Mathematics

to Touch

Compiled and edited by Nana Vakhania

Tbilisi 2018

1
The book is a collection of Mathematical texts in English for Mathematics
Faculty and also consists of Biographies of Foreign and Geogian famous
mathematicians; Funny stories and humor; Expressions of the famous
mathematicians and public figures; Mathematical symbols and signs; The
Greek Alphabet; The list of the most frequently used mathematical terms
and short English-Georgian maths dictionary.

Compiled and edited by Nana Vakhania

Consultant - Associate professor Inga Gabisonia

Technical editing - Maya Gelashvili

2
 Contents
1. What is Mathematics and Why Do We Learn it? -5
2. The Evolution of Mathematical Thought - 8
3. The History of Mathematics - 17
4. Fields of Mathematics - 23
5. Some Facts On the Development of the Number System - 24
6. Abacus -27
7. Arithmetics – “The Queen of Mathematics”
(The father of Arithmetics) - 38
8. The Whole Numbers (Operations on them) - 39
9. Fractions (Operations on them) - 44
10. Decimal Fractions (Operations on them) -42
11. Quotients With Repeated Decimals -52
12. Formulas -58
13. Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division of Positive and Negative
Numbers , Products and Powers - 62
14. The Construction and Use of Graphs - 68
15. The History of Algebra (The Fathers of Algebra) - 75
16. The Hystory of Geometry (The Father of Geometry) - 86
17. Types of Geometry - 90
18. Solids, Surfaces, Lines, Points, Theorems, Vertical and Horizontal Lines and
Planes - 96
19. Comparing the Three Systems of Geometry -101
20. The History Of Trigonometry (The Father of Trigonometry) – 102
21. The History of Numbers Theory (The Father of Numbers Theory) -107
22. Mathematical Theorems -111
23. Natural Numbers - 112
24. Rational and Irrational Numbers - 113
25. Real Numbers - 114

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26. Complex Numbers -116
27. What is Random Numbers -117
28. Elements and sets - 119

29. The Language of Mathematics -122

30. Mapping -123
31. Sequences and Subsequences -126
32. Probability -128

33. Integration -129

34. Sequences -131
35. Continuity -132
36. Ordinary Differential Equations -135
37. Functions (Text 1, Text2) -138
38. Elementary Analysis -142
39. Mathematical Anaysis -145
40. Discrete Mathematics -148
41. Number Theory -154
42. Computational Mathematics -157
43. Statistics - 158
44. Mathematical Model -176
45. Biographies of Great mathematicians - 186
46. A.Razmadze Mathematical Institute -215
47. The Brilliant Representatives of the Georgian Mathematical Schools -217
48. Forge of Mathematicians (Sokhumi State University) -234
49. Expressions of Mathematicians and Public Figures -239
50. Problems, Funny Stories and Riddles -243
51. Cards - 249
52. Basic Mathematical Symbols - 254
53. Some Mathematical Terms with Definitions -270
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54. Vocabulary -316
55. List of Sources. -346

WHAT IS MATHEMATICS AND WHY DO WE LEARN IT ?

What is this mathematics which many people are talking about today?
Is it counting? Is it adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing? Is it
drawing figures and measuring them? I it a language which uses symbols?
The answers are all “no”. Mathematics has all of these things. But it is very
much more than all of them. Mathematics is as old as civilization itself. By the
Neolithic Period, as life became settled and villages began to appear, writing and
counting became increasingly useful. With counting, the history of mathematics
began.
Mathematics is a special way of thinking. We start with some things that
we know are true, and by thinking the right way, we show how these things give
us the only right result an the finish. It teaches us how to find the answers to the
5
puzzles.
We all know that it is easy to do a puzzle if someone has told you the
answers before. That is just a test of memory. But you can tell yourself a
mathematician if and only if you know that you can solve puzzles that you have
not studied before.
Mathematics is a branch of science. It is a higher-level language. It makes
people think. All scientific knowledge is based on mathematics.
We are living in a world which is changing very fast. There are many new
things in life like atomic submarines, jet planes, space rockets, new medicines,
and new electronic machines and so on. It is interesting that most of these new
things have something to do with mathematics and mathematicians.
Without mathematics and mathematicians we would not have many of
these new things and the world would be able to go on as it is today.
Mathematics is used to make better telephone systems airplanes, textiles,
petroleum goods and many other sings. The reason way we use mathematics in
so many different places is to do with the way mathematical reasoning makes it
possible to find the answer too many kinds of difficult problems.
Every day the world needs more and more mathematicians. In industry,
business and government, Mathematicians are used to find the answers too many
difficult kinds of problems. They are also used to help other workers to do their
jobs, and to work machines like electronic tools.
Many people who are not mathematicians use a lot of mathematics every
day. This is very true for engineers and scientists. Every day they need to know
more and more advances mathematics. Every new airplane, motor car or
electronic machine needs more advances mathematics than before.
It is important for everyone to know about mathematics and to understand
how much mathematics has to do with their lives.
Many people study mathematics for fun in the same way that many people
like music, painting pictures or playing football.

6
 Briefly, mathematics study problems and use results to find new things and
new ways of doing things, to make our lives better.
Every day mathematicians are finding new things about mathematics. And
every year mathematicians write thousands of papers on the new things they
have found. One person can not read so many papers. So on person knows
everything there is to know about mathematics. As a result if you understand
how mathematics works and how to think in a mathematical way, then you will
understand and enjoy much better the world in which you live today.

How to learn mathematics

Similar to the other types of learning of mathematics requires studying

daily and regularly.
It is well known fact that the number of students who can comprehend
everything completely by going over it only once is too limited. Mathematics is
not a skill that can be learnedby observation. Competence in mathematics will
mainly depend upon the number of problems that have been solved, the more
the better. Being not satisfied with one way of solving the problem and
looking for other techniques to solve the same problem are the characteristics
of an able mathematician. Shortly, a full understanding takes place by
regularly studying, exchanging ideas and problem solving.

The strategy for solving problems

Read the problem carefully and make sure that you understand what is
given and what is asked.
Look carefully at the symbols and make sure that yaou understand the
mathematics of the problem.
Think about how you are going to answer the problem and the best way of

7
writing it down.
Answer the problem. Draw a diagram if necessary and don’t leave
anything important out of the working. Use the correct symbols.
Because your mathematics is in English, try to think in English. Do not try
to translate each question into Georgian first.

THE EVOLUTION OF MATHEMATICAL THOUGHT

The names of the men who pioneered in mathematics, are lost in the same
ancient mists that obscure all of mankind’s early history. There are no records of
the cavemen who, eons ego, first conceived the idea of counting. Millennia went
by Hundreds of generations rose from and sank back into the earth before the
spoken number evolved into a written one. At first the notation system consisted
simply of pictures of each object being counted. Even the early Egyptians used
pictures of objects to show “how many”. Numbers could not yet be thought of
apart from the objects or pictures thereof being counted. Number was not a
separate entity.
With the rise of personal property mathematics took a giant stride forward.
Numbers now had an entity of their own, completely divorces from the things
being counted. This abstraction of numbers was the beginning of mathematics,
for men could now deal with numbers or symbols rather than actual objects.
Addition and subtraction could be carried out without physically increasing or
diminishing a quantity of objects.
Still the number systems were not perfect. The same symbol was often used
for more than one number. Multiplication and division required hours to perform
and could only be done by experts.
But history could not wait for the number system to be perfected.
Mathematics advanced in spite of its poor notation – and advanced brilliantly
with an achievement that five thousand years later is still one of the wonders of

8
the world.
This near miracle was the building of the great pyramids of Egypt. More
than memorials to dead kings, they are monuments of mathematical triumph, the
angles at the bases of the pyramids had to be exactly 900 or the sides would not
meet at one point at the top. Each side had to slope inward at the same rate. Each
stone had to be places precisely. The temple of Amon-Ra was built so that on
the longest day of the year the setting sun shines directly through the building,
from the front door to the back wall. It was all done with crude measuring
devices by men whose number system was so clumsy that a simple problem in
multiplication required the services of a professional mathematician.
The Egyptians are among the first known peoples to utilize the basic rules
of geometry. On the American hemisphere, the Mayans made a start, too, as
evidenced by their remarkable temples; but their civilization fell without their
discoveries ever entering the mainstream of man’s learning. Credit must go
instead to the Egyptians for taking the first crude steps with such glorious
results. The Egyptians were impelled to learn something about geometry, not
from intellectual curiosity, but for practical reasons. Every year the Nile
overflowed, wiping out landmarks and boundaries. In order to restore the
boundaries, the Egyptians had to learn to measure the land. Therefore, they
turned to Geometry.
Geometry never achieved the status of a science with the Egyptians. That
the Egyptians did not go further in mathematics is not surprising. A highly
religious people, their lives were oriented toward death rather than life. They
built their tombs and their ships for the dead, nothing mattered in the present
life, certainly not mathematics. Furthermore, the only educated people were the
priests, who kept all learning to themselves. Once they figured out how to tell
from the position of the stars when the Nile would overflow, they dropped their
study of astronomy. Nor did they make any effort to pass along their knowledge
to others, for it was to the priests’ benefit to keep the people ignorant and

9
depended on them. Learning, as a result, never flourished.
Meanwhile, the Babylonians in their valley between the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers were making similar strides in mathematics. They turned their
knowledge of geometry to improving their present life. The Hanging Gardens of
Babylon – also a wonder of the ancient world – could be enjoyed by King
Nebuchadnezzar here and now, while the Egyptian pharaons had to wait until
they died to use the pyramids. The greatest structures in Babylon were not tombs
but palaces and public buildings.
The Babylonians were great farmers and traders, and their financial
dealings meant that they needed – and developed – a facility in computing
numbers. As early as 4.000 B.C. they had a basic arithmetic and soon were
solving simple algebraic equations. By the time Babylonia was at its high,
around 600 B.C., her mathematicians were attempting to prove theorems in
geometry. Whatever they did in offering proofs, however, has not survived and
there is little evidence that they went very far in that direction.
Here the door of history closes on Egypt and Babylonia. Two great
civilizations slowly fell into decay. The greatest was yet to come: Greece.. Its
Golden Age lasted but three centuries. Yet there have never been three centuries
like them in the whole history of mankind. From a few Greek cities – actually
small towns by today’s standards – came the most spectacular intellectual
achievements imaginable, achievements that laid the artistic, scientific and
political foundations for all of Western civilization. Such modern-sounding
ideas as atomic physics, democracy, communism – all date back to ancient
Greece. In her three golden centuries, from the beginning to the end, when the
entire citizen population of the Greek city – states was less than the present-day
population of New-York or London, in other words, a relative handful of people,
in a short span of years reshaped the whole path of human thought – and two
thousand years later we are still on the same path.
The Greeks had started with an almost barren world and formed from it

10
geometry. They had laid the foundations and set the standards for all of sciences.
They had completely mastered geometry and make a start in trigonometry.
In Europe very little of importance to mathematic had occurred since
Archimedes. Geometry had not developed beyond the state in which the late
Alexandrians had left it. Alexandria had had one last burst of splendor when her
mathematicians measured the earth’s diameter and the distance from the Earch
to the Moon. But it would be another century to come for the significant
additions to be made.
The Roman Empire was growing like a weed, choking out the Hellenistic
cities and with them the Greek thirst for knowledge. When Caesar invaded
Egypt, he set fire to the ships in the Harbor of Alexandria. The Fire got out of
control, spread to the library and burned half a million manuscripts – the
repository of all ancient knowledge. What the flames missed the Moslems looted
seven centuries later, scattering the heritage of Greece to the four winds.
The practical-minded Roman Empire flourished for five centuries; it added
almost nothing to mathematics. When Rome fell, her ruin was as great as her
glory had been. Capitolium was described as the former sacred ground,
disfigured with thorns; the path of victory – obliterated by vines; benches of the
senators – concealed by a dunghill; the forum of the Roman people – enclosed
for the cultivation of pot-herbs or thrown open for swine and buffaloes; The
public and private buildings that had been founded for eternity, lie naked and
broken, like the limbs of a mighty giant. That was the state of Rome, and the rest
of Europe was Romeat large. Only in the East – in Turkey and India – was there
intellectual light. Constantinople preserved Greek learning but added little to it.
In India, three of the greatest strides in the development of mathematics
were being made: Our present number system was created, wherein only ten
digits, including zero, could easily and clearly express any number desired. It is
impossible to estimate the importance of this invention. Without it, mathematics
could have progressed no further. The second development was the extension of

11
the number field to include negative numbers. The third was the invention of
algebra. Symbols were invented to indicate the different operations.
During the ninth and tenth centuries, the mathematics of India spread to
Arabia, where it was developed even further. One of the most famous Arabian
mathematicians was Omar Khayyam, Known to the Western world as the author
of “The Robaiyat”. Omar Khayyam not only absorbed all that India had to teach
but added something of his own. He began to use of graphs to combine algebra
and geometry and may even have worked with the binomial theorem, thus
anticipating Descartes and Newton by several centuries.
Meanwhile, Europe was still in the Dark Ages. Algebra and Arabic
numbers were introduces to Italy in 1202 by Leonardo Fibonacci, an eminent
Pisan scholar. Everywhere the resistance against using the new number system
was great. In some places Arabic numbers were actually banned by law. Slowly,
however, Roman numerals gave way to Arabic ones, except in places where
rapid calculating did not matter, such as on monuments, buildings, watch faces,
where they persist event today.
It was not until the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries that the Renaissance
butterfly, brilliantly colored and alive, really began to emerge from the dull, dark
cocoon in which she had been sleeping for almost a thousand years. Arab
learning took root and began to be taught in the new universities. Greek
mathematicians began migrating to Europe from Constantinople, driven by
poverty and the invading Turks, who finally captured the city in 1453. With the
rise of commerce and the need for bookkeeping and accounting, interest in
numbers grew.
Whereas geometry had been good for sublime minds unconcerned with
worldly affairs, algebra was the bead and butter of the marketplace. It had
developed from accounting and grown up without a plan or structure, without
axioms and populates. Yet it worked, and men kept adding new things to it
without even feeling the need of a logical foundation. Geometry might be

12
compared to the well-brought-up, disciplined child whose formal manners
delight. Algebra, on the other hand, grew up in a household where the parent
were too busy making a living to administer discipline or teach manners. Not
until the nineteenth century did anyone notice or care that algebra lacked the
polish and style of the more aristocratic geometry.
The Renaissance burst in Italy and then spread to the rest of the continent,
breathing new life into art, science, commerce. Vigorous, brilliant, ambitious,
worldly men replaced the illiterate serfs of the Middle Ages whose main concern
had been the salvation of their souls. With the Renaissance, men’s eyes turned
earthward; explores risked their lives for gold; alchemists brewed “elixirs of
life”, tried to turn metals into gold…
A new world had been born, a Renaissance world, a world of science, a
world that came out of the womb of medieval darkness and into the light of the
modern age. Like all births, this one was accompanied by pain. Savonarola, an
Italian ascetic, had been burned because he refused to help in the birth of this
new world; Bruno, a hundred years later, had been burned and Galileo thrown
into prison because they would help. All over Europe Inquisitions had been set
up to try to keep the old order. All over Europe schools and universities, new
religious groups had been set up to effect the change. Europe had been reformed.
The Counter-Reformation came into full bloom and those who tried to serve
both the princes and the popes, the kings and the cardinals, found themselves in
trouble. In England Henry VIII made himself sovereign of both church and state,
thus solving this problem in his country.
The eighteenth century was still an age when no man could consider
himself educated without a knowledge of mathematics, for on mathematics all
knowledge was based. Its methods set the standard and became the model for
every other branch of learning; everything – any idea or fact – could be summed
up mathematically. Leibniz had even started a grand scheme whereby all ideas
were to be reduced to symbols, which could then be handled in the same way as

13
algebraic symbols. This scheme, he believed, would rid the world of wars, for
all disputes and differences could be settled peacefully and fairly by symbols.
Today an artificial language capable of expressing detailed ideas is being
developed for use by electronic computers and a whole branch of modern
mathematics, symbolic logic, has been erected on the ruins of Leibniz’s scheme.
Mathematics is the broad, autonomous field of study. From the Greeks to
modern Europe, mathematics steadily grew from a small sapling into a great tree
with its some major branches – geometry, algebra, analysis, number theory;
smaller branches sprouted from the main limbs, and it seemed that the tree could
grow indefinitely. Mathematical thinking had been grafted on to almost every
other body of knowledge in some cases successfully, in others with less
promising results. Although the real might of mathematics lay in its applications
to the physical sciences – chemistry, physics, etc. – the social sciences, too,
adopted its methods. politics, economics, sociology, psychology, all grew up
under the tutelage of mathematics.
In the new world, a nation had been founded on principles that were
mathematical in origin. The Declarationd independence was inspired by the
philosophy of John Locke who in turn got his ideas about political philosophy
from mathematicians. What Newton had done for physical science, he attempted
to do for social science. Starting with a few axioms or postulates, namely, that
Man is created free and equal with certain inalienable rights, Locke erected a
whole political system. The Founding Fathers, in turn, adopted this philosophy
as the basis of their new government. In Economics, Adam Smith borrowed
freely from mathematical thinking to produce a magnificently logical economic
system.
The mathematical tree with its method of rigorous, logical thinking seemed
to provide the answer to all men’s problems, in the social as well as in the
physical and natural sciences.
Science, once thought to be absolute truth, was forced in the eighteenth

14
century to retreat to a position where it claimed to be only a technique for
finding highly probable truth. With the rise of non-Euclidean geometry,
geometry also was forced to retreat from its lofty citadel of absolute truth to a
lower level where it took its place as only one step in a process of discovering
probable truth. And as geometry went, so went the rest of mathematics, It is not
God who geometrizes, as Plato said, or arithmetizes, as Jacob said, But man.
Mathematics is no longer an absolute truth; there is no objective reality,
mathematics is only a very useful took – and like any other tool is man-made.
The world does not necessarily fit our mathematics. On the contrary, we fit our
mathematics to the world, observing and testing to determine which
mathematics to use under different circumstances in order to have the world as
we see it, to conform to some type of mathematical order. Mathematicians do
not suppose that the mathematics chosen is a perfect fit. Nor do they make the
old mistake of supposing that the mathematical model resembles or mirrors the
real world. It was the Greeks who first conceived of the world as being made in
a mathematical mold – a conception that is still held by most people. Some
mathematician now, after two millennia, have come to realize that such a view is
as erroneous as imagining that men were made with two legs so that they would
be able to wear trousers. Despite the marvels of application, mathematics is not
claimed to be the same as reality. It is simply a marvelous mental brew.
Mathematics is a tool capable of carving many models, the best of which is
then selected to describe or picture observed facts. But the facts – or the reality
behind the facts – and the model do not necessarily correspond exactly – or even
at all. As long as the modelgives good results, however, it can be called true or
at least highly probable.
“Modern mathematicians are divided into two camps, the intuitionists and
the formalists. The intuitionist is not a person who depends on intuition in
solving problems; he is extremely rigorous and rejects much that a formalist
would accept; he maintains that it is impossible to erect a rigorous, complete,

15
logical and self-contained mathematical system, that a rigorous casual
description of nature is impossible, that eventually we reach the point where we
must appeal to intuition as a basis for the axioms. The formalist, on the other
hand, maintains that mathematics can be made into a formal, logical system that
depends only on logic and a consistent set of axioms. A formalist is more liberal
than an intuitionist in his interpretation of what constitutes a valid proof; they
have faith in a rational system” (Hardy).
For centuries men visualized the conventional plane when confronted with
Euclid’s definition and based their whole geometry on this unwarranted picture.
But geometry is not based on pictures. It is based on logic. Diagrams are nothing
but schematic renderings of abstract relationships and have no bearing on the
validity of the relationships themselves.
Non-Euclidean revolution tried to topple mathematics from the throne of
Truth. The revolution had been brewing even before the days of Euler. It was
now complete. If science and mathematics rest ultimately on unprovable and
possible erroneous axioms, why should men have faith in the truth of these
axioms? IT was two Germans, Gauss and Riemann, and two men schooled by
Germans, Lobachevsky and Bolyai, who had pioneered non-Euclidean geometry
and thus had brought the scientific crisis to a head. It was also the German
mathematicians – Weierstrass, Dedekind and Cantor – who made the greatest
strides in salvaging and rebuilding mathematics.
Within mathematics, the effect of non-Euclidean geometry was to discredit
the old idea that mathematical truth is the same as objective, absolute reality.
Men now began to realize that there are many mathematical systems – all
equally true – built on different sets of postulates and axioms. The axioms may
differ, but the rules of logic are the same for each system. Mathematics can be
viewed, according to David Hilbert, one of the greatest mathematicians of the
twentieth century, as simply a meaningless game with no connection at all with
the real world. But how can it be that “meaningless” truths can be so useful? Is it

16
mere coincidence that conic sections describe the orbits of planets; that
imaginary numbers describe alternating currents; that the classic Fibonacci
series describes the arrangement of scales on a pine cone and seeds in a sun-
flower; that geometric progressions describe whorls of a see-shell! Is it mere
coincidence that reason is so useful in probing reality? No one knows.

