Classification of Hydrothermal Deposits

1. Temperature of formation
2. Mode offormation
Temperature offormation:
On thebasic of temperature of deposition, hydrothermal deposits are classified into three
groups:

i. Hypothermal deposits
ii. Mesothermaldeposits
ii. Epithermal deposits.
iv. Telethermal
i. HypothermalDeposits:
" They are formed at great depths and high T(500°- 300°C)
These are the high temperature deposits which we formed close to the intrusive
body.
The chief are minerals which are commonly found in hypothermal deposits are
arsenopyrite, wolframite, native gold and chalcopyrite.
ii. Mesothermal Deposits:
"Theyare formed at intermediate depths and moderate T(300°-200°C)
These are the intermediate temperature deposits which are formed at some
distance outward from the intrusive igneous mass.
The chief ore minerals of mesothermal deposits are native gold, bornite,
sphalerite, galena and argentite.
i. Epithermal Deposits:
" They are formed at intermediate depths and low T (200°-100°C)
These are the low temperature deposits formed very much away from the
intrusive body.
The ore minerals which commonly occur in epithermal deposits are ruby silver,
stibnite, and cinnabar.
iv. Telethermal Deposits:
" They are formed at shallow depths and low T(<100°C)
They are formed from hydrothermal fluids that have migrated for long distance
from their magmaticsource, so they lost most of their heat and their potential to
react chemicallywith the surrounding rocks.
Some geologists believe that the telethermal deposits are the products of meteoric
water.

Common minerals are Sphalerite, Galena, Chalcopyrite, Pyrite, Native Copper,

Oxides off Uranium, Vanadium and Copper.
Mode of formation
On the basis of mode of formation, the hydrothermal deposits have been classified into
twogroups:
i. Cavity filling deposits
ii. Replacement (Metasomatic) deposits.

Cavity filling and replacement are the two types of deposits formed due to hydrothermal
processes.

Cavity filling is due todeposition of minerals in various types of openings, while in metasomatic
replacement or replacement deposit the earlier formed mineral is replaced by the new mineral.
In general, replacement deposits are formed at high temperature and pressure, andcavity
filling deposits at lower temperature and pressures
i. Cavity Filling Deposits:
The precipitation of minerals from hydrothermal solutions in the cavities or the
open spaces in rock forms cavity filling deposit.
Such a deposition takes place bychange of temperature and pressure of the
hydrothermal solution.

Most of theepithermal deposits are cavity filling types.

Crustification:
The mineral which precipitates first lines the walls of the cavity.

" It is the characteristic feature in the cavity filling deposits in

which ore is build in the successive layers or crusts by crusts,
where the younger crust is deposited on an older one.Afilling of
this type is called "Crustification".
" Its crystals grow inward and point towards the center.
The cause of such sequence is related to the decreasing of the mineral solubility
in the solution in accordance with the decrease in T&P, where the least soluble
mineral is deposited first while the most soluble mineral is deposited last.
 Crystals
Quartz Blende Quartz
Wall Vug. Wall
The process of crustification are of two types:
1. Symmetrical
2. Asymmetrical
Symmetrical
Avein crustification is said to be "symmetrical" when
similar mineral crusts occur on both sides of the fissure.

Asymmetrical
When unlike layers are present on each side, the
crustification is called "asymmetrical".
Comb Structure:
In amineral vein prominent crystal project inward from the walls, it is said to have
"comb structure"
Vugs:
When a vein is not filled completely with the mineral matter, open spaces are left in
the center. Such unfilled spaces are called"vugs
Horses:
" The masses of country rock which is enclosed within the fissure veins.
Massive Ore:
It the cavity filling deposits are composed of one mineral and devoid of
crustification, they are said to be Massive Ore.
Ribbon structure:
Fissure fillings, composed of alternate structure of quarts and altered country rock
give rise to a characteristics structure known as Ribbon Structure.
The common types of cavity filling in deposits
are:
a. Fissure veins:
b. Shear zone deposits
C. Stockworks
d. Saddle reefs
e. Ladder veins
f. Pitches and Flats
g. Breccia filling deposits
h. Solution Cavity deposits
i. Pore Space filling
j. Vesicular filling
Fissure veins:
" A
fissure filled with ore is called "fissure vein".
" It is atabular ore body which occupies one or more fissures within a rock.
" Fissure vein deposits are the most important of all the cavity filling deposits.
" They are the chief source of most of the metals like gold, silver, copper, lead, zine and mercury.
The common types of fissure veins are asfollows.
En echelon Fissure: They appear as sets of short, parallel, planar, mineral-filled lenses within a body of a
rock. They originate as tension fractures that are parallel to the major stress orientation (o1), in a shear
zone.

ii. Chanbered Veins: Veins whose walls are irregular and brecciated.
ii. Dilation or Lenticular Veins: Several disconnected lenses of ore occur
together.
iv. Sheeted Veins: Agroup of closely spaced parallel veins.
V. Linked Veins: A wide zone of nearly parallel fissures connected by
diagonals.
Chambered Veins Dilational or Lenticular Veins Sheeted Veins

En echelon Fissure veins Linked Veins

Shear zone deposits
A shear zone is a tabular to sheetlike, planar or curviplanar zone composed of rocks that are
more highly strained than rocks adjacent to the zone. The shear zones are the zones of thin and closely
spaced parallel fractures.
Here as the openings are minute, the open space deposition is minor.
Example: Singhbhum Shear Zone Deposit, Khetri.
Stockworks

A"'Stockwork" is a mass of rock traversed by anetwork of small ore bearing

veins. Each vein is about one centimeter in width and a few meters in length.
Stockworks are formed when the hydrothermal solutions percolate through
vertical zones of intense shattering which occur in certain igneous
intrusions.
The spacing between the adjacent veins varies from a few centimeters to a
fewmeters. In stock works the whole rock mass in mined.
Example: Zawar Area, Rajasthan
Saddle reefs
During folding openings are formed between rock beds at the crests of
anticlines.

