Chapter 18 notes – Blood (textbook)

Functions:
 Transport (oxygen, nutrients, waste, hormones)
 Protection (immune, inflammation, clotting)
 Regulation (fluid balance, pH, heat, calcium)
RBC: lives about 120 days, role of hemoglobin and iron for oxygen, erythropoeisis
Platelets: shards of megakaryocytes, thrombocytopoiesis
WBC: Granulocytes:
 Neutrophils
 Eosinophils
 Basophils
Agranulocytes (lacks specific granules, contains nonspecific granules):
 Lymphocytes
 Monocytes
Plasma proteins: Albumin – most abundant, pH buffer, transports solutes, adds viscosity, osmolarity
(affects absorption rate), deficiency causes kwashiorkor, Globulins – alpha, beta, gamma – has a role in
clotting, immunity, transport, Fibrinogen – clotting protein
Hemopoiesis: all formed elements generated in red marrow, lymphocytes also made in thymus, tonsils,
lymph nodes, spleen. Myeloid and lymphoid hematopoeisis. Bloodstream’s nutrients are absorbed
from digestive system, proteins from liver, gamma globulins from connective tissue plasma cells.
Erythropoietin hormone secreted by kidneys. Spleen is the “erythrocyte graveyard,” where narrow
channels break down old cells. In hemolysis blood from old RBCs converted to bilirubin and liver
recycles iron from cells.
WBCs spend only a few hours in the bloodstream and stay in body’s connective tissues.
Hemostasis (cessation of bleeding):
 Vascular spasm – constriction
 Platelet plug formation
 Coagulation – clotting
Unhealthy clotting – thrombosis

Slides (D2L)
Immature (precursor) red blood cell is called a reticulocyte.
Neutrophils – direct actions against bacteria
Eosinophils – slows inflammation with histaminase (balances inflammation caused by basophils)
Basophils – releases heparin and histamine, involved in inflammation and allergies
Monocytes – destroys microbes and dead tissue following an infection
Lymphocytes – B cells, T cells, and killer cells, destroys bacteria, viruses, and other foreign invaders
From most abundant to least: NLMEB
Leukopenia – abnormally low WBC, caused by radiation therapy, chemotherapy, some drugs
Leukemia – abnormally high WBC, WBC are nonfunctional and abnormal structure

Chapter 19 notes – Circulatory System – heart (textbook)

Pulmonary circuit: carries oxygen-poor blood to the lungs (right side)
Systemic circuit: supplies oxygen-rich blood throughout body and organs throughout (left side)
Fibrous pericardium (outer) outside of double-walled sac that holds the heart
Serous pericardium (inner)
Pericardial cavity: space between the parietal and visceral layers of the serous pericardium; heart is not
inside this space, but enfolded/cushioned by it; contains pericardial fluid
Heart wall: epicardium, myocardium, endocardium
Right and left atrium, which each have a funnel/earlike flap called an auricle
Inferior to atria are right and left ventricles: chambers within cardiac muscle that pump blood
Interventricular septum: divides right and left ventricles from each other
Right ventricle: most of the anterior aspect of the heart, C-shaped in cross section, only pumps blood to
the lungs and back to the left atrium
Left ventricle: apex and inferoposterior aspect of the heart, comparatively very thick wall around the left
ventricle (2-4x), including interventricular septum, bears greatest workload of the 4 chambers, circular in
cross section, pumps blood to entire body
Heart valves: right atrioventricular (tricuspid), left atrioventricular (mitral/bicuspid), aortic valve
(forms small triangle with right and left AV valves), pulmonary valve, pulmonary and aortic valves are
also known as semilunar valves. AV valves connect atria to the ventricles.
Aortic valve controls opening from the left ventricle to the aorta.
Pulmonary valve controls opening from right ventricle to pulmonary trunk and pulmonary arteries.
Left coronary artery travels through coronary sulcus under left auricle and divides into 2 branches:
anterior interventricular branch and
circumflex branch.
Right coronary artery supplies the right atrium and sinoatrial node (pacemaker), travels through
coronary sulcus under right auricle and divides into 2 branches:
right marginal branch and
posterior interventricular branch.
Veins return blood that supplies the heart itself to the right atrium, traveling via:
great cardiac vein (empties into coronary sinus), middle cardiac vein (empties into coronary sinus),
left marginal vein (empties into coronary sinus), coronary sinus (empties into right atrium)