17
 THE HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS

Pythagoreans, who coined the term “Mathematics from

Greek “mathema” – means “subject of instruction”, another
version is from Egyptions “Ma’at” – means truth & order
Labin “mathematics” means knowledge, study, learning.

The names of the men who pioneered in mathematics are lost in the ancient
midsts. There are no records of the cavemen who, first conceived the idea of
counting: 1, 2, 3, 4 – many. At first the notation system consisted simply of
pictures of each object being counted-three bisons painted on a cave wall
recorded the number of animals a hunter had killed. Even the early Egyptians
used pictures of objects to show “how many”. Number was not a separate entity.
With the rise of personal property domestic animals, lands… mathematics took a
giant stride forward. Instead of using several sets of symbols, one for cows,
another for wheat, one set was used for all objects and the symbols were given
names: one, two, three, etc. Numbers now had an entity of their own. This
abstraction of numbers was the beginning of Maths. For men could now deal
with numbers or symbols rather than actual objects. Addition and subtraction
could be carried out without physically increasing or diminishing a quantity of
objects. Still the number system were not perfect. The same symbol was often
used for more than one number. Multiplication and division required hours to
perform and could only be done by experts.
But history could not wait for the number system to be perfected.
Mathematics advanced in spite of its poor notation – and advanced brilliantly
with an achievement that five thousand years later is still one of the wonders of
the world. More than memorials to dead kings, the great pyramids in Egypt are
monuments of mathematical triumph. The angels at the basis of the pyramids
had to be exactly 900 or the sides would not meet at one point at the top. Each

18
side had to slope inward at the same rate. Each stone had to be placed precisely.
The temple of Amon-Ra at Kernak was built so that on the longest day of the
year the setting sun shines directly through the building from the front door to
the back wall. The Egyptians were impelled to learn something about geometry,
not from intellectual curiosity but for practical reasons. Every year the Nile
overflowed, wiping out landmarks and bounderies. In order to restore the
bounderies, the Egyptians had to learn to measure the land. Therefore, they
turned to geometry. The very word in Greek and Latin means “to measure”
(metrein and metric) “the earth” (ge and geo).
Geometry never achieved the status of a science with the Egyptians. It
never was anything more than a collections of rules and rough measurements;
the circumference of a circle, for instance, was calculated to be (4/3) 4 of the
diameter. That the Egyptians did not go further in mathematics is not surprising.
A highly religious people their lives were oriented toward death rather than life.
They built tombs and ships for the dead – everything was derected toward the
life hereafter nothing mattered in the present one, certainly not mathematics.
Furthermore: the only educated people were the priests who kept all learning to
themselves. Only they had figured out how to tell from the position of the stars
when the Nile would overflow, they dropped there study of astronomy. Nor did
they make any effort to pass along their knowledge to others, for the priests
wanted to keep the people ignorant and dependent on them.
Meanwhile, the Babylonians between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers were
making similar strides in mathematics. They turned their knowledge of
geometry to improving their present life. The hanging Gardens of Babylon –
also a wonder of the ancient world – could be enjoyed by King Nebuchadnezzar
here and now, while the Egyptian pharaons had to wait until they died to use the
pyramids. The greatest structures in Babylon were not tombs but palaces and
public buildings. The Babylonians were great farmers and traders, and their
financial dealings meant that they needed – and developed – a facility in

19
computting numbers. Is early as 4.000 B.C. they had a basic arithemetic and
soon were solving simple algebraic equations. By the time Babylonia was at its
height, around 600 B.C., her mathematicians were trying to prove theorems in
geometry. The Greeks are often given credit for being the first to construct
proofs, but recent discoveries point to the Babylonians as the true originators.
Here the door of history closes on Egypt and Babylonia. Two great civilizations
slowly fell into decey. The greatest was yet to come: Greece. Its Golden Age
lasted but three centuries. Yet there have never been three centuries like them in
the whole history of mankind. From a few Greek cities actually small towns by
today’s standards –came the most intellectual achievements imaginable,
achievements that laid the artistic, scientific and political foundations for all of
Western civilization. Such modern – Sounding ideas as atomic physics,
democracy, and communism all date back to ancient Greece. In her three golden
centuries the entire citizen population of the Greek city – states was less than the
present – day population of New York or London. In other words, a handful of
people in a short span of years reshaped the whole path of human thought – and
two thousand years later we are still on the same path. The speciality of the
Greeks was mathematics and it is here that individual men (Pytagoras, Euclid,
Archimedes) begin the be identifiable on the mathematical scene. The Greeks
had laid foundations and set the standards for all of science. They had
completely mastered geometry and made a start in trigonometry. Archimedes
pointed the way to calculas or analysis, but there was no one to follow.
Archimedes had developed the subject to the point where no further advances
could be made without algebra and analytic geometry. History had to wait
seventeen centuries for the next major step.

1. mists - ბინდი

2. conceive [kənˈsiːv] - ჩაწვდომა, წარმოდგენა, გატარება

3. notation - აღნიშვნა, თვლისსისტემა
20
4. entity - არსი
5. stride - დიდინაბიჯი
6. abstract-on - აბსტრაქცია
7. diminishing - შემცირება
8. advanced - წინსწვლა, წარმატება; +maths - უმაღლესიმათემატიკა
9. wonders - საოცრება

10. slope– დახრა

11. rate - სიჩქარე
12. precisely - ზუსტად
13. temple - ტაძარი
14. impelled–მოქმედებაში მოყვანა, წინ წაწევა
15. bounderies - საზღვარი
16. circumference - მიდამო, გარშემოწერილობა
17. tomb – საფლავი, საფლავის ქვა
18. hereafter – მომავალში
19. fuxthermure - ამასგარდა, ამასთანავე
20. pharaohs [ˈfɛəroʊz] - ფარაონები
21. stride - ნაბიჯი
22. originators - წარმოშობა

23. deccey –დაშლა

24. entire - მთლიანი
25. span–უმოკლესი გზა
26. identifiable–იგივეობა
27. standards – ნორმა, სტანდარტი, საზომი, ნიმუში
28. shape - ფორმა

21
 ARCHIMEDES (287-212 B.C.) THE FATHER
OF MATHEMATICS

The great Scientist of ancient times Archimedes was born at Syracuse in

Sicily in the year 287 before our era (B.C.) He was educated in Alexandria.
After he had completed his course there, he returned to his native town where he
spent the rest on his life and earned the high respect of its citizens.
Archimedes discovered many laws of mathematics. He used to say:
“Give me but one firm spot on which to stand, and I will move the Earth”.
Archimedes was not only a mathematician. Many stories are told of his
assistance to his city. Once he destroyed the enemy ships by focussing the Sun’s
rays upon them by means of lenses. On another occasion, when the builders
were unable to launch a ship, Archimedes did it using some mechanism.
The King of Syracuse had high respect for Archimedes. It happened that a
goldsmisth made a gold crown for the king but the king suspected the gold to
have been alloyed with some baser metal. The king asked Archimedes to test the
22
gold of the crown.
One day when Archimedes was having his bath, the method to test the
crown came into his mind. And the astonished people saw Archimedes run
through the streets of Syracuse shouting. “Eurika! Eurika! (I have found it! I
have found it!)”.
“This day, if we knew which it was, must be celebrated as the birthday of
mathematical physics”, an English scientist says.

23
 Fields of Mathematics

Applied Mathematics: Space Quontity:

● Mathematical Physics ● Geometry
● Fluid dynamics ● Algbraic geometry
● Numerical Analysis ● Trigonometry
● Optimization ● Differential geometry
● Probability Theory ● Topology
● Statistics ● Fractal geometry
● Financial Mathematics
● Game theory
Discrete Mathematics: Change
● Combinatorics ● Calculus
● Theory of computation ● Vector calculus
● Cryptography ● Differential equations
● Graph theory ● Dynamical Systems
● Chaos theory
Foundations and Philosophy: Structure
● Mathematical logic ● Number theory
● Set theory ● Abstract Algebra
● Category theory ● Group theory
● Order theory

24
 SOME FACTS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NUMBER
SYSTEM

Our present number system has not always been so fully developed as it is
today. The number system is closely connected with early prehistoric man and
with the most recent discoveries in atomic science.

But there was a time when man did not know how to count. The origin of
number and counting is hidden behind countless prehistoric ages. No one
knows when counting first began. Before man learned to count, he probably
used names or signs for each person or thing. It is believed that the early
shepherds would call their sheep by name in order to determine if any of them
were missing. Counting represents a very important milestone in the progress
of civilization. Of course, there were no number names at first; so counterswere
used. For counters man used sticks, pebbles, his fingers, and in some instances,
his toes also. In fact, the word calculus comes from the Latin, meaning pebble;
our numerals are called digits from the Latin, meaning finger.

The early shepherd probably learned that, instead of calling his sheep by
name, he could lay aside a pebble for each sheep as he led them to the corral for
the night and thus learned if any one of them had been lost.

It is possible to mention only a few important achievements in the history of

mathematics. Historical records give evidence of the astronomical and
arithmetical achievements of the early Babylonians, Sumerians, and Chinese.
Somewhere in the distant past man learned that number was useful for civilized
living. As early as 5,700 В. С. predecessors of the Babylonians had calendar
and a type of practical arithmetic.

One of the greatest mathematicians of recorded history was the Greek

Archimedes (287 - 212 В. С.) who developed a dynamic mathematics which
could be applied to the laws of nature.

The practical civilization of ancient Rome, great in many other fields,

contributed little to mathematics.

Going to the Renaissance period, we find the tribes of Moslems coming to

Europe, bringing with them the culture of many civilizations, including a
strange number system acauired from the Hindus.

Only about 300 years ago a great mathematician and philosopher. Rene
Descartes (1596 - 1650) represented number pairs by points. This creation
made possible the great advance in science and mathematics during the
eighteenth century. In 1642 one of the greatest minds of all time Isaac Newton
was born (1642 - 1727). Newton was one of the inventors of the calculus which
25
is now studied bv college students who are seriously interested in mathematics
or physical science.

Few discoveries in world science can equal the discovery of Lobachevsky

(1792 -1 856). Like Archimedes, Galileo, Copernicus and Newton, he is one of
those who laid the foundations of science. Lobachevsky created one of the
greatest masterpieces of mathematics - non- Euclidean geometry.

Our number-system uses only the symbols 0, 1, 2 ... 9; it has base ten and
positional notation. Thus any integer can be expressed with these symbols in
various, combinations and arrangements. The base of our system is ten. Ten is
probably the base because we have ten fingers and the" fingers were used in the
early stages of counting.

One of the significiant input to Math was the The introduction of “zero”
was the father of Arithmetic Brahmagupta (Indian mathematician – 598 A.D.).
Invention of zero and our number system is one of the greatest achievements of
the human race, without which the progress of science, industry, and commerce
could be impossible. This new system was introduced in Europe by the Arabs,
or Moslems, at about the beginning of the tenth century. These new numbers
were used, and finally, after about five centuries, the decimal system won the
battle.

A.D ჩვენი ერა

ancient Rome ძველი რომი

Archimedes არქიმედე

Babylonians ბაბილონელები

calculus აღრიცხვა

Chinese ჩინელები

Copernicus კოპერნიკი

counters მთვლელები, დამთვლელები

counting თვლა

Descartes, Rene რენე დეკარტი

26
 dynamic mathematics დინამიური მათემატიკა

Hindus ინდუსები

Galileo გალილეი

If any of them were missing აქ ზოგიერთი მათგანი არ არის

It is believed დასაშვებია

milestone ეტაპი

non-Euclidean geometry არაევკლიდური გეომეტრია

number names რიცხვების დასახელება

number system რიცხვითი სისტემა

point წერტილი

by point წერტილებით

positional notation პოზიციური აღნისვნა

prehistoric age ისტორიამდელი ეპოქა

Renaissance period აღორძინების ხანა

Sumerians შუმერები

zero (nought) ნული

HINDU FIGURES

We say that 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0 are Arabic [ˈærabik] figures but they

are Hindu figures. This system of writing numbers uses signs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, 0 and then O on the right-hand side of 1 to 10 and other numbers (a
handred, a million, and others). This system is one of the greatest treasures of
27
people. If you do not believe it, try to multiply XVIII by XXIII in Roman
figures. In Hindu figures it is much easier.
The Roman system of numerals is very old. The sign X for ten means two
hands, one above the other. The Romans made their number with the help of
strokes. They put them before or after these signs and each stroke stood for a
finger. The sign IX, with a stroke before the X means two full hands of fingers
minus one finger.
The Roman system of numerals was once used in Europe, and now we
sometimes use the Roman figures.
The Hindu system of figures was used by the Arabs, and first came to
Europe in 1202. It was known in England by about 1300, and began to be used
there by about 1500.
A.D. = Anno Domini – ჩვენი ხანა, ახალი წელთაღრიცხვით.
B.C. = Before Christe – ქრისტესშობამდე.

Abacus
"Abaci" and "Abacuses" redirect here. For the Turkish surname, see Abacı. For
the medieval book, see Liber Abaci.

A Chinese abacus, Suanpan

28
Calculating-Table by Gregor Reisch: Margarita Philosophica, 1503. The
woodcut shows Arithmeticainstructing an algorist and an abacist (inaccurately
represented as Boethiusand Pythagoras). There was keen competition between
the two from the introduction of the Algebra into Europe in the 12th century
until its triumph in the 16th.
The abacus (plural abaci or abacuses), also called a counting frame, is a
calculating tool that was in use in Europe, China and Russia, centuries before
the adoption of the written Hindu–Arabic numeral system. The exact origin of
the abacus is still unknown. Today, abaci are often constructed as
a bamboo frame with beads sliding on wires, but originally they were beans or
stones moved in grooves in sand or on tablets of wood, stone, or metal.
Abaci come in different designs. Some designs, like the bead frame consisting of
beads divided into tens, are used mainly to teach arithmetic, although they
remain popular in the post-Soviet states as a tool. Other designs, such as the
Japanese soroban, have been used for practical calculations even involving
several digits. For any particular abacus design, there usually are numerous
different methods to perform a certain type of calculation, which may include
basic operations like addition and multiplication, or even more complex ones,
such as calculating square roots. Some of these methods may work with non-
natural numbers (numbers such as 1.5 and 3⁄4).
Although today many use calculators and computers instead of abaci to
calculate, abaci still remain in common use in some countries. Merchants,
traders and clerks in some parts of Eastern Europe, Russia, China and Africa use
abaci, and they are still used to teach arithmetic to children. Some people who
are unable to use a calculator because of visual impairment may use an abacus.

The use of the word abacus dates before 1387 AD, when a Middle English work
borrowed the word from Latin to describe a sandboard abacus. The Latin word

29
came from Greek ἄβαξ abax which means something without base, and
improperly, any piece of rectangular board or plank. Alternatively, without
reference to ancient texts on etymology, it has been suggested that it means "a
square tablet strewn with dust", or "drawing-board covered with dust (for the use
of mathematics)" (the exact shape of the Latin perhaps reflects the genitive
form of the Greek word, ἄβακoς abakos). Whereas the table strewn with dust
definition is popular, there are those that do not place credence in this at all and
in fact state that it is not proven. Greek ἄβαξ itself is probably a borrowing of
a Northwest Semitic, perhaps Phoenician, word akin to Hebrew ʾābāq (‫)אבק‬,
"dust" (or in post-Biblical sense meaning "sand used as a writing surface").
The preferred plural of abacus is a subject of disagreement, with both abacuses
and abaci in use. The user of an abacus is called an abacist.

History
Mesopotamian
The period 2700–2300 BC saw the first appearance of the Sumerian abacus, a
table of successive columns which delimited the successive orders of magnitude
of their sexagesimal number system. Some scholars point to a character from
the Babylonian cuneiform which may have been derived from a representation
of the abacus. It is the belief of Old Babylonian scholars such as Carruccio that
Old Babylonians "may have used the abacus for the operations
of addition and subtraction; however, this primitive device proved difficult to
use for more complex calculations".
Egyptian
The use of the abacus in Ancient Egypt is mentioned by the Greek
historian Herodotus, who writes that the Egyptians manipulated the pebbles
from right to left, opposite in direction to the Greek left-to-right method.
Archaeologists have found ancient disks of various sizes that are thought to have
been used as counters. However, wall depictions of this instrument have not
been discovered.
Persian
During the Achaemenid Empire, around 600 BC the Persians first began to use
the abacus. Under the Parthian, Sassanian and Iranian empires, scholars
concentrated on exchanging knowledge and inventions with the countries
around them – India, China, and the Roman Empire, when it is thought to have
been exported to other countries.
Greek
An early photograph of the Salamis Tablet, 1899. The original is marble and is
held by the National Museum of Epigraphy, in Athens.

30
The earliest archaeological evidence for the use of the Greek abacus dates to the
5th century BC. Also Demosthenes (384 BC–322 BC) talked of the need to use
pebbles for calculations too difficult for your head. A play by Alexisfrom the 4th
century BC mentions an abacus and pebbles for accounting, and
both Diogenes and Polybius mention men that sometimes stood for more and
sometimes for less, like the pebbles on an abacus. The Greek abacus was a table
of wood or marble, pre-set with small counters in wood or metal for
mathematical calculations. This Greek abacus saw use in Achaemenid Persia,
the Etruscan civilization, Ancient Rome and, until the French Revolution, the
Western Christian world.
A tablet found on the Greek island Salamis in 1846 AD (the Salamis Tablet),
dates back to 300 BC, making it the oldest counting board discovered so far. It is
a slab of white marble 149 cm (59 in) long, 75 cm (30 in) wide, and 4.5 cm
(2 in) thick, on which are 5 groups of markings. In the center of the tablet is a set
of 5 parallel lines equally divided by a vertical line, capped with a semicircle at
the intersection of the bottom-most horizontal line and the single vertical line.
Below these lines is a wide space with a horizontal crack dividing it. Below this
crack is another group of eleven parallel lines, again divided into two sections
by a line perpendicular to them, but with the semicircle at the top of the
intersection; the third, sixth and ninth of these lines are marked with a cross
where they intersect with the vertical line. Also from this time frame the Darius
Vase was unearthed in 1851. It was covered with pictures including a "treasurer"
holding a wax tablet in one hand while manipulating counters on a table with the
other.
Chinese
Main article: Suanpan

A Chinese abacus (suanpan) (the number represented in the picture is

6,302,715,408)

Abacus

Chinese 算盤

Literal meaning "calculating tray"

31
The earliest known written documentation of the Chinese abacus dates to the
2nd century BC.
The Chinese abacus, known as the suanpan (算盤, lit. "counting tray"), is
typically 20 cm (8 in) tall and comes in various widths depending on the
operator. It usually has more than seven rods. There are two beads on each rod
in the upper deck and five beads each in the bottom. The beads are usually
rounded and made of a hardwood. The beads are counted by moving them up or
down towards the beam; beads moved toward the beam are counted, while those
moved away from it are not. The suanpan can be reset to the starting position
instantly by a quick movement along the horizontal axis to spin all the beads
away from the horizontal beam at the center.
Suanpan can be used for functions other than counting. Unlike the simple
counting board used in elementary schools, very efficient suanpan techniques
have been developed to do multiplication, division, addition, subtraction, square
rootand cube root operations at high speed. There are currently schools teaching
students how to use it.
In the long scroll Along the River During the Qingming Festival painted
by Zhang Zeduan during the Song dynasty (960–1297), a suanpan is clearly
visible beside an account book and doctor's prescriptions on the counter of
an apothecary's (Feibao).
The similarity of the Roman abacus to the Chinese one suggests that one could
have inspired the other, as there is some evidence of a trade relationship between
the Roman Empire and China. However, no direct connection can be
demonstrated, and the similarity of the abaci may be coincidental, both
ultimately arising from counting with five fingers per hand. Where the Roman
model (like most modern Korean and Japanese) has 4 plus 1 bead per decimal
place, the standard suanpan has 5 plus 2. (Incidentally, this allows use with
a hexadecimal numeral system, which was used for traditional Chinese measures
of weight.) Instead of running on wires as in the Chinese, Korean, and Japanese
models, the beads of Roman model run in grooves, presumably making
arithmetic calculations much slower.
Another possible source of the suanpan is Chinese counting rods, which
operated with a decimal system but lacked the concept of zero as a place holder.
The zero was probably introduced to the Chinese in the Tang dynasty (618–907)
when travel in the Indian Ocean and the Middle East would have provided direct
contact with India, allowing them to acquire the concept of zero and the decimal
point from Indian merchants and mathematicians.
Roman
Main article: Roman abacus