Mineralization along suchopening leads to the development of ore deposits.

Example:Quartz reefs of HuttiGold deposit, Karnataka andWyand Gold deposit
of Tamil Nadu

Ladder Veins

" Ladder veins are commonly found in dykes. They are the short, transverse,
roughly parallel fractures that are filled with the ore. Because they appear
like a ladder, they are called Ladder Veins.
Example: Magnesite deposit of Mysore, Karnataka and Asbestos deposit of
Cuddapah district, Andhra Pradesh
Pitches and flats
These are formed due to folding of brittle sedimentary beds which
gives rise to a series of disconnected deposits.
ORE
Example: Iron-ore deposits of Bailadila and Chotadongar, Bastar district, ORE
Madhya Pradesh, lead-zinc deposits of Baghmari (Katuria), PITCHES.
Banka district, Bihar, and talc deposits of Cannore and Kalicut FLATS

districts, Kerala are the several examples.

Breccia filling deposits
The breccias offer opening spaces in between the angular fragments
for deposition by the mineralizing solutions traversing through them.
These may be volcanic breccia, tectonic breccia or collapse breccia
deposits.
Example: Wajrakarur kimlerlite pipe, Andhra Pradesh, and fault breccia in Singhbhum Shear
Zone,
Bihar with copper, lead, uranium and apatite mineralisation may be cited as
examples.
Solution cavity filling
Certain solution forming rocks like limestone gives rise to this type of deposit. They occur most
commonly at shallowdepth. They are grouped as caves,galleries and gash veins.
" Caves are characteristics of limestone regions
Galleries are horizontal or gently inclined waves which result from solution along fissures.
Gash veins designate vertical solution joints in limesto
Example: barytes deposits in Krol limestone of Sirmur district, Himachal Pradesh.

Pore-space filling
Many mineral depositsoccur as pore space fillings, say in sandstone. Oil,gas and water are the
most important among all.
Example: Disseminatedlead-zinc deposit ingritty conglomeratic dolomite and quartzite of Zawar,
Rajasthan isan example of pore space filling..
Vesicular Fillings
The vesicular lava flows being permeable, form channelways for mineralising solution and sites
of mineral deposits.
Example: Copper occurrences in Dras volcanics, Kargil area,
Jammuand Kashmir andin Deccan trap of Maharashtra andGujarat
Agate, chalcedony, amethyst and opal occurrences in the Deccan trap
ii. Metasomatic Replacement Deposits:
These deposits are formeddue to chemical interaction between the hydrothermal
solutionand the country rocks.
Replacementoccur through the action of hot vapor or hydrothermal solution.
The ore minerals are deposited from a mineral bearing solution in place of the
country rocks, the replacedsubstances being dissolved and removed in solution.
The rate of replacement is dependent upon the rate of supply of new material and
removal of dissolved material. If the supply of material for the new mineral stops,
other minerals may be deposited at its margins.

+Intrusive t

Diagram showing relations of contact metamorphic deposits (black) to

contact
metamorphic zone (stippled)and to intrusive mass.
Typesof ReplacementDeposits
The ore deposits formed by replacement can he subdivided into three groups:
i. Massive deposits
ii. Replacement lodes
iii. Disseminated deposits.
i. Massive Deposits:
The massive deposits are characterized by great variations in size and extremely
irregular form.
" The ore terminates abruptly against the host rock.
" The host rock is almost completely replaced and the ore
shows abrupt ending
against the country rock. The ore may retain original texture and structure of the
rocks it replaces.
Massive replacement ore deposits commonly occur in
limestones.
Example: Pyrite replacement deposit of Spain.
ii. Replacement Lode Deposits:
" The lode deposits are formed when the

replacement is localized along thin beds or

fissures.

" In this case the fissure walls are replaced by the

ore.

The lode deposits resemble fissure veins in form;

however, they are wider than fissure veins and
their wallsare wavy and irregular.

Example: Gold veins of Ontario

iii. Disseminated Replacement Deposits:
host
The ore mineral occurs as smallgrains accompanied bysmall veinlets in the
rock and represents multiple center type of replacement
are found
" These are low grade ore deposits where grains of ore minerals
Scattered throughout the host rock.
The size of disseminated ore deposits is generally large.
Example: Porphyry Copper deposit
CriteriaFor The Recognition Of Replacement Deposits
i. Absence of crustification.

i. Presence of an unsupport cement of the country rock which remain enclosed

within the replacing mineral.
i. Existence of well developed crystals of the replaced minerals.
iv. Presence of pseudomorphsof replacing minerals after replaced ones.
Preservation of structural features of the replaced country rocks.
vi. Occurrence of irregular veins of replacing minerals across the grains of the host
materials.