Heart Conduction System

The action potential begins when the pacemaker node sends an electrical signal. The signal spreads
from there through the left atrium and right atrium. The next node activated is the atrioventricular
node, which acts as a gateway to the left and right ventricles. The signal continues towards the apex of
the heart through the atrioventricular bundle, which forks into right and left bundle branches. The
branches turn upward at the apex of the heart and the signal continues through the Purkinje fibers,
which spread through the myocardium of both ventricles and ends with cardiomyocytes, which pass
ions directly from cell to cell via gap junctions.
Systole: contraction
Diastole: relaxation
Cardiac cycle: During diastole, ventricles relax (ventricular filling) and expand and pressure drops lower
than left and right atria. AV valves open and blood pours into ventricles, raising ventricular pressure and
lowering atrial pressure. Rapid filling occurs. Atrial systole completes the filling process (atria contract).
The right atrium contracts slightly before the left due to receiving the signal of the pacemaker node first.
The atria repolarize, relax, and remain in atrial diastole for the rest of the cardiac cycle, which continues
next into isovolumetric contraction. Ventricles depolarize, begin to generate the QRS complex, and
contract. Q marks the end of ventricular filling, R marks transition from atrial systole to isovolumetric
contraction of the ventricles, and S occurs during isovolumetric contraction. AV valves close against
blood which now fills the ventricles. Blood is not completely filling the atria with valves closed and heart
appears relaxed at this stage.
Ventricular ejection occurs when pressure is greater in the ventricles than the atria and semilunar
valves are forced open. Ventricles contract, shooting blood into pulmonary arteries and the aorta.
Ventricles do not expel all of their blood. The amount ejected is called the stroke volume (SV).
Isovolumetric relaxation occurs when the T wave ends and ventricles begin to expand. This is early
ventricular diastole. Blood from the aorta and pulmonary trunk briefly flows backward through the
semilunar valves, which then close. AV valves have not yet opened, so ventricles are not filling with
blood. Atria are full of blood and when the AV valves open, phase 1 (ventricular filling) begins again.

Slides (D2L)
Phases of Cardiac Cycle: Three phases (different than your text, not as detailed on valves etc.)
1. Atrial systole
2. Ventricular systole
3. Ventricular diastole
Prior to atrial systole (during the previous ventricular diastole):
• Both chambers are in diastole (called quiescent period)
• AV valves are open
• Passive filling of atria and ventricles with blood
• Ventricles fill about 70% of the way with blood (90ml)
Right atrium – receives blood from 3 sources:
1. Superior vena cava
2. Inferior vena cava
3. Coronary sinus
Sulci – grooves on surface containing coronary blood vessels and fat.
• Atrioventricular sulcus (Coronary sulcus): the boundary between atria and ventricles
• Anterior interventricular sulcus: boundary between the ventricles anteriorly
• Posterior interventricular sulcus: boundary between the ventricles posteriorly
Atrium + ventricles are divided by the interatrial septum and the interventricular septum.
Trabeculae carneae are in the ventricles and pectinate muscles are in the atria.
Myogenic system – originates within myocytes themselves so contraction in heart is simultaneous.
Autorhythmic – regular and spontaneous (automatic) depolarization.
Great cardiac vein – anterior, interventricular
Coronary sinus – large, posterior, drains into right atrium
Posterior cardiac vein and Middle cardiac vein – both posterior, one is in the middle
EKG: P wave – atrial depolarization
PR segment – end of P wave to beginning of QRS complex (onset of ventricular depolarization)
QRS complex – ventricular depolarization (ventricles contract), Q wave – depolarization begins, then the
R wave – activation of the ventricle (large tissue mass), S wave – last stage of ventricular depolarization
ST segment – end of the QRS complex to start of the T wave (early part of ventricular repolarization)
T wave – ventricular repolarization
PR interval – time from start of P wave to end of PR segment
QT interval – time from beginning of Q wave to end of T wave
RR interval – time between R peaks of the QRS complex
Atrial fibrillation – uncoordinated electrical activity, atrial chambers quiver
Ventricular fibrillation – very fast, uncontrolled twitching, blood is unable to pump
Ventricular tachycardia – very fast heartbeat, not much blood is circulating, can lead to v-fib, caused by
coronary artery disease, high potassium, scar tissue