32
Copy of a Roman abacus
The normal method of calculation in ancient Rome, as in Greece, was by
moving counters on a smooth table. Originally pebbles (calculi) were used.
Later, and in medieval Europe, jetons were manufactured. Marked lines
indicated units, fives, tens etc. as in the Roman numeral system. This system of
'counter casting' continued into the late Roman empire and in medieval Europe,
and persisted in limited use into the nineteenth century. Due to Pope Sylvester
II's reintroduction of the abacus with modifications, it became widely used in
Europe once again during the 11th century This abacus used beads on wires,
unlike the traditional Roman counting boards, which meant the abacus could be
used much faster.
Writing in the 1st century BC, Horace refers to the wax abacus, a board covered
with a thin layer of black wax on which columns and figures were inscribed
using a stylus.
One example of archaeological evidence of the Roman abacus, shown here in
reconstruction, dates to the 1st century AD. It has eight long grooves containing
up to five beads in each and eight shorter grooves having either one or no beads
in each. The groove marked I indicates units, X tens, and so on up to millions.
The beads in the shorter grooves denote fives –five units, five tens etc.,
essentially in a bi-quinary coded decimal system, related to the Roman
numerals. The short grooves on the right may have been used for marking
Roman "ounces" (i.e. fractions).
Indian
The decimal number system invented in India replaced the abacus in Western
Europe.
The Abhidharmakośabhāṣya of Vasubandhu (316-396), a Sanskrit work on
Buddhist philosophy, says that the second-century CE
philosopher Vasumitra said that "placing a wick (Sanskrit vartikā) on the
number one (ekāṅka) means it is a one, while placing the wick on the number
hundred means it is called a hundred, and on the number one thousand means it
is a thousand". It is unclear exactly what this arrangement may have been.
Around the 5th century, Indian clerks were already finding new ways of

33
recording the contents of the Abacus. Hindu texts used the term śūnya (zero) to
indicate the empty column on the abacus.
Japanese
Main article: Soroban

Japanese soroban
In Japanese, the abacus is called soroban (算盤, そろばん, lit. "Counting tray"),
imported from China in the 14th century. It was probably in use by the working
class a century or more before the ruling class started, as the class structure did
not allow for devices used by the lower class to be adopted or used by the ruling
class. The 1/4 abacus, which is suited to decimal calculation, appeared circa
1930, and became widespread as the Japanese abandoned hexadecimal weight
calculation which was still common in China. The abacus is still manufactured
in Japan today even with the proliferation, practicality, and affordability of
pocket electronic calculators. The use of the soroban is still taught in
Japanese primary schools as part of mathematics, primarily as an aid to faster
mental calculation. Using visual imagery of a soroban, one can arrive at the
answer in the same time as, or even faster than, is possible with a physical
instrument.
Korean
The Chinese abacus migrated from China to Korea around 1400 AD. Koreans
call it jupan (주판), supan (수판) or jusan (주산).
Native American

Representation of an Inca quipu

34
A yupana as used by the Incas.
Some sources mention the use of an abacus called a nepohualtzintzin in
ancient Aztec culture. This Mesoamerican abacus used a 5-digit base-20
system. The word Nepōhualtzintzin [nepoːwaɬˈt͡sint͡sin] comes from Nahuatland
it is formed by the roots; Ne – personal -; pōhual or pōhualli [ˈpoːwalːi] – the
account -; and tzintzin [ˈt͡sint͡sin] – small similar elements. Its complete meaning
was taken as: counting with small similar elements by somebody. Its use was
taught in the Calmecac to the temalpouhqueh [temaɬˈpoʍkeʔ], who were
students dedicated to take the accounts of skies, from childhood.
The Nepōhualtzintzin was divided in two main parts separated by a bar or
intermediate cord. In the left part there were four beads, which in the first row
have unitary values (1, 2, 3, and 4), and in the right side there are three beads
with values of 5, 10, and 15 respectively. In order to know the value of the
respective beads of the upper rows, it is enough to multiply by 20 (by each row),
the value of the corresponding account in the first row.
Altogether, there were 13 rows with 7 beads in each one, which made up 91
beads in each Nepōhualtzintzin. This was a basic number to understand, 7 times
13, a close relation conceived between natural phenomena, the underworld and
the cycles of the heavens. One Nepōhualtzintzin (91) represented the number of
days that a season of the year lasts, two Nepōhualtzitzin (182) is the number of
days of the corn's cycle, from its sowing to its harvest, three Nepōhualtzintzin
(273) is the number of days of a baby's gestation, and four Nepōhualtzintzin
(364) completed a cycle and approximate a year (11/4 days short). When
translated into modern computer arithmetic, the Nepōhualtzintzin amounted to
the rank from 10 to the 18 in floating point, which calculated stellar as well as
infinitesimal amounts with absolute precision, meant that no round off was
allowed.
The rediscovery of the Nepōhualtzintzin was due to the Mexican engineer David
Esparza Hidalgo, who in his wanderings throughout Mexico found diverse
engravings and paintings of this instrument and reconstructed several of them
made in gold, jade, encrustations of shell, etc. There have also been found very
old Nepōhualtzintzin attributed to the Olmec culture, and even some bracelets
of Mayan origin, as well as a diversity of forms and materials in other cultures.

35
George I. Sanchez, "Arithmetic in Maya", Austin-Texas, 1961 found another
base 5, base 4 abacus in the Yucatán Peninsula that also computed calendar data.
This was a finger abacus, on one hand 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 were used; and on the
other hand 0, 1, 2 and 3 were used. Note the use of zero at the beginning and end
of the two cycles. Sanchez worked with Sylvanus Morley, a noted Mayanist.
The quipu of the Incas was a system of colored knotted cords used to record
numerical data, like advanced tally sticks – but not used to perform calculations.
Calculations were carried out using a yupana (Quechua for "counting tool"; see
figure) which was still in use after the conquest of Peru. The working principle
of a yupana is unknown, but in 2001 an explanation of the mathematical basis of
these instruments was proposed by Italian mathematician Nicolino De Pasquale.
By comparing the form of several yupanas, researchers found that calculations
were based using the Fibonacci sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5 and powers of 10, 20 and
40 as place values for the different fields in the instrument. Using the Fibonacci
sequence would keep the number of grains within any one field at a minimum.
Russian

Russian abacus
The Russian abacus, the schoty (счёты), usually has a single slanted deck, with
ten beads on each wire (except one wire, usually positioned near the user, with
four beads for quarter-ruble fractions). Older models have another 4-bead wire
for quarter-kopeks, which were minted until 1916. The Russian abacus is often
used vertically, with wires from left to right in the manner of a book. The wires
are usually bowed to bulge upward in the center, to keep the beads pinned to
either of the two sides. It is cleared when all the beads are moved to the right.
During manipulation, beads are moved to the left. For easy viewing, the middle
2 beads on each wire (the 5th and 6th bead) usually are of a different color from
the other eight beads. Likewise, the left bead of the thousands wire (and the
million wire, if present) may have a different color.
As a simple, cheap and reliable device, the Russian abacus was in use in all
shops and markets throughout the former Soviet Union, and the usage of it was
36
taught in most schools until the 1990s. Even the 1874 invention of mechanical
calculator, Odhner arithmometer, had not replaced them in Russia and likewise
the mass production of Felix arithmometers since 1924 did not significantly
reduce their use in the Soviet Union. The Russian abacus began to lose
popularity only after the mass production of microcalculators had started in the
Soviet Union in 1974. Today it is regarded as an archaism and replaced by the
handheld calculator.
The Russian abacus was brought to France around 1820 by the
mathematician Jean-Victor Poncelet, who served in Napoleon's army and had
been a prisoner of war in Russia. The abacus had fallen out of use in western
Europe in the 16th century with the rise of decimal notation
and algorismic methods. To Poncelet's French contemporaries, it was something
new. Poncelet used it, not for any applied purpose, but as a teaching and
demonstration aid. The Turks and the Armenian people also used abaci similar
to the Russian schoty. It was named a coulba by the Turks and a choreb by the
Armenians.

School abacus

Early 20th century abacus used in Danish elementary school.

A twenty bead rekenrek

Around the world, abaci have been used in pre-schools and elementary schools
as an aid in teaching the numeral system and arithmetic.
In Western countries, a bead frame similar to the Russian abacus but with
straight wires and a vertical frame has been common (see image). It is still often
seen as a plastic or wooden toy.
The wire frame may be used either with positional notation like other abaci (thus
the 10-wire version may represent numbers up to 9,999,999,999), or each bead
may represent one unit (so that e.g. 74 can be represented by shifting all beads
on 7 wires and 4 beads on the 8th wire, so numbers up to 100 may be
represented). In the bead frame shown, the gap between the 5th and 6th wire,
37
corresponding to the color change between the 5th and the 6th bead on each
wire, suggests the latter use.
The red-and-white abacus is used in contemporary primary schools for a wide
range of number-related lessons. The twenty bead version, referred to by
its Dutch name rekenrek ("calculating frame"), is often used, sometimes on a
string of beads, sometimes on a rigid framework.

Uses by the blind

An adapted abacus, invented by Tim Cranmer, called a Cranmer abacus is still
commonly used by individuals who are blind. A piece of soft fabric or rubber is
placed behind the beads so that they do not move inadvertently. This keeps the
beads in place while the users feel or manipulate them. They use an abacus to
perform the mathematical functions multiplication, division,
addition, subtraction, square root and cube root.
Although blind students have benefited from talking calculators, the abacus is
still very often taught to these students in early grades, both in public schools
and state schools for the blind. The abacus teaches mathematical skills that can
never be replaced with talking calculators and is an important learning tool for
blind students. Blind students also complete mathematical assignments using a
braille-writer and Nemeth code (a type of braille code for mathematics) but large
multiplication and long division problems can be long and difficult. The abacus
gives blind and visually impaired students a tool to compute mathematical
problems that equals the speed and mathematical knowledge required by their
sighted peers using pencil and paper. Many blind people find this number
machine a very useful tool throughout life.

Binary abacus

Two binary abaci constructed by Dr. Robert C. Good, Jr., made from two
Chinese abaci
The binary abacus is used to explain how computers manipulate numbers. The
abacus shows how numbers, letters, and signs can be stored in a binary
system on a computer, or via ASCII. The device consists of a series of beads on
parallel wires arranged in three separate rows. The beads represent a switch on
the computer in either an "on" or "off" position.

38
Arithmetic – “The Queen of Mathematics” – Carl Friedrich Gauss

The word “Arithmetic” comes from Greek “arithmos” meaning “number”.

Arithmetic is the elementary branch of mathematics dealing with the
properties of numbers and the operations on them. The fundamental operations
are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. The arithmetic symbols
now is use, were derived from the Arabs and the Hindus. These symbols have
been in use since the 16 century. Before the introduction of Arab notation in
Europe, Roman numerals were used. The Arabic system is a decimal system. By
combining these figures any positive integer can be expressed.
The number system can be devided into five principal stages, going from
the simplest to the most complicated they are: . the first – the system
consisting the positive integers only; . the second – comprising the positive
and negative integes and zero; . the third – the rational numbers, which
include fractions as well as the integers; . the fourth – the real numbers, which
include the irrational numbers, such as π [paɪ]; . the fifth – the complex
numbers, which introduce the “imaginary” number (the square root of minus
one). The numbers usually written are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. The Romans wrote
them using strokes I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X.
The Greeks wrote α, β, γ, δ, … – and so on.

The father of Arithmetics Brahmagupta - he was an Indian

39
mathematician who was born in 598 AD in Rajastan, India. He wrote many
textbooks for maths and astronomy. His contribution to maths was great. He
introduces “zero” to number system. His works had introduced many rules of
arithmetic, many geometrical theories like the “Pytagorian theorem” for a right
angle triangle, and in trigonometry values of the sine function. His great works
about solar system. He calculated the length of the solar year which was 365
days, 5 minutes and 19 seconds. His work about “gravity” as well-as many other
important works. He died between 660-670 AD.

THE WHOLE NUMBERS

Generally when numbers are written the numerals are grouped by threes so
that it becomes easy for the eye to distinguish them.

Thus five million six hundred seventy-five thousand four hundred ninety-
two is written as 5675492.

Often the groups of threes are separated from one another by commas, thus:
5,675,492.

Numbers, when written, are often described by the number of numerals they
contain, the number of places. Thus 72 is a two-place number and 4895 is a
four-place number.

Four-place numbers, especially dates, are often written without commas or

spaces, as 1905, 1943.

Problems

1. Write the smallest three-place number.

2. Write the largest three-place number.

Addition of Whole Numbers

The addition of two or more numbers is an arithmetic operation by means of

which a new number is obtained. This new number contains as many units as
are contained in all of added numbers taken together. The numbers that are
added are known as the addends.

40
 The number resulting from the addition of two or more numbers is known as
the sum. The sign for addition is + (plus).

SOME METHODS

Addition is best performed when the numbers are written in columns so that
units, tens, hundreds, and so forth are written vertically.

For example, the sum of 1,562 and 1,891 is obtained as follows:

The addition is performed from right to left. We can easily observe that the
addition of 8 to 35 gives the same result when 35 is added to 8. In either of the
additions the sum is 43.

Thus - the sum of two or more numbers does not change when the order in
which the numbers are added is changed.

Note: Обычно при сложении и вычитании столбиком англичане ставят

знаки + и - у последнего столбика.

Subtraction of Whole Numbers

Subtraction is an arithmetic operation by means of which one of the addends is

obtained, when the sum and another addend are given.

The result is known as the difference of the two given numbers.

The number from which another number is to be subtracted is known as the

minuend. The number that is subtracted is known as the subtrahend. Subtraction
is an operation opposite to addition. The sign is - (minus).

THE PROCESS ОF SUBTRACTION

Subtraction of many-place numbers is performed as follows:

41
 We begin the subtraction from the right and we subtract the numbers in the
same column. Thus: 6-4 = 2; 8 - 5=3; etc.

Multiplication of Whole Numbers

Multiplication is an arithmetic operation by means of which one number is

repeated as an addend until it occurs as many times as it is indicated by another
number.

There are two numbers involved in multiplication. The result of their operation
on each other is known as the product.

That number which is repeated as an addend is known as the multiplicand. The

number by which the multiplicand is multiplied is known as the multiplier. The
sign is × or (•).

Division of Whole Numbers

The operation by means of which a factor is obtained when the product and the
other factor are given is called division.

The arithmetic operation of division is performed on that number which we

take as the given product.

In division this number is called the dividend.

The given factor is known as the number by which the dividend or product is to
be divided. This number is called the divisor.

The result of the division of the dividend by the divisor is called

the quotient. The sign of division is : or ( ÷in England).

ORDER OF OPERATIONS
When we are adding numbers, it makes no difference in what order the
numbers are taken. The best way to check the addition of a column of figures is
to add in the reverse order: if you have already added up the column, then check
by adding down.

42
 Numbers may also be multiplied in any order, and a good check for
multiplying 378 by 597 is to multiply 597 by 378.

When an example calls for additions and also subtractions, we may perform the
operations in any order we like. 12 - 20+18 is the same as - 12 + 18 - 20; x2 - 5 +
3x may be written x2 +3x - 5.

In a more complicated example like 5+2 X 7 - 12 : 6 the multiplications and

divisions must be performed before the additions, and subtractions:

5 + 2 × 7- 12 : 6 = 5+14 -2 = 19 - 2 = 17.

To find the value of such an expression as 5a2 + 2ab - a3 when a = 3, b=4, the
value of each term is first obtained separately:

5a2 + 2ab - a3 = 5 • 32 +2 • 3 • 4 - 33 = 5 • 9 +2 • 12 - 27 = 45 + 24 - 27 = 69 -
27 = 42.

The parentheses in 4 (5+3) is a symbol of grouping, and the expression within

the parentheses must be handled as a single number. In any example, the
operation inside the parentheses must be done first of all.

add შეკრება

addend შესაკრები

addition შეკრება

check შემოწმება

difference სხვაობა

divide გაყოფა

dividend გამყოფი

division გაყოფა

divisor გამყოფი

factor თანამამრავლი

in column სვეტში

43
by means of რაიმეს მეშვეობით

minuend საკლები

minus მინუსი

multiplicand თანამამრავლი

multiplication გამრავლების ოპერაცია

multiplier თანამამრავლი

multiply გამრავლება

number of places თანრიგების რიცხვი

numeral ციფრი, ციფრული

parentheses ფრჩხილები

perform შესრულება

plus პლიუსო

problem ამოცანა, პრობლემა

product პროგუქტი

quotient განაყოფი

reverse order შებრუნებული თანმიმდევრობა

sign ნიშანი, სიმბოლო

space მანძილი, ინტერვალი

subtract გამოკლების ოპერაცია

subtraction გამოკლება

subtrahend მაკლები

sum ჯამი

44
 term წევრი

two- (three-, four-) place number ორ-, სამ-, ოთხნიშნა რიცხვი

unit ერთეული

value სიდიდე

whole number მთელი რიცხვი

FRACTIONS
A fraction is a part of unit, such as ½, ¾ etc.

A fraction has a numerator and denominator.

Example: in the fraction ¾ -3 is the numerator, and 4 is he denominator.

In the fraction the numerator is being divided by the denominator.

The fraction

indicates that 2 is being divided by 7.

A mixed number is an integer together with a fraction, such as etc. The integer
is the integral part, and the fraction is the fractional part.

An improper fraction is one in which the numerator is greater than the

denominator, such as

3
2
5

3
7
8

etc.

To change a mixed number to an improper fraction:

a) Multiply the denominator of the fraction by the integer.

45
 b) Add the numerator to this product.

c) Place the sum over the denominator of the fraction.

Example: Change

4
3
7

to a fraction. Solution:

Addition of Fractions

Fractions cannot be added unless the denominators are all the same. If they are,
add all the numerators and place this sum over the common denominator.

Add up the integers, if any.

If the denominators are not the same, the fractions in order to be added must be
converted to fractions, having the same denominators. In order to do this it is first
necessary to find Lowest Common Denominator (L. С. D.). The L. C. D. is the
lowest number which can be divided by all the given denominators. Example: the
L. C. D. of ½

and

is 2 × 3 ×5 = 30.

46
 Subtraction of Fractions

More than two numbers may be added at the same time. In subtraction,
however, only two numbers are involved. In subtraction, as in addition, the
denominators must be the same. One must be careful to determine which term is
first. The second term is always subtracted from the first, which should be of a
larger quantity.

To subtract fractions: a) Change the mixed numbers, if any, to improper

fractions.

b) Find the L. C. D.

c) Change both fractions to fractions having the L. C. D. as the denominator.

d) Subtract the numerator of the second fraction from the numerator of the first,
and place this difference over the L. C. D.

e) Reduce if possible.

Multiplication of Fractions

To be multiplied, fractions need not have the same denominator.

To multiply fractions:

a) Change the mixed numbers, if any, to improper fractions.

b) Multiply all the numerators and place this product over the product of
denominators.

c) Reduce if possible.

Illustration: Multiply

Division of Fractions

In division as in subtraction only two terms are involved. It is very important to

determine which term is first.

If the problem reads

47
 3

divided by 5, then

is the first term and 5 is the second. If it reads "How many times is

contained in

1
?"
3

then is first and

is second.

To divide fractions:

a) Change the mixed numbers, if any, to improper fractions.

b) Invert the second fraction and multiply.

c) Reduce if possible.

Illustration: Divide

A mixed fraction has a fraction as the numerator, or as the denominator, or as

both.

48
 common denominator საერთო მნიშვნელი

convert გადაქცევა

fraction წილადი

fractional წილადური

if any თუ გვაქვს, აქვს

improper fraction არაწესიერი წილადი

integer მთელი რიცხვი

integral მთელი

invert გადანაცვლება

Lowest Common Denominator (L.C.D.) უმცირესი საერთო მნიშვნელი

mixed number შერეული რიცხვი

numerator მრიცხველი

place over განვათავსოთ -ზე

quantity სიდიდე, რაოდენობა

reduce შეკვეცა

solution ამოხსნა

Addition and Subtraction of Decimal Fractions

The addition and subtraction of decimal fractions is performed in the same

manner as the addition and subtraction of whole numbers.

1. When we add two or several decimal fractions, all of these numbers should
have the same number of places to the right of the decimal point.

2. If we subtract one decimal fraction from another, the two should have the
same number of places to the right of the decimal point.

