumeration, an attacker can get
information on network resources like devices, shares, routers, etc. An attacker can get
device-specific information, traffic statistics, and ARP and Routing table by enumerating
the SNMP on the remote device (Markham, 2010)..

LDAP Enumeration: LDAP means Light Weight Directory Access Protocol. It is based
on the client-server architecture. The distributed directory services can be accessed by
LDAP. Directory service is used for storing user's records, and it is a logical and
hierarchical structure. Using the BER (Basic Encoding Rules), the information transmits
between server and client. The LDAP transmits over TCP (Transmission control
protocol). If the server has an anonymous remote query, LDAP supports it. Using the
query, the sensitive information of users like contact details, address, user name,
department details, etc., can be accessed (McDaniel et al., 2014).

NTP Enumeration: NTP means Network time protocol. Clocks of network computers
are synchronized by the NTP. If NTP is in ideal condition, it can achieve 200
milliseconds accuracy in the local area network. It is based on agent-server architecture.
It works on port 123 and UDP (user datagram protocol). The NTP server is queried by
the NTP agent. If the attacker queries the NTP server, they can enumerate the host's list,
which is connected to the server of NTP. They can also enumerate the operating system,
hostname and IP address of the internal clients(Markham, 2010)..

SMTP Enumeration: SMTP means Simple Mail Transfer protocol. It is used to transmit
electronic mail. It is based on the client-server architecture. It works on port number 25
and TCP (Transmission control protocol). To send the mail through DNS, it will use the
MX server (Mail exchange server) (Markham, 2010).. The following built-in commands
are given by SMTP:

VERY: In the SMTP server, this command validates the users.

EXPN: It is used to identify the list of mails and deliver the address of aliases.

RECT TO: It is used to define the message's recipients.

The response of the SMTP server towards the above command is different. Because of
the varied response of SMTP, SMTP enumeration is possible. Using the same technique,
an attacker can find a valid user on the server of SMTP.

DNS Enumeration: DNS means Domain name service. DNS is used to store the record
using the DNS database. In DNS, the most commonly used types of record are as
follows:
  Domain name aliases
 IP Address
 Nameservers
 Start of authority
 Pointers for reverse DNS lookups
 Mail exchange

DNS works on TCP (Transmission control protocol) as well as UDP (User datagram
protocol). It uses port number 53. In DNS, TCP is used for zone transfer, and UDP is
used for resolving queries. The database's position can be replicated from the primary
server to the secondary server using the DNS zone transfer. DNS enumeration is possible
when the DNS primary server is requested by the zone transfer and pretends like a client.
In response to the request, it reveals the sensitive information related to domain records
(Reb and Cropanzano, 2017).

Windows Enumeration: Windows Os and Sysinternals tools can be enumerated

together. You can download the many more Sysinternals tools using the URL
https://technet.microsoft.com/en-in/sysinternals/bb545021.aspx.

LINUX/UNIX Enumeration: Linux or Unix OS and Multiple command-line utilities

can be enumerated together. The utilities are provided by the operating system.

DATA PRESENTATION

Data presentation is a process of comparing two or more data sets with visual aids, such
as graphs. Using a graph, you can represent how the information relates to other data.
This process follows data analysis and helps organize information by visualizing and
putting it into a more readable format. This process is useful in nearly every industry, as
it helps professionals share their findings after performing data analysis. Presenting data
involves the use of a variety of different graphical techniques to visually show the reader
the relationship between different data sets, to emphasize the nature of a particular aspect
of the data or to geographically 'place' data appropriately on a map (Shaffer, 2016).

It is important to ensure that the technique used to present the data is appropriate for the
data in question. For example, if the researcher is trying to show the spatial relationship
between a series of sites and correlating numerical data, they may wish to explore the use
of GIS in their presentation. Equally if two sets of data are collected in such a way that
the researcher is trying to show a correlation between them, it may be advisable to draw
this as a scatter graph, so that a line of best fit may be drawn, allowing the researcher to
comment on the strength of the correlation. If the data collected is able to be converted
into a percentage of a whole, a bar chart may not be the best way to show the data.
Instead, a pie chart or a percentage bar may more easily show the relative size of each of
the categories compared to each other. It is important to consider the type of data you are
dealing with: continuous and discrete data lend themselves more easily to some data
presentation techniques than others (Tay et al., 2017).

