Chapter 1 Social Psychology: The Science of the Social Side of Life

Social psychology

Accordingly, we define social psychology as the scientific field that seeks to

understand the nature and causes of individual behavior, feelings, and thoughts in
social situations.

social psychology investigates the ways in which our thoughts, feelings, and
actions are influenced by the social environments in which we find ourselves—by
other people or our thoughts about them.

Social Psychology Is Scientific in Nature

The term science refers to two things: (1) a set of values and (2) methods that can
be used to study a wide range of topics.

Does it adopt these values and methods? To the extent the field does, it is
scientific in nature. To the extent it does not, it falls outside the realm of science.

Four core values that all fields must adopt to be considered scientific in nature.

Accuracy: A commitment to gathering and evaluating information about the

world (including social behavior) in as careful, precise, and error-free a manner as
possible.

Objectivity: A commitment to obtaining and evaluating such information in a

manner that is as free from bias as possible.

Skepticism: A commitment to accepting findings as accurate only to the extent

they have been verified over and over again/ concept of replication.

Open-Mindedness: A commitment to changing one’s views—even those that are

strongly held—if existing evidence suggests that these views are inaccurate.
Being Influenced by the Actions of Other People

We can be influenced by the behavior of other people—either by seeing and

being with them via social media or by physically being immersed ourselves in
such events. Such exposure to others, especially when we identify with them,
often exerts powerful effects on our own behavior and thought.

Common sense and social psychology

social psychology relies on the scientific method because common sense is often
unreliable and inconsistent in explaining social behavior, and because our thinking
is subject to biases that can lead us astray. The scientific method allows social
psychologists to test hypotheses in a controlled and systematic way, leading to
more conclusive evidence about social behavior.

Social Psychology Focuses on the Behavior of Individuals

Social psychology aims to explain individual behavior and how it is shaped by

social and cultural factors. Research in this field examines how groups, culture,
emotions, and moods affect decision-making and individual preferences. Social
and cultural factors play a significant role in shaping the individual, including
differences in life experiences based on social class and ethnicity. These factors
affect the individual's identity, thought, and behavior.

Social Contexts/Experiences  Self-Identities  Social Behavior

Social Psychology Seeks to Understand the Causes of Social Behavior

1) The Actions and Characteristics of Other Persons

We are often affected by others people’s expression of emotions. Even though in

one case the person is expressing positive emotion toward us and in the other the
person is expressing negative feelings, in both these instances we may be
motivated to approach the other person.
Social psychology recognizes that people are often influenced by the visible
characteristics of others, such as their appearance(McCall, 1997; Twenge &
Manis, 1998). Research indicates that people often react differently to highly
attractive persons, very old people, and those belonging to their own ethnic
group. Even when consciously trying to avoid it, people are still affected by others'
appearance and group memberships. However, relying on appearance as a guide
to others' characteristics is not always inaccurate, especially when observing
spontaneous behavior.

2) cognitive processing

cognitive processes play a crucial role in social behavior, specifically in the way we
make sense of people in our social world by attributing their actions to their traits
or circumstances. Our reactions in social situations depend on our memories of
past behavior and our inferences about the truthfulness of explanations given.
Social cognition is an important area of research in social psychology (Shah, 2003;
Fiske, 2009).

3) Environmental Variables: Impact of the Physical World

aspects of the physical environment can influence our feelings, thoughts, and
behavior, and this falls within the realm of modern social psychology. Research
has explored whether factors such as weather, smells, and the presence of money
can affect our mood, behavior, and perceptions.

4) Biological Factors

The passage discusses the influence of biological processes on social behav0ior.

The author notes that while social experiences have a powerful effect on social
behavior, there is evidence to suggest that biological factors, including genetic
and neurobiological changes, can also play a role. The author emphasizes that the
evolutionary perspective does not suggest that we inherit specific patterns of
social behavior, but rather that we inherit tendencies or predispositions that may
be apparent in our overt actions, depending on the environments in which we
live.
The Search for Basic Principles in a Changing Social World

In short, although the task of identifying basic, accurate principles of social

behavior and social thought is complicated by the existence of cultural differences
and rapid changes in social life, the goals of social psychological research remain
the same: uncovering basic, accurate knowledge about the social side of life that
applies in a wide range of contexts and situations.

Social Psychology: Advances at the Boundaries

Cognition and Behavior: Two Sides of the Same Social Coin

Modern social psychology recognizes the interconnection between social

behavior (how people act in social situations) and social thought (how people
make sense of the social world and understand themselves and others). It is
widely acknowledged that these two aspects are intimately linked and cannot be
fully understood without considering each other. The interplay between social
thought and behavior is complex, as what we think about others influences our
actions towards them, and the consequences of these actions then affect our
emotions and thoughts.