3. We shall refer to places to the right of the decimal point as decimal places.

49
 In a set of addends or in a minuend or subtrahend, one or several of the
numbers may have more decimal places than the others. In such situations we
note the number having the fewest decimal places and discard the digits which
are to the right of these decimal places in the other numbers. For example, in
adding

45.6723
156.78

we discard the digits 2 and 3. But we do not simply ignore these discarded
digits. They may cause a change in one of the digits we intend to use. If we have

45.6723
156.7

We must rewrite it as:

45.7
156.7

according to the following rule:

If the first digit (figure) at left of the portion that is to be discarded is either 0,
1, 2, 3 or 4, then the last digit on the right that is to be retained should be left
unchanged. If the first digit (figure) at the left of the portion that is to be
discarded is either 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9, then the last digit on the right that is to be
retained should be increased by 1.

Such discarding of the unnecessary decimal places is known as the rounding of

numbers.

When 45.6723 was rounded to one decimal place, that is to tenths, we obtained
45.7 because the first digit of the discarded portion was 7, and, therefore, the last
digit on the right (the 6) was increased by 1, and we thus obtained 7.

The actual addition and subtraction of decimal fractions is performed in the

same manner as in the case of the whole numbers so that decimal points are all in
a vertical column as shown below:

50
 Multiplication of Decimal Fractions

The only difference between the multiplication of whole numbers and decimal
fraction numbers is that we must take into consideration that some portion of one
or both factors is fractional, as indicated by the decimal points.

Now, instead of multiplying decimal fractions let us multiply whole numbers

3,672 and 275. To obtain 3,672 from 3.672 we move the decimal point 3 places
to the right, that is we multiply the number by 1,000 and to obtain 275 from 2.75
we move the decimal point two places to the right, that is we multiply it by 100. -
Thus, the product 3,672 × 275 is 1,000 × 100= 100.000, times the product 3.672
× 2.75.

When the product of the whole numbers 3,672 × 275 is obtained, we must
divide it by 100,000 that is, move the decimal point 5 places to the left. The
multiplication of the whole numbers is:

The decimal point (not written) is at present on the extreme right of the
product, that is, we have 1,009,800 and after moving it 5 places to the left we
have 10.098.

Notice that one factor has 3 decimal places, and the second factor has 2
decimal places. The product has 5 decimal places, that is: the number of the
decimal places in the product is equal to total number of decimal places in the
factors.

Division of Decimal Fractions

The only difference between the division of whole numbers and that of
numbers containing decimal fractions is that we must take into consideration the
fact that some portion of either the dividend or the divisor, or of both is
fractional, as indicated by the decimal points.

Furthermore, when we performed division with whole numbers, we often could

not complete this operation as we obtained a remainder. Thus, we have before us
two questions:

51
 1. Where shall we locate the decimal point in the quotient?

2. What shall we do in the case of a remainder? We examined the effect of the

moving of the decimal point.

Let us apply the obtained results to the process of division. Let us first examine
the division of a decimal fraction by a whole number, for example: 111.78:9. We
shall proceed as in the division of whole numbers

Note, that the division of the whole part leaves a remainder 3, and that we have
a fractional part 0.78, that is, we are left with 3.78. From this point on we can't
expect anything else but some fraction in the quotient, if we continue the
division. If now we bring down the next digit, that is 7, we shall have 3.7 or 370
tenths. If we divide 37 tenths by 9, we shall have a certain number of tenths in the
quotient. We shall, therefore, place a decimal point after the 2 in the obtained
quotient and continue the division as usual. We have then:

Thus, we observe that the division of a decimal fraction by a whole number is

performed in the same manner as the division of a whole number by a whole
number.

52
 The whole part of the decimal fraction will give the whole part of the quotient.
As soon as we bring down the first digit from the decimal part of the dividend,
we shall begin to obtain the decimal part (the fractional part) of the quotient. This
procedure always serves for the division of decimal numbers by whole numbers.

Now we shall apply the results just obtained to the division of decimal
fractions by decimal fractions. Let us perform the division 176.28:2.6.

We know that the multiplication of the dividend and of the divisor by the same
number does not produce any change in the quotient. When we multiply the
dividend by some number, the quotient is multiplied by the same number, but
when we multiply the divisor by some number, the quotient is divided by the
same number. This fact enables us to change the dividend 2.6 into a whole
number. This change is accomplished by moving both "decimal points one place
to the right; thus, both the divisor and dividend are multiplied by 10. The divisor
2.6 becomes 26, and dividend 176.28 becomes 1,762.8.

Quotients with Repeated Decimals

Very often the division of numbers, whole numbers or numbers with decimal
fractions, cannot be completed to give an exact result. At some stage of the
division we reach a situation where the quotient or a part of the quotient repeats
itself, and thus the division may be carried on indefinitely. In all such cases,
however, an exact quotient cannot be obtained. In such situations the process of
division must be stopped at some place.

Often the point where the division stops is determined in the statement of the
problem.

The following example will illustrate the repeating:

53
 Note that during the division above, we brought down zeroes whenever we
wished to continue the process. All these zeroes assumedly come from the places
to the right of the decimal point. We note that the quotient 11:6 = - 1.83333...
may contain as many repeated 3's as we wish. However, if we decide to stop, less
than 5, we merely drop the digits that are beyond the place where we wish to
stop.

bring down აქ ჩამოტანა

decimal fraction ათწილადი

decimal place ათობითი თანრიგი

decimal point მძიმე ათობით თანრიგში

digit თანრიგი, ციფრი

discard გადაგდება

locate ადგილმდებარეობა

portion წილი, ნაწილი

remainder ნაშთი

repeated decimal პერიოდული ათწილადი

that is to be discarded რომელიც უნდა იყოს გადაგდებული

vertical column ვერტიკალური სვეტი

Examples of False Arguments

I. 45 - 45 = 45.

Someone stubbornly asserted that 45 - 45 = 45.

In support of this, he argued thus:

We write the subtrahend in the form of a sum of the consecutive natural

numbers from 1 to 9 and the minuend in the form of the sum of the same
numbers, but we take them in the opposite order (from 9 to 1). 20

54
 Locating the subtrahend under the minuend:

1) 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2+1;

2) 1+2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9.

Now we calculate the difference. With this aim we successively subtract the
numbers of the second line from the numbers on the first line, beginning by
subtracting the 9. Since 9 cannot be subtracted from 1, we take a unit from the
two, we have: 11 - 9 = 2. In a similar way we obtain the differences of the
number 11 and 8, 12 and 7, 13 and 6, 14 and 5 respectively, and 3, 5, 7 and 9.
Carrying out the subtractions of four from five, three from seven, two from eight,
and finally one from nine, we obtain the following results: 1, 4, 6, 8.

Thus:

It is not hard to establish, that

8 + 6+ 4+1+9 + 7 + 5 + 3 + 2 = 45.

Thus 45 - 45 = 45.

II. 40 : 8 = 41.

Little Peter did not like to calculate mentally. When he wanted to divide 40
nuts equally among 8 boys, he wrote the division.

When he carried out the division, it looked thus:

The answer worried Peter. He understood very well that each of the boys
cannot obtain more nuts than their total number, but he could not discover his
mistake in the division.

Help little Peter to understand his mistake.

55
 III. Two times two is five. We shall take the following equality: 4 : 4 = 5 : 5.

When we take out the common factor from each member of the equality (1),
we have:

1) 4 × (1:1)=5 × (1:1) or

2) (2 × 2) × (1:1) = 5 × (1:1)

Finally, knowing that 1:1 = 1, from relation (2) we establish:

3) 2 × 2 = 5

IV. Is there a proportionality here?

Let us consider a few problems together with their answers obtained as a result
of applying the simple rule of three.

1. An aeroplane has climbed to an altitude of 8 km. in 32 min. To what altitude

will it climb in four hours?

Answer:

2. A motor of h. p. installed on a boat gives the boat a speed of 8 km/hr. What

speed is given to the same boat by a 10 h. p. motor?

Answer:

V. What will a yearly growth of 40 per cent give in five years?

According to the five-year plan a certain company should increase its

production threefold. During the first three years it increased its productivity by
30 per cent yearly (as compared with the preceding year). Is it fulfilling the task
of its five-year plan or not?

We recall that productivity of an enterprise is the quantity of production for

some definite period of time, for example per day (daily productivity). If one
takes the productivity at the beginning of the five-year plan as 100 per cent, then
(for a three-fold increase during the five-year period) at the end of the five-year
56
period the productivity should become equal to 300 per cent, i. e. increase by 200
per cent. With such an increase of productivity for the five-year period, for one
year it should obtain an increase 5 - 40 per cent. Consequently in undergoing a
yearly growth of 30 per cent it is not fulfilling its five-year plan.

However this conclusion is quite incorrect. In the argument there is a flaw.

Find it.

VI. A new rule for multiplying fractions.

A student disclosed to his mathematics teacher: “I have found a new rule for
multiplying mixed fractions, much simpler and easier to apply than the one which
you have explained to us and the one described in textbooks. The point is that in
adding mixed fractions one has to add separately the integers and separately the
fractions. For example:

The same is done also in subtraction: from integers we subtract the integers,
from the fractions - the fractions:

Obviously one should proceed also in the same way in multiplying mixed
fractions: the integer should be multiplied by the integer and the fraction by the
fraction, for example:

My rule is simpler to apply and easier to understand than yours. What did you
think of it?”

VII. What happened to the dollar? In a box there were two baskets of pears,
150 in each. The price of the pears was determined in the following way: from
the first basket the pears are sold at one dollar for ten, and from the second basket
at a dollar for fifteen. Thus, for all the pears from the first basket the amount

57
received was 150:10=15 (dollars), for all the pears from the second basket
150:15-10 (dollars), and in all 25 dollars.

The seller thought that by taking from the first basket ten pears and from the
second basket fifteen he will sell 25 pears for 2 dollars. Therefore he mixed the
pears from both baskets together and sold the 150 × 2 - 300 (pears) at 2 dollars
for 25. As a result he received 2 × (300 : 25) - 24 (dollars), i. e. one dollar less
than the expected sum of the receipts.

What happened to the dollar?

VIII. A Father's Will.

According to the will of their father three sons were to divide among
themselves a herd of seven horses in such a way that the eldest was to receive
one half of the herd, the middle one - one fourth, and the youngest - one eighth.

The father's will worried his heirs considerably.

However, a way was found out of the difficult situation. An old neighbour
added his own horse to the herd undergoing division and to the satisfaction of the
brothers proceeded with the division.

As a result of it, the eldest son received four horses, the middle one - two, and
the youngest - one. The neighbour's horse, not needed any longer, was gratefully
returned to its clever owner. Thus it turns out that father's will can be solved in
integers.

Is it so?

IX. 2 × 3 = 4.

Somebody decided to demonstrate that 3 times 2 makes not 6 but 4. In carrying

out this strange venture, he took in hand an ordinary match and asked those
present to follow carefully the process of this thought.

“By breaking the match in halves”, stated the strange mathematician, “we shall
have two. Doing the same to one of the halves we shall have a second time two.
Finally, carrying out the same operation on the second one of the halves, we shall
obtain a third time two. Thus, taking three times two we have obtained four and
not six, as one is accustomed to think”.

h. p. = horse power ცხენის ძალა

58
 i. e. = that is ე.ი.

in all სულ

is accustomed to think მიჩვეულია ფიქრს

it turns out გამოდის

km/hr. = kilometre per hour კმ/სთ

threefold სამჯერ, სამჯერადი

two times two ორჯერ ორი

will ანდერძი

FORMULAS
It is often important to know how to obtain a certain unknown number from
other numbers which are known. The value of the number which we want to find
depends upon the values of the known numbers. Thus the area of a rectangle
depends upon the values of two numbers, the length and the width. The relation
between the area and these two numbers is definitely stated by the formula A =
lw.

There are many ways of expressing relationship between numbers. In

arithmetic it is usually expressed by a rule stated in words; by using the language
of algebra we, abbreviate these rules into formulas. When we try to get-the
formula corresponding to a word statement, we may write the words on a single
line and then place directly beneath each word or phrase the algebraic symbol
that has the same meaning:

Example 1

The perimeter of a square is four times the side, P=4 × S or P=4S

Example 2

The surface 5 of a square box is equal to the sum of twice the S=2, square of its
length l and four times the product of the length and the depth: l2+4×lh or
S=2l2+4lh.

59
 The most common relations between numbers are obtained by the four
fundamental operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

Numbers and Quantities

Letters in algebra are used to represent numbers, not numbers-of-things.

A letter may stand for 2, 15, ? etc., but not for 2 pence, 15 days, ? mile, etc.

A number-of-things is called a quantity. When you deal with quantities, always

state what the unit is, as in the following examples:

A parcel weighs Wlb.; a book costs С shillings; a room is H feet high.

Note: lb. - сокращенное от латинского libra - фунт. По-английски

вместо lb. читаем pound.

The Use of Symbols

The symbols +, -, ×: have the same meanings in algebra as in arithmetic.

The following symbols are in common use:

= means is equal to or equals; thus 5 - 2 = 3 and 4 × 5=20.

∴means therefore; thus 1 yd. = 3ft.; ∴ 4 yd. = 4 × 3 ft.

> means is greater than; thus 5>2 and

<5 and >

≈ means is approximately equal to; thus

60
 ≠ means is not equal to; thus, if x=5 and у = 2, x ≠ y.

Examples:

1. 32> 3 is read 32 is greater than 3.

2. N = 8 is read N is equal to 8.

3. (½)2< ½ is read is less than .

4. Z ≠ 0 is read Z is not equal to nought.

5. π is read an approximation for π is

22
.
7

6. 2N = 14 ∴ N = 7 is read twice N equals fourteen, therefore N equals

seven.

Meaning of Brackets

The contents of a bracket may be regarded as equivalent to a single number.

Thus (7 +3) means the number obtained by adding 3 to 7; and (N + 5) means

the number obtained by adding 5 to N.

The product of 9 and (7 + 3) is written 9 (7 + 3).

The product of 9 and (N + 5) is written 9 (N + 5).

Similarly (p - q) : 7 means subtract q from p and divide the result by 7. It is

usually written:

Also just as a2 means a • a, so (x + 4)2 means add у to x and multiply the

result by itself. Brackets show the order in which operations must be
performed.
61
 Thus, 5 + 2(3 + 4) means add 4 to 3, double the sum, add the result to 5.

5 + 2(3 + 4) = 5 + 2 × 7 = 5 + 14 = 19.

But (5 + 2)3 + 4 means add 2 to 5, multiply the sum by 3, add 4 to the result.

(5 + 2) • 3 + 4 = 7 × 3 + 4 = 21 + 4 = 25.

And (5 + 2) • (3 + 4) means, add 2 to 5, add 4 to 3, multiply the first sum by

the second sum.

(5 + 2) • (3 + 4) =7 × 7 = 49.

Thus, if an expression in brackets is multiplied by a number, each term in

the brackets must be multiplied by that number, when the brackets are
removed.

area ფართობი

bracket ფრჩხილი

deal with იქონიო საქმე - თან

depth სიღრმე

depth of an element ელემენტის სიღრმე

ft. = foot ფუტი (30,5 სმ)

formula ფორმულა

length სიგრძე

rectangle მართკუთხედი

relation თანაფარდობა, მიმართება

stand for აღვნიშნოთ

width სიგანე

yd. = yard იარდი (914,4 მმ)

62
 Addition and Subtraction of Positive and Negative Numbers

The addition of the two positive numbers +3 and +4 gives the sum +7.

To add two negative numbers such as -3 and -5 with the help of the number
scale we count down 3, and starting from -3 we count down 5; the sum is -8.

The absolute value of any number is obtained by disregarding the sign of the
number. Thus +5 and -5 have the same absolute value, 5.

A rule for finding the 'sum of any two numbers which have like signs may
now be stated: to add any two numbers having like signs, find the sum of the
absolute values and prefix the common sign.

The sum of + 6 and - 4 is + 2, and that of - 5 and + 2 is - 3. This suggests the

following rule for finding the sum of two numbers having unlike signs: to add
any two numbers having unlike signs, find the difference of the absolute
values and prefix the sign of the greater.

Frequently the numbers to be added are horizontally arranged. They are to

be added mentally without copying them in columns.

1. + 7, - 2

2. - 2w, - 4w

3. 13xy-20xy

4. r - 4r

Observe that sometimes the plus sign is not written when the first number
given is positive.

When there are several numbers to be added, some of them positive, some
negative, it is a principle of the order of operations that the numbers may be
added in any order. It is. usually most convenient first to add the positive
numbers, then to add all the negative numbers, and finally to combine the two
results.

Example:

Add + 7, - 3, + 5, - 8.

Solution: 7 - 3 + 5 - 8 = 7 + 5 - 3 - 8 = 12 - 11 - 1 Ans.

63
 In practice we do not actually rewrite the numbers in a changed order, but
merely add them in that order mentally.

When the numbers to be added are not all of the same kind, we usually
arrange in columns, as in arithmetic. We must make sure that all the terms in
each column are like terms, differing only in their numerical coefficients.

Example:

Add 2f + 4i; 3f + 2i; and 4f + 3i.

2f+4i
3f+2i
+ 4f+3i
9f+9i

An example such as 7 - 5 may be considered as the subtraction of 5 from 7

or as the addition of - 5 to 7. The subtraction of any number is equivalent to
the addition of a number having the same absolute value but the opposite sign.
The subtraction of - 4 from + 6 gives the same result as the addition of - 4 to +
6. A rule for subtraction is therefore: change the sign of each term of the
subtrahend and add. Do not change the sign in the work on your paper, but
change it mentally.

When the minuend or subtrahend contains more than one term, the work is
arranged in columns of like terms, as it was for addition.

Example: Subtract 4b - 2 from 5b + 3.

Solution:

Minuend 5b + 3

Subtrahend 4b - 2

Difference b + 5

Check, when b = 1;

64
 The Product of a Positive and a Negative Number

According to our study of the order of operations a × b gives the same

product as b × a. What, therefore, is the product of - 13 and + 2?; of - 3b and +
5?

Multiplication and Division

The product of a positive number and a negative number in each of the

above instances is negative. More briefly - the product of any two numbers
with unlike signs is negative.

If by addition we seek to find the product of 2a2 - ab - 5b2 by 3, we write the

multiplicand three times:

∴ 3(2a2 - ab - 5b2) = 6a2 - 3ab - 15b2Ans.

Notice that in the answer each term of 2a2 - ab - 5b2 has been multiplied by
3:

When a polynomial is multiplied by a monomial, therefore each term of the

polynomial is multiplied in turn by the monomial.

We have learned that the product of two negative numbers is a positive

number. Since the product of two positive numbers is also a positive number
we may say briefly that the product of any two numbers with like signs is
positive.

Division

When dividing two numbers that have like signs, the quotient is positive;
when dividing two numbers that have unlike signs, the quotient is negative.

65
 It is interesting to note the close relation between division and
multiplication. Any question in division may be stated in the language of
multiplication, just as any question in subtraction may be stated in the
language of addition.

Division may be indicated by words, by the division sign :, or by a fraction.

The numerator of the fraction is the dividend, and the denominator is the
divisor. The three examples: 12x : 3; divide 12x by 3; and

12x

have the same meaning and the same result, 4x.

Division examples may be proved by multiplication, or by numerical

substitution.

like signs მსგავსი ნიშნები

monomial ერთწევრი

polynomial მრავალწევრი

positive and negative numbers დადებითი და უარყოფითი რიცხვები

unlike signs პლიუს და მინუს ნიშნები.

Products and Powers

When two or more numbers are multiplied together, the result is called the
product.

In algebra the product of two numbers X and У may be written in any of the
forms X × Y, У × Y; X·Y, Y·X, XY or YX. The form XY is the most usual.
Similarly the product of X, Y and Z may be written XYZ or XZY or YXZ or
ZXY or ZYX, but it is usual to write the factors in alphabetical order, i. e.
XYZ.

The beginner should note carefully that this differs considerably from the
usage in arithmetic. In arithmetic the product of 4 and 5 is written 4 × 5 or 4·5,
but not 45, which means 4 × 10 +5. The pupil should also note carefully the
66
difference between 2 × 3 × X and 23X. The former means 2 × 3 × X, the latter
means twenty-three times X.

When symbols are multiplied by a number, the number is usually placed

before the symbols, with no sign of multiplication between. Thus 7pq means 7
times the product of p and q, or 7 × p × q. Also 253XYZ means 253 times the
product of X, Y and Z, or 253 × X × Y × Z.

Each of the quantities multiplied together to form a product is called a factor

of the product. Thus 3, 5, p, q are the factors of the product 15 pq.

When one of the factors of a product is a numerical quantity, it is called the

coefficient or the numerical coefficient of the remaining factors.