More sophisticated techniques are likely to place your Independent Investigation in a

higher marks level and the use of original data presentation, designed by you, is also
encouraged.

However, it is also important to remember that sophisticated techniques do not

necessarily have to be complicated: the key to a good data presentation technique is that
it is easily readable by the person marking your report. The use of GIS in your data
presentation is also strongly encouraged if any type of spatial data is needed to answer
the research questions.

Good data presentation can easily be let down by the inaccurate execution of the
technique itself. Not giving a scale, or not labelling an axis can mean that the reader is
not able to actually understand what the data is showing. Allowing someone not familiar
with the data in question to ‘read’ the data presentation critically may help the researcher
to avoid these types of errors before the report is submitted (Sinar, 2018).
TYPES OF DATA PRESENTATION

You can present data in one of three ways including:

1. Textual

When presenting data in this way, you use words to describe the relationship between
information. Textual presentation enables researchers to share information that cannot
display on a graph. An example of data you may present textually is findings in a study.
When a researcher wants to provide additional context or explanation in their
presentation, they may choose this format because, in text, information may appear more
clear.

Textual presentation is common for sharing research and presenting new ideas. It only
includes paragraphs and words, rather than tables or graphs to show data (Ware, 2013).

2. Tabular

Tabular presentation is using a table to share large amounts of information. When using
this method, you organize data in rows and columns according to the characteristics of
the data. Tabular presentation is useful in comparing data, and it helps visualize
information. Researches use this type of presentation in analysis (Shar et al., 2019), such
as:

Qualitative classification: Qualities including, nationality, age, social status, appearance,

and personality traits may appear in a table to review and compare sociological and
psychological information.

Quantitative classification: This category includes items you can count or number.

Spatial classification: This applies to situations where information uses a basis of

location, such as data on a city, state or region.
Temporal classification: Time is the variable in this category, so any measure of time,
including, seconds, hours, days or weeks, may help classify the data.

The benefits of using a table to share your data are that it simplifies the data making it
easily consumable to viewers, helps provide a side-by-side comparison of the variables
you choose and it can save space in your presentation because a table condenses the
information (Markham, 2010)..

3. Diagrammatic

This method of displaying data uses diagrams and images. It is the most visual type for
presenting data and provides a quick glance at statistical data. There are four basic types
of diagrams, including:

Pictograms: This diagram uses images to represent data. For example, to show the
number of books sold in the first release week, you may draw five books, where each
image accounts for 1,000 books and consumers bought 5,000 books.

Cartograms: This includes any type of map that shares the location of a person, place or
object. For example, cartograms help navigate theme parks so you can find attractions,
food and gift shops.

Bar graphs: This type uses rectangles of different sizes on an x and y-axis to represent
different amounts in a data set. It depicts numerical values and uses rectangles to display
data for variables in your research.

Pie charts: In this type of diagram, data appears as a fraction in a circle. This displays
any type of numerical data but works well with fewer variables.

Since they are more visual than the other methods of presenting data, diagrams can share
more information about the relationships between variables in the data set. For example,
a bar graph can show data by colour, and size of the rectangle and use a more advanced
bar graph to share data from multiple variables over time. The diagrammatic presentation
also helps read data quickly and provides an easy comparison (Stone, 2018).
HOW TO PRESENT DATA

Here are steps you can take to create a presentation in which to share your data:

1. Organize your data

Once your research is complete, analyze and categorize your data. This can include
making conclusions and recognizing the relationships between data points. You might
organize your data by qualities, quantities, time or space.

Putting the data you collect into categories based on its most identifiable features is
useful in helping you determine how to best present the data. Organization also helps
compare the data and make important conclusions or to answer your research questions.
For example, if your research is to determine which day of the week is most productive
and you survey a group of professionals, then you may learn not only which day people
are most productive but also may draw conclusions about productivity among different
careers and age groups (Zhang et al., 2019).

2. Identify your audience

Knowing who your audience is can help you choose how to present your data. Consider
how knowledgeable the audience is on your data topic. For example, if you are presenting
data on the performance of a product to your team, they need less context than a group of
investors, who may require background information on the product. Other important
information to know about your audience includes their interests, problems they
experience and how you can resolve these issues, their motivation for attending your
presentation and their general life experience (Todorovic, 2018).
Understanding your audience helps customize the presentation to them and increases its
effectiveness. You might also consider the reaction you desire from your audience when
they view your data. For example, if you want to convince them to support a cause,
ensure your data reflects this purpose. You can learn more about your audience by
sending them surveys ahead of your presentation with questions about their
understanding of your data topic and their motivations for learning more (Todorovic,
2018).