The Role of Emotion in the Social Side of Life

Emotions and moods play a key role in many aspects of social life and have been a
subject of interest for social psychologists. Research has shown that positive
moods increase our tendency to offer help to others and our impressions of
others are influenced by our current moods. Social psychologists have been
investigating the role of moods in a wide range of social behaviors and interest in
this topic has increased, leading to rapid advances in our understanding of social
life.
Social Relationships: How Important They Are for Well-Being

Social relationships are critical to our well-being, and social psychologists aim to
understand how they form and change over time. Positive relationships can
greatly contribute to our happiness, while negative ones can disrupt our lives and
impact our psychological health. One topic of research in this area is whether
viewing one's partner realistically or through "rose-colored glasses" is better for
building a strong relationship(Fletcher, Simpson, & Boyes, 2006). Research
suggests that a healthy degree of accuracy is important, but positivity and
perceived similarity also contribute to happiness. Additionally, belonging to
multiple social groups that are valued predicts better psychological well-being and
longer life. Being part of such groups can also help boost self-esteem.
Chapter 4 the self

What is self-presentation?

Answer: Self-presentation refers to the conscious and intentional efforts

individuals make to shape how they are perceived by others, managing
impressions to create a desired self-image.

Tactics of self-presentation

Self-promotion: The act of highlighting one's positive qualities and

accomplishments to gain social approval or enhance self-image.

Self-verification perspective: The desire to have others perceive and confirm our
existing self-concept and beliefs about ourselves.

Ingratiation: Using flattery, compliments, or other strategies to gain liking and

acceptance from others.

Self-deprecating: Downplaying one's positive qualities or achievements and

emphasizing weaknesses or failures to appear humble or likable.

How does self-other accuracy play a role in predicting our behavior?

Answer: Self-other accuracy refers to how accurately individuals can predict their
own behavior and the behavior of others. It influences our ability to understand
and anticipate how others perceive us.

What is self-esteem?

Answer: Self-esteem refers to an individual's overall evaluation of their self-worth

and feelings of personal value and competence.

What is self-efficacy?

Answer: Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their ability to successfully

accomplish specific tasks or goals.
What is the self-serving bias?

Answer: The self-serving bias is a cognitive bias where individuals tend to

attribute their successes to internal factors (e.g., ability, effort) and their failures
to external factors (e.g., luck, situational factors).

How does self-presentation influence social interactions?

Answer: Self-presentation refers to the process of intentionally shaping how one

presents themselves to others. It can influence social interactions by managing
others' impressions, enhancing social status, and gaining social approval.

Self knowledge
Self-knowledge is sought through two primary methods—introspection and
considering ourselves from others’ vantage point. Introspection is tricky because
we often don’t have conscious access to the emotional factors that affect our
behavioral choices, or to what actually brings us happiness. We also may have
difficulty predicting how we will feel in the future because we neglect to consider
other events that will also occur besides the focal ones considered. When we
think of ourselves by taking an observer’s perspective, we see the self in more
trait terms and less responsive to situations, as observers do.

introspection—privately thinking about the factors that made us who we are

when we attempt to predict our future feelings in response to some event, what
researchers call “affective forecasting.”

What is the difference between dispositional and situational factors in

explaining behavior?

Answer: Dispositional factors refer to internal characteristics or traits of an

individual, while situational factors refer to external circumstances or
environmental influences that affect behavior.
The Self from the Observer’s Standpoint

the idea that considering ourselves from an observer's perspective can provide
greater self-insight. When we take on an observer's viewpoint, we are more likely
to characterize ourselves in dispositional or trait terms, as observers tend to do.
Research by Pronin and Ross (2006) showed that when participants described
themselves in the past compared to the present, they used more consistent traits,
regardless of their age.

The text also highlights that introspection can be misleading depending on what
we introspect about. When introspecting about conscious decision-making
processes, it can lead to accurate self-judgments. However, when we fail to
consider other influencing factors, introspection may not lead to accurate self-
inferences. People can easily generate reasons for their behavior, but these
reasons may be based on self-theories that are not necessarily correct.

In summary, gaining self-insight by considering ourselves from an observer's

perspective can provide a more accurate understanding of our behavioral
tendencies. However, introspection should be approached with caution, as it can
be influenced by self-theories and may not fully capture the underlying emotional
factors driving our behavior.

Personal Identity Versus Social Identity

the idea that our self-perception can vary depending on where we are on the
personal-versus-social identity continuum. At the personal identity end, we see
ourselves as unique individuals and emphasize how we differ from others in self-
descriptions. This involves intragroup comparisons with individuals who share our
group membership. At the social identity end, we perceive ourselves as members
of specific social groups and emphasize what we share with other group
members. This involves intergroup comparisons, contrasting our group with other
groups.

The salience of a particular identity at a given moment influences how we think

about ourselves and how we respond to others. When a personal identity is
salient, we highlight individual differences and compare ourselves to specific
individuals or groups. When a social identity is salient, we focus on shared
attributes and differentiate our group from others. It is important to note that the
content of self-descriptions can differ depending on the comparative context and
the salience of personal or social identity. Different situations and contexts can
activate different aspects of our self-concept, leading to varying self-definitions
and corresponding behaviors. Despite this variability, most individuals maintain a
coherent image of themselves while recognizing that they may define themselves
and behave differently in different situations. It is also worth noting that none of
these self-definitions can be considered the "true" self, as they can all accurately
predict behavior depending on the context and comparison dimension. People
manage to maintain a sense of self-coherence by deeming certain domains as
relatively unimportant or by not considering them salient in relation to any
specific identity.

In summary, our self-perception can shift along the personal-versus-social identity

continuum, leading to different self-descriptions and behaviors based on the
salience of a particular identity at a given moment. This understanding highlights
the complexity of the self-concept and its flexibility in response to situational
factors.