Thus in the product 7 pq, 7 is the coefficient of pq. Similarly in the product
24abc, 24 is the coefficient of abc. It is sometimes convenient to consider any
factor or factors, of a product as the coefficient of the remaining factors. Thus,
in the product 7pq, 7p is the coefficient of q or 7q is the coefficient of p. A
coefficient which involves letters is called a literal coefficient.

When the coefficient is unity, it is usually omitted. Thus we do not write Ix,
but simply x.

The product obtained by multiplying together several factors all equal to the
same number is called a power of that number. Thus 3 × 3 is called the second
power (or square) of 3; 5 × 5 × 5 is called the third power (or cube) of 5; X ×
X × X × X × X is called the fifth power of X, and so on.

The following notation is used 3 × 3 = З2; 5 × 5 × 5 = 53; X × X × X × X ×

X = X5 and the small figure which indicates the number of equal factors is
called the index of the power.

Thus in 42, 73, x5, the indices are 2, 3, 5 respectively. 3 2 is usually read 3
squared; 53 is read 5 cubed; X5 is read X to the fifth; and so on.

The first power of a number is the number itself. We do not usually write
X but simply X. Thus X, 1X, X1, 1X1, all have the same meaning. It should
1

be noted that every power of 1 is 1.

The pupil must distinguish between coefficient and index.

Fractional coefficients which are greater than unity are usually kept in the
form of improper fractions. Thus

67
10
xy
7

is written more frequently than

3
1 xy
7

If one factor of a product is equal to 0, the product must equal 0, whatever

values the other factors have. It follows that every power of 0 is 0. A factor 0
is usually called a zero factor.

Any collection of numbers and symbols connected by the signs +, −, × , : is

called an algebraic expression.

Parts of an expression separated by the signs + or - are called terms. The

signs X and : do not separate terms.

Thus 3а + 4c × p - 7× + qr + s : 2t is an expression of five terms. It should

be noted that 4c?p is a single term. So are qr and s : 2t.

When no sign precedes a term, the sign + is understood.

An expression which consists of one term, e. g. 8b is called a simple (or

monomial) expression. An expression which consists of two or more terms is
called a compound expression. An expression of two terms, as 3c - 4d is called
a binomial expression; one of three terms, as 3x + 4y - 2z, a trinominal; one of
more than three terms a multinomial or polynomial.

A term which consists of the product of a number of letters or numbers, so

that only multiplication and neither addition nor subtraction nor division
occurs, is called an integral term. An expression containing a number of
integral terms separated only by the signs f and - is called an integral algebraic
expression.

An expression in which the letters occur under a root sign

___ 3___
(e. g., √ x, √ху )

68
 is called an irrational expression. If the letters do not occur under a root
sign, the expression is called rational. We shall be chiefly concerned with
expressions which are both rational and integral.

In the case of expressions which contain more than one term, each term can
be dealt with by the rules already given, and by combining the terms the
numerical value of the whole expression is obtained. When brackets are used,
they have the same meaning as in arithmetic, indicating that the terms
enclosed within them are to be considered as one quantity.

THE CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF GRAPHS

The following table gives the average maximum temperature, to the nearest
degree (in degrees Fahrenheit), at a certain town during the first six months of
1935:

Month Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June

Average maximum temperature 44 48 52 56 64 72

It is usually easier to grasp the meaning of such a set of figures, if they are
shown in the form of a picture, or graph. The figure shows them as a column
graph.

The graph is drawn as follows:

1. Two lines called axes are taken, along which measurements may be made.
The intersection of the axes is called the origin, and is usually denoted by the
letter 0. It is usual to take lines at right angles as axes.

69
 2. The axes are labelled to show what quantites are measured along them.

3. The axes are graduated, in one case to show the various months, and in the
other to show the temperature.

4. Along the first axis the months are represented at equal intervals.

5. Along the second axis the temperature is represented by a certain scale; in

this case a small division is taken to represent 4°.

6. On the first axis, at each point which represents one of the months, a line is
drawn parallel to the second axis; the length of this line represents the
temperature.

7. The graph is given a title.

Note 1. It is usual to draw graphs on squared paper ruled in inches and tenths,
or centimetres and millimetres. Such squared paper is not essential and, at a later
stage, the pupil should be encouraged to draw rough sketches on ordinary paper.

Note 2. It is not essential to' show the zero mark on the axes. In the above table
all the temperature lie between 44° and 72°, and there was no need to graduate
the scale to show all the numbers from 0° to 80°. The alterations in temperature
would have been as clearly shown, if along the second axis we had shown only

70
 the range from 40° to 80°. If we had done this, we could have taken a larger
scale, say, a small division to represent 2°.

When the range of values to be shown is small, it is very important to choose a

large scale. Consider a graph which shows that a man's temperature during a
certain day moves between the limits 98.5° and 101.3° F.

If one variable changes when another variable is changed, we say that the first
(or dependent variable) is a function of the second (or independent variable).

Thus, a boy's weight is a function of his age; the time of swing of a pendulum
is a function of its length. In using the word function we do not imply the
existence of an algebraic expression from which values of the function can be
calculated; thus, although a boy's weight is a function of his age, there is no
algebraic expression from which we can calculate his weight when we know his
age. But when there is such a function, we call it an algebraic function of the
independent variable, e. g.

4x3 - 3x;

x-5
are each algebraic functions of X.
2x + 3

The graph showing the connection between the variables is called the graph of
the function. In this chapter we consider graphs of algebraic functions. We then
proceed to consider the graphical solution of equations, linear, graphs, the
gradient of a straight line and uniform speed graphs.

If we have a pair of simultaneous equations in X and У, and if the graphs

corresponding to the equations are drawn with the same axes and with the same
scales, then, at the points of intersection of the graphs.

1. The coordinates are roots of the simultaneous equations.

2. The X-coordinates are roots of the equation in A obtained by eliminating У

from the two equations.

3. The У-coordinates are roots of the equation in У obtained by eliminating X

from the two equations.

We shall prove these statements for a particular pair of equations, but it is clear
that the method is quite general, provided that the eliminations can be performed.

Let us consider the equations У = 3x2 - 6x + 3; 2x = 3y - 5. The graphs

corresponding to the equations can be drawn.
71
 The graphs meet at P and Q and PN, QMare the perpendiculars drawn
from P and Q respectively to the axis OX.

I. P lies on the curve… NP =3 • ON2 - 6 • ON + 3 . . .

II. P lies on the st. line, …2 • ON =• 3 • NP - 5 ... Thus x = ON, y = NP satisfy

both the equations у - 3x2 - 6x + 3 and 2x = 3y - 5. It may similarly be shown
that x = OM, y = MQ satisfy these equations. This is the first result given above.

2 . ON+ 5
Also from II NP= .
3

Substituting this value of NP in I we have

2 .ON + 5
=3 .ON2 - 6 .ON + 3,
3

i, e. x = ONsatisfies the equation.

III.

2x+5
=3x2 - 6x + 3...
М156 (03)89

It may similarly be shown that x = OM satisfies III.

But III is the equation obtained by eliminating У from the given equations.
This is the second result given above.

Again, from II

3 . NP - 5
ON = .
2

Substituting this value of ON in I we have

i. e. у = NP satisfies the equation.

72
 IV.

It may similarly be shown that у = Q satisfies IV.

But IV is the equation obtained by eliminating X from the given equations.

third

This is the result given above.

It is easily seen that:

1) The solutions of the given simultaneous equations are x = 2, у = 3 and x =

0.2 approx.; y = 1.8 approx.

2) The solutions of the equation III are x = 2 and x = 0.2 approx.

3) The solutions of the equation IV are y = 3 and у = 1.8 approx.

The values 2,3 of X, У respectively are exact, as may easily be verified by

substitution in the equations.

73
 График параболы

The values 0.2, 1.8 are approximate only; if greater accuracy is required, we
may draw a portion of the graphs on a very large scale in the neighbourhood of P.
Since X is greater than 0.2, a suitable enlargement is the portion of the graphs
between X = 0.21 and X = 0.24.

The values of X and Y are approximately 0.222 and 1.81 respectively.

The values obtained by calculation are

2
x = = 0,2
9

and

22
y=1 = 1.814.
27

74
 Any degree of accuracy desired may be obtained by repeating the above
process.

Note 1. In solving equations by drawing two graphs, it is essential that the

scales for X shall be the same for each graph. But it is not necessary that the scale
for X should be the same as the scale for Y.

Note 2. When we speak of graphs, it is implied that the same axes are used, and
also that the same scales have been used for X for each graph, and also for Y.

One important result which follows from the general theorem is that graphical
solutions of any quadratic equation may be obtained by drawing the graph
of y = x2 and the graph of a straight line.

approx. = approximately მიახლოებით

binomial ორწევრი

dependent variable დამოკიდებული ცვლადი

grasp the meaning of აზრის დაჭერა

independent დამოუკიდებელი

index მაჩვენებელი

literal coefficient ასოითი კოეფიციენტი

say აქ ვითყვით

simultaneous equations განტოლებათა სისტემა

squared paper მილიმეტრული ქაღალდი

75
 THE HISTORY OF ALGEBRA

When we speak of the early history of Algebra, it is necessary to consider

first of all the meaning of he term. Algebra comes from Arabic word “Al-Jabr” –
exact meaning is unknown – usual interpretation is something like “restoration”
or “completion” – or “reduction”, or “balancing” or “reunites of broten bones”
or “tonesetter”. If by algebra we mean the science which allows us to solve the
equation , expressed in these symbols then the History begins
in the 17th century, if we remove restriction as to these particular signs, and
allow for other and less convenient symbols, we might properly begin the
history in the 3rd century, we allow for the solution of the above equation by
geometric methods, without algebraic symbols of any kind, we might say that
algebra begins with the Alexandrian school or a little earlier, and if we say that
we should class as algebra any problem that we should now solve by algebra,
then the science was known about 1.800 B.C. and probably still earlier.
Algebra is based on the device of representing numbers by letters, we shall,
accordingly, by speaking of “the numbers a, b, x, y…” mean certain numbers the
velues of which may or may not, be known to us, that are involved in the
problem under consideration. When we are dealing, in this way, with numbers
represented by letters we must bear constantly in mind that we are operating
with numbers and that we can compute with them only according to the laws
that numbers obey.
The following laws of operation with numbers are constantly used in
algebra:
I The commutative laq for addition:
The sum of two or more numbers is the same in whatever order they are
added, that is, a+b=b+a.
II The associative law for addition [əˈsoʊ.ʃi.ə.tɪv]
The sum of three or ore numbers is the same in whatever order they are

76
 grouped that is, (a+b)+c = a+(b+c) = (a+c)+b
III The commutative law for multiplication
the product of two or more numbers is the same in whatever order they are
multiplied, that is, ab=ba
IV The associative law for multiplication
The product of two or more numbers is the same in whatever order they
are grouped, that is (ab)c = a(bc) = (ac)b

The distributive law of multiplication with respect to addition. The product

of a number by the sum of two or more numbers, equals the sum of the product
of the first number by each of other numbers, that is
a(b+c) = ab + ac

1. consider - განხილვა, მხედველობაშიმიღება;

2. allows - ნებართვისმიცემა, საშუალებისმიცემა;
3. equation - განტოლება;
4. remove - მოხსნა, მოშორება, გადაადგილება;
5. restriction - შეზღუდვა;
6. particular - კერძო, განსაკუთრებული, განსაზღვრული;

7. convenient - მოსახერხებელი;
8. device - საშუალება, მოწყობილობა, მექანიზმი;
9. consideration - გარჩევა, განხილვა, ფიქრი;
10. involve - შეიცავს, მოიცავს;
11. dealing - ურთიერთობისქონა;
12. constantly - მუდმივად, ხშირად;
13. obey - დამოირჩილება;
14. compute - გამოთვლა;

77
15. commutative - კომუტატური;
16. associative - ასოციაციური, დამაკავშირებელი;
17. distributive - გამოყოფი, გამანაწილებელი
18. property - თვისება, properly - სწორად;
19. according - თანახმად, როგორც;
20. class - ჯგუფი, კლასი;

21. solve - ამოხსნა;

22. value - სიდიდე;
23. solution - ამოხსნა;
24. bear - ტარება, დაყრდნობა.

78
 The father of Algebra.
ISLAMIC MATHEMATICS - AL-KHWARIZMI

One of the first Directors of the House of Wisdom in Bagdad in the early
9th Century was an outstanding Persian mathematician called Muhammad Al-
Khwarizmi. He oversaw the translation of the major Greek and Indian
mathematical and astronomy works (including those of Brahmagupta) into
Arabic, and produced original work which had a lasting influence on the
advance of Muslim and (after his works spread to Europe through Latin
translations in the 12th Century) later European mathematics.

The word “algorithm” is derived from the Latinization of his name, and
the word "algebra" is derived from the Latinization of "al-jabr", part of the title
of his most famous book, in which he introduced the fundamental algebraic
methods and techniques for solving equations.

Perhaps his most important contribution to mathematics was his strong

advocacy of the Hindu numerical system, which Al-Khwarizmi recognized as
having the power and efficiency needed to revolutionize Islamic and Western
mathematics. The Hindu numerals 1 - 9 and 0 - which have since become known
as Hindu-Arabic numerals - were soon adopted by the entire Islamic world.
Later, with translations of Al-Khwarizmi’s work into Latin by Adelard of Bath
79
and others in the 12th Century, and with the influence of Fibonacci’s “Liber
Abaci” they would be
adopted throughout
Europe as well.

Al-Khwarizmi’s
other important
contribution was algebra,
a word derived from the
title of a mathematical
text he published in about
830 called “Al-Kitab al-
mukhtasar fi hisab al-jabr
wa'l-muqabala” (“The
Compendious Book on
Calculation by
Completion and
Balancing”). Al-
Khwarizmi wanted to go
from the specific
problems considered by
the Indians and Chinese
to a more general way of
analyzing problems, and An example of Al-Khwarizmi’s “completing the
in doing so he created an square” method for solving quadratic equations
abstract mathematical
language which is used
across the world today.

His book is considered the foundational text of modern algebra, although

he did not employ the kind of algebraic notation used today (he used words to
explain the problem, and diagrams to solve it). But the book provided an
exhaustive account of solving polynomial equations up to the second degree,
and introduced for the first time the fundamental algebraic methods of
“reduction” (rewriting an expression in a simpler form), “completion” (moving a
negative quantity from one side of the equation to the other side and changing its
sign) and “balancing” (subtraction of the same quantity from both sides of an
equation, and the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides).

In particular, Al-Khwarizmi developed a formula for systematically

solving quadratic equations (equations involving unknown numbers to the
power of 2, or x2) by using the methods of completion and balancing to reduce
any equation to one of six standard forms, which were then solvable. He
described the standard forms in terms of "squares" (what would today be "x2"),
80
"roots" (what would today be "x") and "numbers" (regular constants, like 42),
and identified the six types as: squares equal roots (ax2 = bx), squares equal
number (ax2= c), roots equal number (bx = c), squares and roots equal number
(ax2 + bx = c), squares and number equal roots (ax2 + c = bx), and roots and
number equal squares (bx + c = ax2).

Al-Khwarizmi is usually credited with the development of lattice (or

sieve) multiplication method of multiplying large numbers, a method
algorithmically equivalent to long multiplication. His lattice method was later
introduced into Europe by Fibonacci.

In addition to his work in mathematics, Al-Khwarizmi made important

contributions to astronomy, also largely based on methods from India, and he
developed the first quadrant (an instrument used to determine time by
observations of the Sun or stars), the second most widely used astronomical
instrument during the Middle Ages after the astrolabe. He also produced a
revised and completed version of Ptolemy's “Geography”, consisting of a list of
2,402 coordinates of cities throughout the known world.

The father of Algebra

Diophantus

Title page of the 1621 edition of Diophantus' Arithmetica, translated

into Latin by Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac.

81
Diophantus of Alexandria (Ancient Greek: Διόφαντος ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς; born
probably sometime between AD 201 and 215; died around 84 years old,
probably sometime between AD 285 and 299) was an Alexandrian Hellenistic
mathematician, who was the author of a series of books called Arithmetica,
many of which are now lost. Sometimes called "the father of algebra", his texts
deal with solving algebraic equations. While reading Claude Gaspard Bachet de
Méziriac's edition of Diophantus' Arithmetica, Pierre de Fermat concluded that a
certain equation considered by Diophantus had no solutions, and noted in the
margin without elaboration that he had found "a truly marvelous proof of this
proposition," now referred to as Fermat's Last Theorem. This led to tremendous
advances in number theory, and the study of Diophantine
equations ("Diophantine geometry") and of Diophantine approximations remain
important areas of mathematical research. Diophantus coined the term
παρισότης (parisotes) to refer to an approximate equality. [1] This term was
rendered as adaequalitas in Latin, and became the technique
of adequality developed by Pierre de Fermat to find maxima for functions and
tangent lines to curves. Diophantus was the first Greek mathematician who
recognized fractions as numbers; thus he allowed positive rational numbers for
the coefficients and solutions. In modern use, Diophantine equations are usually
algebraic equations with integer coefficients, for which integer solutions are
sought.
Little is known about the life of Diophantus. He lived in Alexandria, Egypt,
during the Roman era, probably from between AD 200 and 214 to 284 or 298.
Diophantus has variously been described by historians as either Greek, non-
Greek, Hellenized Egyptian, Hellenized Babylonian, Jewish, or Chaldean.
Much of our knowledge of the life of Diophantus is derived from a 5th-
century Greek anthology of number games and puzzles created by Metrodorus.
One of the problems (sometimes called his epitaph) states:
'Here lies Diophantus,' the wonder behold.
Through art algebraic, the stone tells how old:
'God gave him his boyhood one-sixth of his life,
One twelfth more as youth while whiskers grew rife;
And then yet one-seventh ere marriage begun;
In five years there came a bouncing new son.
Alas, the dear child of master and sage
After attaining half the measure of his father's life chill fate took him.
After consoling his fate by the science of numbers for four years, he
ended his life.'
This puzzle implies that Diophantus' age x can be expressed as
x = x/6 + x/12 + x/7 + 5 + x/2 + 4

82
 which gives x a value of 84 years. However, the accuracy of the information
cannot be independently confirmed.
In popular culture, this puzzle was the Puzzle No.142 in Professor Layton and
Pandora's Box as one of the hardest solving puzzles in the game, which needed
to be unlocked by solving other puzzles first.
Arithmetica is the major work of Diophantus and the most prominent work on
algebra in Greek mathematics. It is a collection of problems giving numerical
solutions of both determinate and indeterminate equations. Of the original
thirteen books of which Arithmeticaconsisted only six have survived, though
there are some who believe that four Arab books discovered in 1968 are also by
Diophantus. Some Diophantine problems from Arithmetica have been found in
Arabic sources.
It should be mentioned here that Diophantus never used general methods in
his solutions. Hermann Hankel, renowned German mathematician made the
following remark regarding Diophantus.
“Our author (Diophantos) not the slightest trace of a general, comprehensive
method is discernible; each problem calls for some special method which refuses
to work even for the most closely related problems. For this reason it is difficult
for the modern scholar to solve the 101st problem even after having studied 100
of Diophantos’s solutions”
Like many other Greek mathematical treatises, Diophantus was forgotten in
Western Europe during the so-called Dark Ages, since the study of ancient
Greek, and literacy in general, had greatly declined. The portion of the
Greek Arithmetica that survived, however, was, like all ancient Greek texts
transmitted to the early modern world, copied by, and thus known to, medieval
Byzantine scholars. Scholia on Diophantus by the Byzantine Greek scholar John
Chortasmenos (1370–1437) are preserved together with a comprehensive
commentary written by the earlier Greek scholar Maximos Planudes (1260 –
1305), who produced an edition of Diophantus within the library of the Chora
Monastery in Byzantine Constantinople. In addition, some portion of
the Arithmetica probably survived in the Arab tradition (see above). In 1463
German mathematician Regiomontanus wrote:
“No one has yet translated from the Greek into Latin the thirteen books of
Diophantus, in which the very flower of the whole of arithmetic lies hidden . . .
.”
Arithmetica was first translated from Greek into Latin by Bombelli in 1570,
but the translation was never published. However, Bombelli borrowed many of
the problems for his own book Algebra. The editio princeps of Arithmetica was
published in 1575 by Xylander. The best known Latin translation
of Arithmetica was made by Bachet in 1621 and became the first Latin edition

83
that was widely available. Pierre de Fermat owned a copy, studied it, and made
notes in the margins.
Margin-writing by Fermat and Chortasmenos]

Problem II.8 in the Arithmetica(edition of 1670), annotated with Fermat's

comment which became Fermat's Last Theorem.
The 1621 edition of Arithmetica by Bachet gained fame after Pierre de
Fermat wrote his famous "Last Theorem" in the margins of his copy:
“If an integer n is greater than 2, then an + bn = cn has no solutions in non-zero
integers a, b, and c. I have a truly marvelous proof of this proposition which this
margin is too narrow to contain.”
Fermat's proof was never found, and the problem of finding a proof for the
theorem went unsolved for centuries. A proof was finally found in 1994
by Andrew Wiles after working on it for seven years. It is believed that Fermat
did not actually have the proof he claimed to have. Although the original copy in
which Fermat wrote this is lost today, Fermat's son edited the next edition of
Diophantus, published in 1670. Even though the text is otherwise inferior to the
1621 edition, Fermat's annotations—including the "Last Theorem"—were
printed in this version.
Fermat was not the first mathematician so moved to write in his own marginal
notes to Diophantus; the Byzantine scholar John Chortasmenos (1370–1437)
had written "Thy soul, Diophantus, be with Satan because of the difficulty of
your other theorems and particularly of the present theorem" next to the same
problem. Diophantus wrote several other books besides Arithmetica, but very
few of them have survived.
The Porisms
Diophantus himself refers to a work which consists of a collection
of lemmas called The Porisms (or Porismata), but this book is entirely lost.
Although The Porisms is lost, we know three lemmas contained there, since
Diophantus refers to them in the Arithmetica. One lemma states that the
difference of the cubes of two rational numbers is equal to the sum of the cubes
of two other rational numbers, i.e. given any a and b, with a > b, there
exist c and d, all positive and rational, such that
a3 − b3 = c3 + d3.
Polygonal numbers and geometric elements
Diophantus is also known to have written on polygonal numbers, a topic of
great interest to Pythagoras and Pythagoreans. Fragments of a book dealing with
polygonal numbers are extant.