3. Choose a presentation type

Review the types of data presentation to determine if you are required to use textual,
tabular or diagrammatic presentation. If you choose a diagrammatic presentation you can
also identify which type of diagram fits your data best. To determine which format is
most appropriate, identify what you are comparing with your data.

For example, if you are comparing values of a small number of variables, a pie chart
accurately shows percentages and can reveal volumes. A bar graph can show a more
precise comparison of values. If you are presenting information where characteristics or
time is a variable, you might choose a table. You may use textual presentation when you
want to provide more context for your data and explain your findings (Tufte, 2011).

4. Label your data

When creating a diagram or table, ensure that it has labels to describe the information.
Include a title that describes what the table or diagram shows and create labels for the
variables that appear. Some types, such as a pictogram or cartogram may require a key to
share the scale you use when representing the data. For example, images on a pictogram
often represent a certain number.

These labels provide clarity to viewers and can help you when presenting the data by
helping you to focus on the main points (Tufte, 2011).
5. Introduce your research

After creating a visual or text to share your data, create an introduction that informs an
audience about your data topic. Include how and why you gather this data to provide
context. You might share your research questions to preface what the data reveals.
Consider the key takeaways from your data and be sure to introduce these ideas to your
audience through a slide presentation or speech (Tay et al., 2017).

6. Focus on main data points

You can determine the main data points by identifying how the data relate to each other.
For example, if you take a sample of how much time it takes different team members to
complete a task, it is important to know intervals of time and which team member is the
quickest and who is the slowest at completing the task. In this example, you may also
examine factors that contribute to how long it takes to complete a task.

Identifying the main ideas of your data and research helps organize your presentation and
communicate clearly with your audience about the significance of the information you
gather (Tay et al., 2017).

7. Summarize

At the end of your presentation, summarize your data findings to ensure that your
audience understands. You can also give time for the audience to ask questions. Try to
prepare answers by thoroughly understanding your research and collection of data.
Consider questions about the impact the data has and actions the audience may take after
seeing your presentation.

ANALYSIS OF DATA IN RESEARCH

To analyze means to break a topic or concept down into its parts in order to inspect and
understand it, and to restructure those parts in a way that makes sense to you. When
writing an analytical essay, you will likely have to conduct research. Research is the
process of investigating a topic in an in-depth, systematic manner. You will then have to
analyze that research to examine its implications and support a defensible claim about the
topic. Sometimes writers do not conduct research when writing an analytical essay, but
they usually still analyze sources that have used research. Learning how to conduct and
analyze research is thus a critical part of strengthening analytical writing skills
(MCDaniel et al., 2014).

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS

When people are interested in a topic and want to learn more about it, they conduct
research. In academic and professional settings, research follows systematic, critical
processes.

Analysis is the process of critically examining research. When analyzing a source,

researchers reflect on many elements, including the following:

 How the information is presented

 The author's main point
 The evidence the author uses
 The credibility of the author and the evidence
 The potential for bias
 The implications of the information

TYPES OF RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS

The type of research people conduct depends on what they are interested in learning
about. When writing analytical essays about literature, authors typically consult primary
sources, secondary sources, or both. Then they craft an analytical argument in which they
make a claim about the sources supported with direct evidence (Markham, 2010).

Primary Sources

A primary source is an original document or first-hand account. For instance, plays,

novels, poems, letters, and journal entries are all examples of primary sources.
Researchers can find primary sources in libraries, archives, and online.

Secondary Sources

A secondary source is a document that interprets information from a primary source.

When researchers consult a source that is not original, they are consulting a secondary
source. For example, scholarly journal articles, newspaper articles, and textbook chapters
are all secondary sources. Secondary sources can help researchers understand primary
sources. Authors of secondary sources analyze primary sources. The elements they
analyze might be elements other readers of the primary source might not have noticed.
Using secondary sources also makes for credible analytical writing because writers can
show their audience that other credible scholars support their points of view Markham,
2010).

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