84
 A book called Preliminaries to the Geometric Elements has been traditionally
attributed to Hero of Alexandria. It has been studied recently by Wilbur Knorr,
who suggested that the attribution to Hero is incorrect, and that the true author is
Diophantus.
Diophantus' work has had a large influence in history. Editions of Arithmetica
exerted a profound influence on the development of algebra in Europe in the late
sixteenth and through the 17th and 18th centuries. Diophantus and his works
have also influenced Arab mathematics and were of great fame among Arab
mathematicians. Diophantus' work created a foundation for work on algebra and
in fact much of advanced mathematics is based on algebra. As far as we know
Diophantus did not affect the lands of the Orient much and how much he
affected India is a matter of debate.
Diophantus is often called “the father of algebra" because he contributed
greatly to number theory, mathematical notation, and because Arithmetica
contains the earliest known use of syncopated notation.
Today, Diophantine analysis is the area of study where integer (whole-
number) solutions are sought for equations, and Diophantine equations are
polynomial equations with integer coefficients to which only integer solutions
are sought. It is usually rather difficult to tell whether a given Diophantine
equation is solvable. Most of the problems in Arithmetica lead to quadratic
equations. Diophantus looked at 3 different types of quadratic
equations: ax2 + bx = c, ax2 = bx + c, and ax2 + c = bx. The reason why there
were three cases to Diophantus, while today we have only one case, is that he
did not have any notion for zero and he avoided negative coefficients by
considering the given numbers a, b, c to all be positive in each of the three cases
above. Diophantus was always satisfied with a rational solution and did not
require a whole number which means he accepted fractions as solutions to his
problems. Diophantus considered negative or irrational square root solutions
"useless", "meaningless", and even "absurd". To give one specific example, he
calls the equation 4 = 4x + 20 'absurd' because it would lead to a negative value
for x. One solution was all he looked for in a quadratic equation. There is no
evidence that suggests Diophantus even realized that there could be two
solutions to a quadratic equation. He also considered simultaneous quadratic
equations.
Diophantus made important advances in mathematical notation, becoming the
first person known to use algebraic notation and symbolism. Before him
everyone wrote out equations completely. Diophantus introduced an algebraic
symbolism that used an abridged notation for frequently occurring operations,
and an abbreviation for the unknown and for the powers of the unknown.
Mathematical historian Kurt Vogel states:
“The symbolism that Diophantus introduced for the first time, and
undoubtedly devised himself, provided a short and readily comprehensible
85
means of expressing an equation... Since an abbreviation is also employed for
the word ‘equals’, Diophantus took a fundamental step from verbal algebra
towards symbolic algebra.”
Although Diophantus made important advances in symbolism, he still lacked
the necessary notation to express more general methods. This caused his work to
be more concerned with particular problems rather than general situations. Some
of the limitations of Diophantus' notation are that he only had notation for one
unknown and, when problems involved more than a single unknown,
Diophantus was reduced to expressing "first unknown", "second unknown", etc.
in words. He also lacked a symbol for a general number n. Where we would
write 12 + 6n/n2 − 3, Diophantus has to resort to constructions like: "... a sixfold
number increased by twelve, which is divided by the difference by which the
square of the number exceeds three".
Algebra still had a long way to go before very general problems could be
written down and solved succinctly.

86
 THE HISTORY OF GEOMETRY
Geometry is the Greek name for the science which the early Egyptians
began and developed about 500 years ago. The word geometry is derived from
two Greek words: “geo” meaning “earth” and “metron” meaning “measure”.
For erecting pyramids the early Egyptians needed professional geometers
who were able to locate a line runing north and south. The geometry known to
the Egyptians consisted principally of rules and formulas for finding areas and
volumes.
The Egyptians were principally interested in the practical application of the
rules. After a time Greek philosophers and teachers developed and perfected the
proofs of the Egyptians. The most important of the early Greek teachers was
Pythagoras who founded a school in Italy. The students were divided into two
classes: beginners and Pythagorians. Plato, who lived more than a 100 years
later than Pythagoras was primarily a philosopher. His interest in geometry was
not because of its practical use, but because of the logic contained in the proofs.
The best known name is connection with geometry is Euclid.
Little is known about his life. He was born at about 330 B.C. in Alexandria.
He is referred to as the “Father of Geometry”. He was a teacher of geometry in
Alexandria. He used to say that geometry trained the habits of expressing
thoughts accurately.
His “Elements” is one of the most influential woks in the history of Maths.
In the “Elements”, Euclid deduced the principles of what is now called
Euclidean Geometry, from a small set of axioms. For over twenty century
Euclidian geometry, was the ruling theory. The book “Elements” considered of
13 books covering a vast body of mathematical knowledge: arithmetics,
geometry and number theory. Euclid based his 10 axioms, the famous “Euclid’s
Axioms”, he called these axioms his postulates and divided them into 2 groups
of five, the first set common to all mathematics; the second specific to geometry,
Euclid operated upon the principle that no axiom could be accepted without

87
proof. The reason that Euclid was so influential is, that his work is more then
just an explanation on geometry or even maths. Great philosopher-
mathematician such as Descartes and Newton used Euclid’s structure and
format. Euclid also wrote works about astronomy, optics, music theory and so
on. Certainly, he can go down in history as one of the greatest mathematician of
all time, and he was certainly on of the giants upon whose shoulders Newton
stood.
Another famous scientist of ancient [ˈeɪnʃənt] times was Archimedes, who
lived in Sicily.
Archimedes discovered many Laws of mathematics. He is said to be the
fater of “mathematical physics”.
In the 19th century the Russian mathematician Lobachevsky founded “non
Euclidean Geometry” of two dimentions. Such kind of geometry is called
“Hyperbolic”.
The third system of Geometry was developed by Benhard Riemann, a
german mathematician (1826-1866), and is called “elliptic geometry”. His
contributions to analysis, number theory and differential geometry is great. He
knew phylology and theology as well. He said: “Those, who love God, all things
must serve to its best manner”.
Thus, we have three systems of Geometry.

88
 THE FATHER OF GEOMETRY – GREEK
MATHEMATICIAN EUCLID

Little is known about his life. He was born at about 330 BC in Alexandria.
He is referred to as the “father of Geometry”. His “Elements” is one of the most
influential works in the History of Maths, serving as the main textbook for
teaching maths (especially geometry) from the time of its publication until the
late 19th or early 20th century. In the “Elements” Euclid deduced the Principles
of what is now called Euclidean Geometry, from a small set of axioms. His work
considered of 13 books covering a vast body of mathematical knowledge:
arithmetic, geometry and number theory.
“Euclid’s Axioms” – Euclid based his approach upon 10 axioms,
statements that could be accepted as truth. He called these axioms his
“postulates” and divided them into two groups of five, the first set common to
all mathematics, the second specific to geometry, Euclid operated upon the
principle that no axiom could be accepted without proof.
The reason that Euclid was so influential is, that his work is more than just
89
an explanation on geometry or even maths. Great philosopher mathematicians
such as Descartes and Newton used Euclid’s structure and format.
Euclid also wrote works about astronomy, optics, music theory and etc.
Certainly, he can down in history as one of the greatest mathematicians of
all time, and he was certainly one of the giants upon whose shoulders Newton
stood.

90
 TYPES OF GEOMETRY
The study of geometry can be approached in a number of ways. For
example, geometry may be Euclidean or non-Euclidean, depending on the
axioms used in the axiomatic system. Analytic geometry uses the same axioms
as Euclidean geometry, but it employs algebraic methods in working with
geometric figures. All geometries that do not use algebraic methods are called
synthetic geometries.
Euclidean geometry is based on the axioms developed by Euclid in the
Elements and on axioms later derived from Euclid’s axioms. Euclidean
geometry can be divided into plane geometry and solid geometry. Plane
geometry involves the study of such two-dimensional figures as lines, angles,
triangles, quadrilaterals, and circles. Solid geometry involves the study on three-
dimensional figures, such as those illustrated on the next page.
Topics studied in Euclidean geometry include the congruence and
similarity of triangles and other geometric figures, and the properties of parallel
and perpendicular lines. Other topics include the properties of circles and
spheres and the measurement of the area or volume of figures.

91
 Shpere, Cube, Pyramid, Cylinder, Cone.
One of the most famous axioms in Euclidean geometry is Euclid’s parallel
axiom, also known as Euclid’s fifth axioms or the parallel postulate. One way of
stating the parallel axiom is through a pointnot on a given line, only one line can
be drawn parallel to the given line. For example, in the illustration below, line
/is the only line parallel to line AB that can be drawn through point P.

A B

During Euclid’s time, and for centuries thereafter, mathematicians

attempted to prove that the parallel axiom could be derived from Euclid’s other
axioms. In the 1800’s, however, mathematicians discovered that the parallel
axiom cannot be proved from the other axioms. This discovery led to the
creation of geometric systems in which the parallel axiom was replaces by other
axioms. Such systems are called non-Euclidean.
Non-Euclidean geometry. One basic type of non-Euclidean geometry is

92
called hyperbolic geometry. In it, the parallel axiom is replaced by the following
axiom: through a point not on a given line, more than one line may be drawn
parallel to the given line.
In one model of hyperbolic geometry, plane is defined as a set of points
that lie in the interior of a circle. Line is defined as a chord of a circle. And
parallel lines are defined as lines that never intersect. In the diagram at the right,
therefore, lines L, M, and N are all considered parallel to line AB, even through
they all pass through the same point, P. Hyperbolic geometry is sometimes
called Lo-bachevskian geometry, because is was developed – in the early 1800’s
– by the Russian mathematician Nikolai Lobachevsky.
Another basic type of non-Euclidean geometry, elliptical geometry,
replaces the parallel axiom with the statement through a point not on a given
line, there are no lines that do not intersect the given line. In other words, in
elliptical geometry, parallel lines do not exist.
In one model of elliptical geometry, line is defined as the great circle of a
sphere. A great circle is any circle that divides a sphere into equal halves. Any
two such circles on a sphere must intersect. In the sphere at the right, the great
circle ABCD intersects the great circle PCQA. Elliptical geometry is also called
Riemannian geometry. It was developed in themid-1800’s by the German
mathematician Georg Friedrich Bernhard Riemann.

B D

93
 Because one important use of the figures and principles of geometry is to
describe the physical world, we might ask which type of geometry, Euclidean or
non-Euclidean, provides the best model of reality. Some situations are better
described in non-Euclidean terms, such as aspects of Albert Einstein’s theory of
relativity (see Relativity [General relativity theory]). Other situations, such as
those related to building, engineering, and surveying, seem better described by
Euclidean geometry.
Analytic geometry is a method of studying the properties of geometric
figures by using algebraic techniques. Analytic geometry deals with the same
subject matter as Euclidean geometry, but provides simpler ways of proving
many theorems. It plays an important role in trigonometry and calculus.
Analytic geometry makes use of a coordinate system, such as the one
illustrated in the figure below. This system, also called the rectangular system or
Cartesian system, consists of two perpendicular number lines in a plane. Points
of a geometric figure are located in the plane by assigning each point two
coordinates (numbers) on the number lines x and y. The x-coordinate, called the
abscissa, gives the location of the point along the x-axis (horizontal number
line). They y-coordinate, called the ordinate, locates the point along the y-axis
(vertical number line).
For example, the paired coordinates for point A in the figure below are
(2,1). This means that point A is two units to the right of the y-axis and one unit
directly above the x-axis. In addition, the figure shows several other points – B,
C and D – and their coordinates. There is a one-to-one correspondence between
all the points of the plane and ordered pairs of numbers (x, y) on the x- and y-
axes.

94
 B(-4,2)

A(2,1)

D(4,-3)

C(-5,-5)

We can describe geometric figures in terms of coordinates by devising

algebraic equations that represent the points that make up the figures. For
example, the equation 2x+y=2 has many solutions of the form (x, y), such as (-2,
6), (-1, 4), (0, 2), (1, 0), and (2, -2). If these points are plotted on a coordinate
graph and then connected with a smooth line, they are found to lie on a straight
line. A graph of solutions of the equation is shown below. Any point (x, y) that
lies on the line has coordinates that satisfy the equation 2x+y=2, and any pair of
numbers (x, y) that satisfy the equation will be a point on the line. Other plane
geometric figures also have their own equations and can be graphed on a
coordinate system. These figures include conic sections. Conic sections are
types of curves formed by the intersection of planes and cones. They include
circles, ellipses, and parabolas.

95
(-2,6)

(-1,4)

(0,2)

(1,0)

(2,-2)

96
 SOLIDS
In our everyday lives we are constantly coming into contact with an endless
variety of things, in our homes, in our journeys to and from school, at work, or at
play - books, pencils, marbles and the list can be added to indefinitely. We can
classify them in any way we please, by weight, by colour, or by age, but in spite
of the endless diversity of the objects we have listed, there is an important
property that they all possess. Each takes up a certain amount of room or space.

Anything which takes up space is spoken of as a solid.

Thus each page of our books is a solid, however thin the paper may be. The air
we breathe and the water we use have also the property of occupying space and
are therefore solids. The word solid as used here must not be confused with the
word solid which is used as opposed to liquid and gas.

Most solids are irregular in shape, e. g. a pebble in a stream, a cloud in the sky.
Geometry deals with the shape, size, and position of solids which are regular in
shape, e. g. a ball, a match-box, a pencil.

The more common regular solids are: cube, cuboid or rectangular prism,
triangular prism, square pyramid, cylinder, cone, sphere.

amount რაოდენობა

cone კონუსი

cube კუბი

cuboid კუბოიდი

diversity მრავალფეროვნება

liquid სითხე

rectangular მართკუთხა

shape ფორმა

solid სამგანზომილებიანი ფიგურა, სხეული

space სივრცე

97
 sphere სფერო, ბირთვის ზედაპირი

triangular სამკუთხა

SURFACES
Solids are bounded by surfaces. These surfaces separate the solids from the
surrounding space. Surfaces are of two kinds: plane and curved. The surfaces of a
cube, rectangular prism, pyramid are plane surfaces, while the surface of a sphere
is curved. The nature of a surface may be tested as follows: place a straight edge
on the surface in several positions,, If the straight edge is in contact with the
surface throughout its whole length in all positions, then the surface is plane and
is referred to as a plane surface or simply as a plane. If the surface is not in
contact with the straight edge in all positions, then the surface is a curved surface.
A sheet of paper, e. g. a leaf of a book, may represent a surface, but even the
thinnest sheet of paper will be a geometrical solid, since it has length, breadth,
and thickness. Each leaf of a book is a geometrical solid, the words on the pages
are two of its bounding surface.

Lines
Surface intersected in lines are bounded by lines. Lines are either straight or
curved. Examine the model of a rectangular prism. When two surfaces intersect,
they do so in a straight line, called an edge of the prism. The curved surface of a
cylinder and either of the plane surfaces intersect in a curved line. The trace made
on paper by a fine pencil point may represent a line, but even the finest trace will
be a geometrical solid, since it has length, breadth, and thickness, and a line has
length, but no breadth and no thickness.

Points
Lines intersect in points. The meeting place of two edges is called a point (a
vertex). At each of the eight vertices it will be seen that three lines meet. The dot
made on paper by a fine pencil point represents a point. No matter how fine the
pencil point is, however, the dot is a geometrical solid since it has length,
breadth, and thickness, and a point has no length, no breadth, and no thickness. A
point indicates but has no size.

breadth სიგანე

curved surface მრუდწირული ზედაპირი

edge წახნაგი
98
 geometrical solid სამგანზომილებიანი გეომეტრიული ფიგურა,
სხეული

intersect გადაკვეთა

length სიგრძე

plane სიბრტყე, ბრტყელი

thickness სისქე

vertex ( მრ. vertices) წვერო

Theorems
A theorem is a statement of a geometrical truth which has to be proved from
facts already proved or assumed. The parts of a theorem are:

1) the General Enunciation - this states in general terms the truth which has to
be proved.

2) the Particular Enunciation - this restates with reference to a particular figure

the truth which has to be proved. It has two parts;

a) a statement of what is given and

b) a statement of what has to be proved.

3) The Construction - this states any lines or figures which are required for the
proof.

4) The Proof - this proves the truth by facts already established or assumed.

The converse of a theorem proves what the theorem assumes and assumes what
the theorem proves.

Example:

Theorem: If a triangle is equilateral, it is equiangular.

Converse: If a triangle is equiangular, it is equilateral.

If a theorem is true, it must not be assumed that its converse must be true. For
example, consider the theorem: if two straight lines are parallel, they lie in the
same plane. The converse of this is: if two straight lines are in the same plane,

99
they are parallel, which is not true. Hence the converse of a theorem must -be
proved separately.

Converse შებრუნებული თეორემა

enunciation ფორმულირება

equiangular ტოლკუთხა

equilateral ტოლგვერდა

proof დამტკიცება

prove დამტკიცება (ზმნა)

theorem თეორემა

Vertical and Horizontal Lines and Planes

If an object is suspended by a string, the line of the string would pass through
the centre of the earth; the line is called a vertical line. Any plane which contains
a vertical line, e. g. the surface of the wall of a room, is called a - vertical plane.
When a bricklayer is building a wall, he uses a plumb-line, which consists of a
small lump of lead at the end of a string to test whether the surface of the wall is
a vertical plane.

Any straight line which is perpendicular to a vertical line is called a horizontal

line, and if all the lines that can be drawn in a plane are horizontal, the plane is
called a horizontal plane, e. g. the surface of still water in a tank.

A surface is called level if it is part of a horizontal plane. You can test whether
the floor of this room is a horisontal plane by using an instrument called a spirit-
level, in which the adjustment to the horizontal is shown] by the position of a
bubble in a glass tube containing (alcohol. If a line or plane is neither vertical,
nor horizontal, it is called oblique. The words perpendicular and vertical must
not be confused.

Two intersecting lines are perpendicular if they form a right-angled corner; a

line is vertical if it points to the centre of the earth.

level დონე

100
oblique დახრილი

plumb-line ნიველირი

right-angled corner მართი კუყთხე

tank ბაკი

test გასინჯვა, ტესტი

101
102
 THE HISTORY OF TRIGONOMETRY

Trigonometry from Greek means – “trigonon” – “triangle” and “metron” –

meaning “measure”, is a branch of mathematics that studies relationships
involving lengths and angles of triangles. The field begins From the Hellenistic
world during the 3rd century BC From applications of Geometry to astronomical
studies.
The 3rd century astronomers first noted that the length of the sides of a
right-angle triangle and the angles between those sides have fixed relationship:
that is at least the length of one side and the value of one angle is known, then
all other angles and lengths can be determined algorithmically.
These calculations soon came to be defined as trigonometric function and is
used both in pure and applied maths. We have 6 functions of trigonometry:

Greek phylosopher Pythagoras (570 BC) was known as Pythagoras’s

theorem
c represents the length of the hypotenus and a and b the length of
the triangle’s other two sides.
Sumerian astronomers studied angle measure, using a division of circles
into 360 degrees, later the Babylonians, studied the ratios of the sides of simillar
triangles. In the 3rd century BC, Euclid and Archimedes studied the properties of
chords and inscribed angles in circles.
Menelaus of Alexandria (1st century AD) – Greek mathematician and
astronomer who first defined a spherical triangle (a triangle formed by three arcs
of great circles on the surface of the sphere.
Hipparchus (162-120 B.C.) gave the first table of chords, analogous to
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modern tables of sine values, and used them to solve problems in trigonometry
and spherical trigonometry. In the 2nd century AD, the Greco-Egyptian
astronomer Ptolemy printed detailed trigonometric tables.
By the 10th century, Islamic mathematicians were using all six
trigonometric functions. Then Chiness mathematicians developed trigonometry
independently; Persian and Arabic astronomers and European mathematicians,
German mathematician Regiomontanus (15th century) and then 16th century
representative Nicolaus Copernicus and other mathematicians their great
contribution in the development of trigonometry. Modern system of notation
was developed by Euler in the 18th century (here we have some slides showing
the subject on trigonometry).
Driven by the demands of navigation and growing need for accurate maps
of large geometric areas, trigonometry grew into a major branch of maths Fields
that use trigonometry or its functions include: astronomy, navigation, music
theory, optics, electronics, biology, pharmacy, chemistry, meteorology, physical
sciences, geodesy, architecture, economics, electrical engineering, computer
praphics, cartography and so on.

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 THE FATHER OF TRIGONOMETRY

Hipparchus

Hipparchus was one of antiquity’s greatest scientists.

A Greek mathematician and astronomer, he measured the earth-moon

distance accurately, founded the mathematical discipline of trigonometry, and
his combinatorics work was unequalled until 1870.

Hipparchus discovered the precession of the equinoxes and observed the

appearance of a new star – a nova.

He suspected stars might move slowly with respect to one another over
great lengths of time; he hoped people living in the future could verify this. To
this end he compiled a star catalog documenting the positions and magnitudes of
over 850 stars. His legacy bore fruit almost two millennia later when, in 1718,
Edmund Halley discovered the proper motion of stars.

Beginnings
Hipparchus was born over 2,200 years ago. The year of his birth was
about 190 BC and the place of his birth was the Ancient Greek city of Nicea.
The ruins of the city can still be seen in the town of Iznik, Turkey.

Hipparchus is sometimes known as Hipparchus of Nicea, reflecting his

birthplace. He is also known as Hipparchus of Rhodes, because he seems to
have lived and worked for much of his life on the Greek island of Rhodes.

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 Very little of Hipparchus’s original work has survived. We know about
some of his most important observations and discoveries, because other ancient
scholars commented on them or used them in their own work.

The great astronomer Ptolemy at times quoted Hipparchus word for word,
so we can still read some of Hipparchus’s thoughts directly.

We do not know for certain what Hipparchus looked like – we only have
portrayals created long after his death.

Nicea seems to have been proud of Hipparchus, placing his image on

coins between 138 and 253 AD. This means the first coins honoring him were
minted about 250 years after his death. If the coins offer a true likeness – but
this is uncertain – Hipparchus can be seen in the image above.

Trigonometry
Trigonometry simplifies the mathematics of triangles, making astronomy
calculations easier. Trigonometry was probably invented by Hipparchus, who
compiled a table of the chords of angles and made them available to other
scholars. Chords are closely related to sines.

The Earth-Moon Distance

The moon shows a significant amount of parallax when viewed from
different locations on the earth such as Egypt vs Greece.

When you view something from a different location, it appears at a

different place against the background. In this example, the different
locations are your left eye versus your right eye.
When a heavenly body shows significant parallax, astronomers can use
geometry to calculate its distance from the earth.

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 Hipparchus used parallax to measure the earth-moon distance at least
twice. The measurements were reported by Pappus of Alexandria:

Measurement 1
Hipparchus found the earth-moon distance was 77 earth radii. In the style of a
modern physicist, he gave bounds for his result – the minimum was 71 and the
maximum 83.

Measurement 2
Hipparchus found the earth-moon distance was 671⁄3 earth radii. His bounds
were: minimum 62, maximum 722⁄3.

A Remarkable Result
Hipparchus knew these measurements were rather far apart, but
nevertheless reported them honestly. According to both Theon of Smyrna and
Cleomedes, Hipparchus later refined some of his data including placing the sun
considerably farther from the earth than he had first estimated. Using these new
figures, Hipparchus found an earth-moon distance of 601⁄2 or 61 earth radii.

The modern value is 60 earth radii.

Eratosthenes had already calculated the earth’s radius accurately, so over

2,000 years ago, in an awe inspiring triumph of human intellect, Greek
astronomers knew quite accurately the size of our planet and how far the moon
is from us.

How long is a Year?

To make an accurate, consistent calendar, we need to know how long the
tropical year is – the exact amount of time between one summer solstice and the
next one. This is difficult to measure accurately.

Hipparchus made careful observations and got a better value than anyone
before him. His final figure was only 6 minutes too high.

Combinatorics – The Lost World

Combinatorics is an important branch of mathematics; it deals with how
many ways there are of arranging things. It is needed in many fields including
computer science, statistical physics, probability, and pure mathematics.

Hipparchus seems to have been a master of combinatorics. The first

century AD Greek historian Plutarch wrote in Table Talk:

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 Chrysippus said that the number of compound statements obtainable from
ten simple statements is over one million. Hipparchus contradicted him, showing
that affirmatively there are 103,049 compound statements…

In 1994 David Hough at George Washington University realized that

103,049 is the tenth Schröder number. It is equal to the number of ways 10
different things can be put inside parentheses. For example, 4 statements can be
arranged in 11 ways:

xxxx, (xx)xx, x(xx)x, xx(xx), (xxx)x, x(xxx), ((xx)x)x, x(x(xx)),(x(xx))x,

x((xx)x), (xx)(xx)

Alternatively, you could take a branching tree approach to the same

problem, shown here again for 4 statements.

5 statements can be arranged in 45 ways, and so on until you reach 10

statements, and these can be arranged in 103,049 ways. Hipparchus’s
calculations were very advanced. It took until 1870 until Ernst Schröder
rediscovered the numbers.

We came to know about Hipparchus’s advanced work in combinatorics

only because of a comment Plutarch made in a book three centuries later,
followed by the more recent insights of modern scholars.

One can only speculate about how many other Ancient Greek
achievements are unknown to us.

THE HISTORY OF NUMBERS THEORY

Very few among the great mathematicians did not work at one time or
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another in the theory of numbers. The whole beauty of this science becomes
apparent only to those who penetrate deep into it. To penetrate deep means to
discover and prove or at least to be able to understand recondite relations
between numbers. Pierre de Fermat (1607-1665) who may be called the father of
modern number theory was the first man to discover really deep properties of
numbers, Fermat was an extraordinary man. A jurist by profession he was also a
great mathematician and an accomplished classical scholar. With Pascal he laid
the foundations of the theory of probability, developed analytical geometry
independently of Descarted and was one of the founders of infinitesimal
calculus. Yet his discoveries in number theory overshadow everything else he
did. These discoveries he communicated mostly in letters to his contemporaries,
some of them he jotted down in marginal notes on the copy of the Diophantus
“Arithmatica” in his possession. But he never revealed his profs and gave only
very general indications about his methods. Yet all of his theorems later were
found true, with one exeption, and one the famous Fermat’s Last Theorem – still
remains unproved except in particular cases. Just a few of Fermat’s theorems
will show what deep relations exist between numbers. At first sight there is no
apparent relation between polygonal numbers and integers in general.

1. apparent – აშკარა, ნათელი;

2. peretrate – შეღწევა;
3. recondite – ძნელადგასარკვევი, გაურკვეველი;

4. accomplish – დამთავრება, დასრულება;

5. scholar – სწავლული;
6. infinitesimal – უსასრულომცირე;
7. overshedow – დაჩრდილვა;

8. contemporary – თანამედროვე;
9. marginal – წიგნის კიდეზე დაწერა;
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10. reveale – გამომჟღავნება, გამოაშკარავება;
11. indication – მითითება, ჩვენება;
12. polygonal – მრავალნიშნა, კუთხა;
13. property – თვისება;
14. integers – მთელი რიცხვები;
15. therefore – რადგანაც;

16. triangular – სამკუთხა;

17. pentagonal – ხუთკუთხა;
18. links – შემაკავშირებელი რგოლი, შეკავშირება, შეერთება;
19. axceed – გადამეტება;
20. multiple – მრავალჯერადი, მრავალმნიშვნელოვანი;
21. cite – ციტირება, მითითება;
22. biquadrates – ბიკვადრატული მეოთხე ხარისხში;
23. Communication – შეტყობინება, კავშირის ქონა.

PIERRE DE FERMAT (1607-1665) – THE FATHER

OF THE THEORY

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 Of numbers was born between 31 October – 6 December 1607 in
Beaumont-de-Lomagne, France. The late 15th – century mansion where Fermat
was born is now a museum. He was from Gascony, where his father, Dominique
Fermat, was a wealthy leader merchant, and his mother was Claire de Long.
There is little evidence concerning his school education, but it was probably at
the College de Navarre in Montauban. He attended the University of Orleans
from 1623 and received a bachelor in civil Law in 1626, before moving to
Bordeaux. There he began his first serious mathematical researches, and in 1629
he gave a cop of his restoration of “Apollonius’s De Locis Planis” to one of the
mathematicians in Bordeaux. During this time he produced important work on
maxima and minima which he gave to Etienne de Espagnet who clearly shared
mathematical interest with Fermat. There he became much influenced by the
work of Francois Viete.
In 1630, he bought the office of a councillor at the Parlement de Toulouse,
one of the High Courts of Judicature in France, and he was sworn in by the
Grand Chambre in May 1631, He held his office for the rest of his life. Fermat
thereby became entitled to change his name from Pierre Fermat to Pierre de
Fermat. Fluent in six languages (French, Latin, Occitan, classical Greek, Italian
and Spanish), Fermat was praised for his written verse in several languages and
his advice was eagerly sought, regarding the emendation of Greek texts.
He communicated most of his work in letters to friends, often with little or
no proof of his theorems. In some of these letters to his friends he explored
many of the fundamental ideas of calculus before Newton or Leibniz. Fermat
was a trained Lawyer making mathematics more of a hobby than a profession.
Nevertheless, he made important contributions to analytical geometry,
probability, number theory and calculus. Secrecy was common in European
mathematical circles at the time. This naturally led to priority disputes with
contemporaries such as Descartes and Wallis.
Anders Hald wrote that, “The basis of Ferma’s mathematics was the

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classical Greek treatises combined with Vieta’s new algebraic methods”. He is a
mathematician who is given credit for early developments that led to
infinitesimal calculus, including his technique of adequality. In particular, he is
recognized for his discovery of an original method of finding the greatest and
the smallest ordinates of curved lines, which is analogous to that of differential
calculus, his contibution.
He died on January 12, 1665 at the age of 57.

MATHEMATICAL THEOREMS

The superiority of the mathematical theorems in seriousness in obvious and

overwhelming. Euclid’s theorem is vital for the whole structure of arithmetic.
The primes are the row material out of which we have to build arithmetic, and
Euclid’s theorem assures us that we have plenty of material for the task. But the
theorem of Pythagoras has wider applications and provides a better text.
We should observe first that Pythagora’s argument is capable of far-
reaching extension, and can be applied, with a little change of principle, to very
wide classes of “irretionals”. We can prove that
, , , , ,

are irretional, or that and are irrational.

Euclid’s theorem tells us that we have good supply of material for the
construction of a coherent arithmetic of the integers. Pythagora’s theorem and its
extensions tell us that, when we have constructed this arithmetic, it will not
prove sufficient for our needs, since there will be many magnitudes which
obtrude themselves upon our attention and which it will be unable to measure;
the diagonal of the square is merely the most obvious example. The profound
importance of this discovery was recognized at once by the Greek
mathematicians. They had begun by assuming (in accordance with the “natural”
dictates of “common sense”) that all magnitudes of the same kind are
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commensurable, that any two lengths, for example, are multiples of some
common unit, and they had constructed a theory of proportion based on this
assumption.
Pythagora’s discovery exposed the unsoundness of this foundation, and let
to the construction of the much more profound theory of Eudoxus which is set
out in the fifth book of Elements, and which is regarded by many modern
mathematicians as the finest achievement of Greek mathematics.
This theory is astonishingly modern is spirit, and may be regarded as the
beginning of the modern theory of irrational number, which has revolutionized
mathematical analysis and had much influence on recent philosophy.
There is no doubt at all, then, of the “seriousness” of either theorem. It is
therefore the better worth remarking that neither theorem has the slightest
“practical” importance. In practical applications we are concerned only with
comparatively small numbers; only stellar astronomy and atomic physics deal
with “large” numbers, and they have very little more practical importance, as
yet, then the most abstract pure mathematics.
A “serious” theorem is a theorem which contains “significant” ideas. We
can recognize a “significant” idea, when we see it, we may take it for granted
that in substance, seriousness, significance, beauty, the advantage of the real
mathematical theorem is overwhelming.

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 Natural Numbers: Definition and Examples

A natural number is a counting number, a member of the set

{1,2,3,4,….}. The set of natural numbers is designated by ℕ.
Formal Description of Natural Numbers
More formally, we can define the natural numbers as the set ℕ= {x| x=1, or there
is some y in ℕ where y = {x + 1}. In plain English, that means that ℕ is the set
where x either is one, or x is 1 more than some other number y in ℕ. The easiest
way to come up with examples of natural numbers is simply to start at one and
begin counting; each of the numbers that result when you add 1 to a natural
number is another natural number.
All natural numbers are integers. In set theory, we would say that ℕ is a subset
of ℤ.
Examples of Natural Numbers
Examples of natural numbers include 4, 79, and 56,793.
-5, -7, and 9.8 are not natural numbers.
Alternate Definition of Natural Numbers
The set of natural numbers is sometimes defined as the set {0,1,2,3,4,….}. In
this case it is equivalent to the set of non negative integers. The essential
properties of natural numbers remain the same whether or not we include 0.
Properties of a Natural Number
The set of natural numbers is closed under addition and multiplication. If you
add or multiply natural numbers, you’ll get a natural number as a result. That is,
for any a and b in ℕ, a + b = c and a * b = g will also be in ℕ.
The set of natural numbers isn’t closed under subtraction or division. For every
natural number a, there exist natural numbers b and c such that a – b = e and a /
c = f, where e and f are not natural numbers.
Natural numbers make an infinite set. For any natural number, there is another
natural number that is one greater.
Another important property of natural numbers is that they can
be ordered. Formally, we’d say that for any a, b in ℕ a > b if and only if a = b +
k for some k in ℕ. This means that natural numbers include the set of ordinal
numbers and the set of cardinal numbers.

Rational and Irrational Numbers

Rational Numbers

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A rational number is a number that can be written as a ratio. That means it can
be written as a fraction, in which both the numerator (the number on top) and the
denominator (the number on the bottom) are whole numbers.

 The number 8 is a rational number because it can be written as the

fraction 8/1.
 Likewise, 3/4 is a rational number because it can be written as a fraction.
 Even a big, clunky fraction like 7,324,908/56,003,492 is rational, simply
because it can be written as a fraction.
Every whole number is a rational number, because any whole number can be
written as a fraction. For example, 4 can be written as 4/1, 65 can be written as
65/1, and 3,867 can be written as 3,867/1.

Watch this video to better understand the relationship between two numbers—a
ratio—and a particular kind of ratio involving time, which is called a rate.

Irrational Numbers
All numbers that are not rational are considered irrational. An irrational number
can be written as a decimal, but not as a fraction.

An irrational number has endless non-repeating digits to the right of the decimal
point. Here are some irrational numbers:

π = 3.141592…
= 1.414213…
Although irrational numbers are not often used in daily life, they do exist on the
number line. In fact, between 0 and 1 on the number line, there are an infinite
number of irrational numbers!

Real Numbers

In both analytic geometry and calculus, we freedy used the correspondence

between the set of all real numbers and the set of points on directed line (the
X-axis), and used the terms “points”and “number”interchangeably. We also
used the order relationships: less than (<); equal to (=); greater than (>); less
than or equal to (≤); greater than or equal to (≥). The real numbers arranged in
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their order of algebraically increasing values are referred to as the real numbers
with their natural ordering.

Definition 1.1. We shall designate by 𝑅1 the set of all real numbers with
their natural ordering (or equivalently, the set of all points on the real line,
directed positively from left to right).

Definition 1.2. let A be a set in 𝑅1 . Then b is an upper bound for A iff

𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 for every 𝑥 in A.

Example 1.3. Let A= {1,2,3}.Then 3 is an upper bound for A, since for

each 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥 ≤ 3 . Is 4 also an upper bound for A? Yes, since it si also true
that for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥 ≤ 4. In fact, any number grester than 3 is also an upper
bound for A.

We thus see that upper bounds are not unique; that is, if A is any set and
𝑏 is an upper bound for A, then for any 𝑐 > 𝑏, 𝑐 is also an upper bound for A.
Note that an upper bound for a set may be a member of the set, but need not
be. In example 1.3 we saw that 3 is an upper bound for A which and 3 ∈ 𝐴.
However, 3 is the only upper bound for A which is a member of A. Let us
consider one more example.

Example 1.4. Let A be the set of all real numbers 𝑥 such that 0 < 𝑥 < 1.
Then 1 (or any number larger than 1) is an upper bound for A. But 1 A . As a
matter of fact, no upper bound for A is a member of A.

In the technique of contrapositive proof, we are interested in the negation

of properties. Thus, for instance, we might ask “What do we mean when we say
that a number 𝑏 is not an upper bound for a set A?”

The general process of negating definitions is subtle, and sometimes difficult,

but the present case is relatively simple, as follows.

Theorem 1.5. The real number 𝑏 is not an upper bound for the set A if
there exists an element 𝑥 of A such that 𝑥 > 𝑏.

It might be interesting to use this theorem and the contrapositive

technique to prove theassertion in Examle 1.4, that is, to prove that no upper
bound for this particular set A can be a member of A. Thus, suppose that 𝑏 is
any point of A. By definition of the set A, this means that 0 < 𝑏 < 1. But since
𝑏+1
𝑏< < 1 (verify this), we see that (𝑏 + 1)/2 is a member of A which is
2
greater than 𝑏. Hence, by theorem 1.5., 𝑏 is not an upper bound for A. Since 𝑏
was originally chosen as any point in A, we have thus shown that if 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 , then
𝑏 is not an upper bound for A. This completes the proof.
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 Complex Numbers

Mathematicians customarily write √−𝟏 in such numbers as 𝒊, and any

complex numbers as 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒊.
Ordinary numbers can all be thought of as lying along a single straight line,
a continuous stream without gaps in it – what mathematicians call a
“continuum”. But a typical complex number, 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒊, has no place on the line of
ordinary numbers.
When two ordinary numbers are multiplied, the result is a jump along the
straight line. When two complex numbers are multiplied, however, the result is a
spectacular trapezelike swing within the two-dimensional plane.
The excentric behaviour of the complex numbers is important because it
matches perfectly – and therefore serves as a literal translation of the behaviour
of many quantities in nature, such as forces, velocities or accelerations, which
act in definite directions. When two forces are exerted from different directions
on the same point, for instance, their net effect is a third force with a new
direction. Diagrammatically the strength and direction of each of the two forces
can be represented as the length and direction of a line segment. Each of these
two line segments in turn can be represented by a complex number, and the two
complex numbers added together will then represent the third force which arises
from the combination of the first two.
The line segments that symbolize forces, velocities and the like are called
“vectors”, and are an essential tool of physics. The fact that they and complex
numbers behave alike mathematically makes it possible to analyse complicated
situations in which many forces are all acting at once – on the gyroscopic
compass of a heaving ship, for instance.
Numbers which serve to represent forces, velocities and accelerations
acting in more than two dimensions are “hypercomplex numbers” – expressions

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like 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒊 + 𝒄𝒋 + 𝒅𝒌, in which the units 𝒊, 𝒋 and 𝒌 when multiplied together,
produce minus one.
The most astonishing thing about these hypercomplex numbers is that they
flout a basic rule of arithmetic previously thought inviolate. When multiplied
together, the same two hypercomplex numbers may produce different results
depending on the order in which they are taken; hypercomplex number 𝒂 times
hypercomplex number 𝒃 does not always equal hypercomplex 𝒃 time
hypercomplex 𝒂.

WHAT IS A RANDOM NUMBER?

There are many familiar ways of picking random numbers such as rolling
dice, picking phone numbers from a telephone directory, putting numbers on
bells or pieces of paper and picking them out of a bag – there are even tables of
random numbers and most computers have functions that produce random
numbers.
We are familiar with the mechanisms used, say, to make the draw for the
World Cup football competition’s final rounds, to select the prize-winners in a
raffle and even to choose the winners in national lotteries.
Essentially some physical method is used to try to answer that each of the
participants has an equal chance of being selected. Such mechanisms can be
applied “without replacement” in which case once a number has been drawn it
cannot subsequently be redrawn or “with replacement” in which case it is
returned to the mechanism for possible re-selection at the next draw. The key
issue here is the notation of “equal chance”.

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 For the purposes of this chapter we are concerned with mechanisms for
selecting elements of a set of n different objects with equal probability – or,
more technically, with sampling from a uniform distribution. Suppose, for
example, we want to be able to select a random integer between 0 and 99
inclusive. Some physical means to achieve this are:
1. The “top-hat method” – take 100 identical pieces of paper and write
each of the numbers 0, 1, 2, …, 99 on a different piece. Fold them
tightly, put them into a container, such as a top-hat, waste-paper bin etc.,
shake well and pick out a piece of paper. Note the number written on it.
2. Spinners – carefully cut a regular 10-sided polygon from card. Write
each of the number 0 – 9 one against each of the sides of the polygon.
Pierce the centre of the polygon with a knitting-needle and push a pencil
into the hole. If you spin the polygon on the pencip tip it will eventually
come to rest with one edge against the horizontal surface. Note the digit
written against this edge and record it as, say, the units digit of a 2-digit
number. Repeat the operation but this time use the resulting digit as the
tens digit of the number.
3. Dice and coin – the spinner could be replaced by a die and a coin, but
that would give 12 possible outcomes. Suppose we treat the 5 on the die
as a zero and decide that if a 6 is rolled then the die will continue to be
rolled again until something other than a 6 appears. We now have a
means of selecting the digits, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, with equal probability (given
a fair die). Now toss a coin – if it lands showing a head then treat the
digit from the die as it stands but if it shows tails then add 5 to the digit
from the die. We now have a means of selecting a digit between 0 da 9
with equal probability and so we can select 2 such digits to make our 2-
digit random number.
4. Special dice – some manufactures of educational equipment sell 20-
sided dice (icosahedra) with each of digits 0-9 engraved on two

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 opposide faces, or 10-sided dice (usually truncated octahedra which
look “nearly” regular). Again two throws are needed generate the 2-digit
number.
These methods are all random in the sense that each outcome is quite
independent of the previous outcome. There are some methods, though, in which
this is not the case but in which the outcome seem to conform to no particular
pattern. Such numbers are known as “pseudo random numbers”.

Elements and Sets

We deal with objects, some of which are called sets. Objects have
properties or relations with one another. Objects are denoted by symbols (chiefly
letters), properties or relations by combinations of the symbols of the objects
which are involved in them, and of some other symbols, characteristic of the
property or relation under consideration. The relation 𝒙 = 𝒚 menas that the
objects denoted by the symbols 𝒙 and 𝒚 are the same; its negation is written 𝒙 ≠
𝒚.
If 𝑿 is a set, the relation 𝒙 ∈ 𝑿 means that 𝒙 is an element of the set 𝑿, or
belongs to 𝑿; the negation of that relation is written 𝒙 ∉ 𝑿.
If 𝑿 and 𝒀 are two sets, the relation 𝑿 ⊂ 𝒀 means that evety element of 𝑿
is an element of 𝒀 (in other words, it is equivalent to the relation (∀𝒙)(𝒙 ∈ 𝑿 →
𝒙 ∈ 𝒀); we have 𝑿 ⊂ 𝑿 and the relation 𝑿 ⊂ 𝒀and 𝒀 ⊂ 𝒁) implies 𝑿 ⊂ 𝒁.If
𝑿 ⊂ 𝒀and𝒀 ⊂ 𝑿), than 𝑿 = 𝒀, in other words, two sets are equal if and only if
they have the same elements. If 𝑿 ⊂ 𝒀, one says that 𝑿 is contained in 𝒀, or that
𝒀 contains 𝑿, or that 𝑿 is a subset of 𝒀; one also writes 𝒀 ⊃ 𝑿. The negation of
𝑿 ⊂ 𝒀is written 𝑿 ⊄ 𝒀; if we have a set 𝑿, and a property 𝑷, there is a unique
subset of 𝑿 whose elements are all elements 𝑿 ∈ 𝒀 for which 𝑷(𝒙) is true; that
subset is written {𝒙 ∈ 𝑿|𝑷(𝒙)}.
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 The relation {𝒙 ∈ 𝑿|𝑷(𝒙)} ⊂ {𝒙 ∈ 𝑿|𝑸(𝒙)}is equivalent to (∀𝒙 ∈
𝑿)(𝑷(𝒙) → 𝑸(x)); the relation {𝒙 ∈ 𝑿|𝑷(𝒙)} = {𝒙 ∈ 𝑿|𝑸(𝒙)} is equivalent to
(∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑿)(𝑷(𝒙) ↔ 𝑸(𝒙)). We have, for instance𝑿 = {𝒙 ∈ 𝑿}|𝒙 = 𝒙}, and𝑿 =
{𝒙 ∈ 𝑿|𝒙 = 𝑿}. The set∅𝒙 = {𝒙 ∈ 𝑿|𝒙 ≠ 𝒙} is called the empty subset of𝑿; it
contains no element. If𝑷is any property, the relation𝒙 ∈ ∅𝒙 → 𝑷(𝒙) is true for
every 𝒙, as the negation of 𝒙 ∈ ∅𝒙 is true for every𝒙(remember that∅ → 𝑷means
“not𝑸or𝑷”). Therefore, if𝑿and𝒀are sets,𝒙 ∈ ∅𝒙 implies𝒙 ∈ ∅𝒚 in other words
∅𝒙 ⊂ ∅𝒚 , and similarly∅𝒚 ⊃ ∅𝒙 , hance∅𝒙 = ∅𝒚 , all empty sets are equal, hence
noted ∅.
If 𝒂 is an object, the set having a as unique element is written {𝒂}.
If 𝑿 is a set, there is a (unique) set the elements of which are all subsets of
𝑿; it is written𝜷(𝒙). We have∅ ∈ 𝜷(𝒙), 𝑿 ∈ 𝜷(𝒙) the relations𝒙 ∈ 𝑿, {𝒙} ∈
𝜷(𝑿) are equivalent; the relations 𝒀 ∈ 𝑿, 𝒀 ∈ 𝜷(𝑿)are equivalent.

Sets

The term “set” is used to designate a collection of object of some kind.

These objects are called the elements, or members, or points of the set.
We generally designate sets by capital letters 𝑨, 𝑩, 𝑪 etc., and members of a
set by small letters 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅, etc.If a set 𝑨 consists of the points 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅,we
write 𝑨 = {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄, 𝒅}. If A consists of just the one points 𝒂, we write 𝑨 = {𝒂},
thus distinguishing between the point a and the set {𝒂}, consisting of only the
point 𝒂. The notation 𝒂 ∈ 𝑨 means “a is a member of A”, or “a belongs to A”,
the notation𝒂 ∉ 𝑨 means “a does not belong to A”.
Definition: The universe 𝑼 is the totality of all points under consideration
(during any investigation), and is the source from which we extract sets.

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 It is evident that the universe is itself a set, which is considered as “the
master set”; that is, we restrict our horizon to the universe at hand, and do not
recognize the existence of any other objects (or sets of objects) except those
belonging to our universe. Thus, for example, the equation 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 = 𝟎 has no
solution in the universe consisting of all real numbers. when we study algebra,
we find it necessary to enlarge our universe, and this leads to a new universe
consisting of all complex numbers.
Before stating our next definition, let us discuss the term “if and only if”,
which will be abbreviated “iff”.
Let 𝜶 and 𝜷 be two declarative statements. A typical theorem of
mathematics is a statement of the form “𝑰𝒇 𝜶 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝜷 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆”, which
is often shortened to “𝑰𝒇 𝜶, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝜷”, or “𝜶 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝜷”. Mathematicians
consider the following statements as equivalent; that is, any two of these
statements have precisely the same meaning:
𝛂 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝛃
𝛂 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐬𝐮𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝛃
𝛂 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐧𝐞𝐜𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝛃
𝐢𝐟 𝛂 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝛃
𝛃 𝐢𝐟 𝛂
𝛂 𝐨𝐧𝐥𝐲 𝐢𝐟 𝛃
The typical definition in mathematics is a statement of the form
“𝜶 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒊𝒇𝒇 𝜷 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒆”. Such a definition has the following equivalent
forms:
𝛂 𝐢𝐬 𝐭𝐫𝐮𝐞 𝐢𝐟𝐟 𝛃 𝐢𝐬 𝐭𝐫𝐮𝐞
𝛂 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐧𝐞𝐜𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐮𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝛃
𝛃 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐧𝐞𝐜𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐮𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝛂
𝛂 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝛃 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛃 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝛂

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 Mathematicians are pleased when they discover theorems which are “iff”
statements, as any such theorem provides two equivalent descriptions of the
same concept.

The Language of Mathematics

Mathematics isnot so much a body of knowledge as a special kind of

language, one so perfect and abstract that – hopefully – it may be understood by
intelligent creatures throughout the universe, however different their organs of
sense and perception. The grammar of the language – its proper usage – is
determined by the rules of logic. Its vocabulary consists of symbols, such as:
numerals for numbers;
letters for unknown numbers;
equations for relationships between numbers;
𝝅 for the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle.
𝒔𝒊𝒏 (for sine), 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (for cosine) and 𝒕𝒂𝒏 (for tangent) for the ratios between
sides in a right triangle.
√ s a square root;
∞ for infinity;
∑, ∫ , 𝜹and → for assorted other concepts in higher mathematics.
All of thee symbols are tremendously helpful to the scientist because they
serve to short-cut his thinking. To many laymen, however, they make
mathematics seem less a universal language than a massive linguistic barrier
between the so-called “Two cultures of modern society”, represented by the
scientists and the humanists.
Only part of the vocabulary of mathematics is preempted by science. The
rest of it – and all of the grammar – remains in the sphere of general human
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thought. Indeed, mathematics as much to do with philosophy, economics,
military strategy, musical composition, artistic perspective and parlor games as
it has to do with atomic physics. Because of its virtuosity, anyone well taught in
it can love it with the same warmth that a devotee feels for the ballet, fine silver,
antiques or any other adornment of civilization.

Mappings

Definition 1.1. Let 𝑯, 𝑲 be sets, and 𝒇 a rule that associates a unique

element of 𝑲 with each element of 𝑯. Then we write “𝒇: 𝑯 → 𝑲” and say that 𝒇
is a mapping of 𝑯 into 𝑲. If 𝒙 ∈ 𝑯, the point in 𝑲 associated with 𝒙 is denoted
by 𝒇(𝒙), and is called the image of 𝒙 under 𝒇.
The set 𝑯 is called the domain of definition of 𝒇, or simply the domain of
𝒇, and the set of images in 𝑲 is called the range of 𝒇.
The preceding definition states that no element of 𝑯 can map under 𝒇 onto
more than one element of 𝑲. However, several (or even all) elements of 𝑯 may
map onto the same element of 𝑲. We now illustrate some mappings.
Example 1.2. Let 𝑯 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔, 𝟕}, and 𝑲 = {𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟕, 𝟗}. We can
define a mapping 𝒇: 𝑯 → 𝑲 by specifying the image under 𝒇 of each element of
𝑯 as follows:
𝒇(𝟏) = 𝟑 𝒇 (𝟓) = 𝟑
𝒇(𝟐) = 𝟓 𝒇(𝟔) = 𝟗
𝒇(𝟑) = 𝟕 𝒇(𝟕) = 𝟓
𝒇(𝟒) = 𝟑
In this example, the domain of 𝒇 is 𝑯, and the range of 𝒇 is the set
{𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟕, 𝟗}, which is a subset of 𝑲 but not the entire set 𝑲.

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 Example 1.3. Let 𝑯 and 𝑲 be defined as in Example 1.2 and define 𝒇 as
follows:
𝒇(𝟏) = 𝟑 𝒇(𝟓) = 𝟑
𝒇(𝟐) = 𝟑 𝒇(𝟔) = 𝟑
𝒇(𝟑) = 𝟑 𝒇(𝟕) = 𝟑
𝒇(𝟒) = 𝟑
Here the domain of 𝒇 is 𝑯, and the range of 𝒇 is the set {𝟑} consisting of
just the single point 𝟑. In this case, we call 𝒇 a constant mapping, which we
define as follows.
Definition 1.4. If 𝒇: 𝒉 → 𝑲, and if for each 𝒙 ∈ 𝑯, 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒌, where 𝒌 is a
given element of 𝑲, then 𝒇 is called a constant mapping.
Example 1.5. Let 𝑯 and 𝑲 be defined as in Example 1.2., and define 𝒇 as
follows:
𝒇(𝟏) = 𝟑 𝒇 (𝟓) = 𝟑
𝒇(𝟐) = 𝟓 𝒇(𝟔) = 𝟗
𝒇(𝟑) = 𝟕 𝒇(𝟕) = 𝟏
𝒇(𝟒) = 𝟑
Here, the domain of 𝒇 is the set 𝑯, and the range of 𝒇, is the entire set 𝑲.
This illustrates the concept of an “onto” mapping, which we now define.
Definition 1.6.If 𝒇: 𝑯 → 𝑲, and if the range of 𝒇 consists of the entire set
𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐
𝑲, then we say that 𝒇 is a mapping of 𝑯 onto 𝑲, and write “𝒇: 𝑯 → 𝑲”.
Note that every “onto” mapping is an “into” mapping, but the converse is
not necessarily true. What is the advantage of an “onto” mapping? Clearly, if
𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐
“𝒇: 𝑯 → 𝑲”, we know that everyelement of K must be the image under 𝒇 of a
least one element of 𝑯.
Example 1.7. Let 𝑯 = 𝑲 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓}, and define 𝒇 as follows:
𝒇(𝟏) = 𝟏 𝒇 (𝟒) = 𝟒
𝒇(𝟐) = 𝟐 𝒇(𝟓) = 𝟓

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 𝒇(𝟑) = 𝟑
Here the domain and the range of 𝒇 are the same set, and the image under 𝒇
of each element is just the element itself. This characterizes the identify
mapping, which we now define.
Definition 1.8. If 𝒇 is the mapping of a set 𝑯 onto itself defined by 𝒇(𝒙) =
𝒙 for each 𝒙 ∈ 𝑯, then 𝒇 is called the identity mapping on 𝑯.
We now give a special application of onto mappings.
Example 1.9. Let 𝑲 be a set of five gumdrops, which are colored red, blue,
yellow, green, and white. Let 𝑯be the set whose elements are these five colours.
Our aim is to tag each gumdrop with its colour; so we define a mapping 𝒇 from
the set 𝑯 of colours onto the set 𝑲 of gumdrops as follows:
𝒇(𝒓𝒆𝒅) = 𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒈𝒖𝒎𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑
𝒇(𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒆) = 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒈𝒖𝒎𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑
𝒇(𝒃𝒍𝒖𝒆) = 𝒃𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒈𝒖𝒎𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑
𝒇(𝒚𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘) = 𝒚𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒈𝒖𝒎𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑
𝒇(𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏) = 𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒈𝒖𝒎𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑
Now let us abbreviate the colours red, blue, yellow, green and white by
𝒓, 𝒃, 𝒚, 𝒈 and 𝒘, respectively, and let 𝒌 stand for gumdrop. Then our coloured
gumdrops can be denoted by 𝒌𝒓 , 𝒌𝒃 , 𝒌𝒚 , 𝒌𝒈 and 𝒌𝒘 .
Note, that our mapping becomes
𝒇(𝒓) = 𝒌𝒓 𝒇(𝒚) = 𝒌𝒚 𝒇(𝒘) = 𝒌𝒘
𝒇(𝒈) = 𝒌𝒈 𝒇(𝒃) = 𝒌𝒃
More generally, let 𝑯 = {𝒓, 𝒃, 𝒚, 𝒈, 𝒘}, and 𝑲 = {𝒌𝒓 , 𝒌𝒃 , 𝒌𝒚 , 𝒌𝒈 , 𝒌𝒘 ).
𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐
Note that we have defined a mapping “𝒇: 𝑯 → 𝑲” by
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒌𝒙 for each 𝒙 ∈ 𝑯
We say that set 𝑲 has been indexed by the set 𝑯 under the mapping 𝒇; 𝒇 is
called the index mapping, and 𝑯 is called the index set.

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 Sequences and Subsequences

Example 1.1. Let A be the set of all positive even integers, and define 𝒇: 𝑰𝟎
𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒐
→ 𝑨as follows: For each 𝒏 ∈ 𝑰𝟎 , 𝒇(𝒏) = 𝟐𝒏 Under this mapping 𝒇, 𝑨
because the sequence < 𝒂𝒏 >, where for each 𝒏𝒂𝒏 = 𝟐𝒏;or, 𝑨 =<
2, 4, 6, 8, … >
If we compare the sequence 𝑨 in Example 1.1. with𝑰𝟎 , we see that𝐴 ⊂ 𝐼,
and that the members of 𝑨 are arranged in the same order as their relative order
in 𝑰𝟎 . These two properties characterize a subsequence of𝑰𝟎 , which we now
define.
Definition 1.2. The sequence 𝑨 =< 𝒏𝒊 > is a subsequence of 𝑰𝟎 , if the
following conditions hold:
(1) Each 𝒏𝒊 is a positive integer (that is, 𝑨 ∈ 𝑰).
(2) For every positive integer 𝒊 𝒏𝒊 < 𝒏𝒊+𝟏.
With the aid of Definition 1.2., we may now define the concept of a
subsequence of any sequence. A subsequence of a sequence < 𝒂𝒏 >, is a
sequence whose terms are chosen from the sequence < 𝒂𝒏 >, and arranged in
the same order as their relative order in < 𝒂𝒏 >. Formally, we state this as
follows.
Definition 1.3. The sequence < 𝒂𝒏 >is a subsequence of the sequence<
𝒂𝒏 >if there exists a subsequence𝒏𝒊 examples may help to clarify the notation.
Example 1.4. Let 𝒏𝒊 be a sequence; that is,< 𝒂𝒊 >=<
𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 , 𝒂𝟒 … >and let 𝒏𝒊 be a subsequence of𝑰𝟎 defined by 𝒏𝒊 = 𝟑𝒊 for each 𝒊;
that is, < 𝒏𝒊 >=< 3, 6, 9, 12, … > We wish to determine the subsequence
< 𝑏𝒊 > of the sequence < 𝒂𝒊 >, where for each 𝒊, 𝒃𝒊 = 𝒂𝒏𝒊 , By the definition of

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< 𝒏𝒊 >, we see that 𝒃𝒊 = 𝒂𝒏𝒊for each𝒊. Thus, etc. Therefore the subsequence
< 𝑏𝒊 >=< 𝒃𝟏 , 𝒃𝟐 , 𝒃𝟑 , … >, is < 𝑎𝟑 , 𝒂𝟔 , 𝒂𝟗 , … > which consists of every third
term of the given sequence < 𝑎𝒊 > .
Example 1.5. Let 𝒂𝒊 be the sequence < 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, … >; that is, 𝒂𝒊 = 𝟑𝒊
for each positive integer 𝒊. (The sequence < 𝒂𝒊 > is already a subsequence of
𝑰𝟎 , but this fact does not concern us here). Let < 𝒏𝒊 >be the subsequence of
𝑰𝟎 defined by 𝒏𝒊 = 𝒊𝟐 + 𝟕 for each 𝒊. Thus, the sequence < 𝒏𝒊 >may be
writtenas < 𝒏𝒊 >=< 8, 11, 16, 23, 32, … >. The corresponding sequence <
𝑏 >𝒊 defined by 𝒃𝒊 = 𝒂𝒏𝒊 ; for each 𝒊 must thus have 𝒃𝒊 = 𝒂𝟖 = 𝟐𝟒, 𝒃𝟐 =
𝒂𝟏𝟏 = 𝟑𝟑, 𝒃𝟐 = 𝒂𝟏𝟔 = 𝟒𝟖, 𝒃𝟒 = 𝒂𝟐𝟑 = 𝟔𝟗, and so on. Thus, may be written
as < 24, 33, 48, 69, 96, … >, which is surely a subsequence of < 𝒂𝒊 >.
A sequence may have the property that no two of its terms are the same. If
so, we call it a sequence of distinct terms, which we define formally as follows.
Definition 1.6. If < 𝒂𝒊 >is asequence such that 𝑎𝑖 ≠ 𝑎𝑗 whenever 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗,
then < 𝒂𝒊 >is called a sequence of distinct terms.
All sequences defined explicitly in the previous examples are sequences of
distinct terms. Lest this create the false impression that all sequences are of this
type, we consider a few more examples. In the first one, we jump to the other
extreme and define a sequence all of whose terms are the same.
Example 1.7. Let 𝒌 be given, and choose as the index mapping the
constant mapping; that is, for every 𝒏 ∈ 𝑰𝟎 , 𝒇(𝒏) = 𝑲. We thus get the sequence
< 𝑘, 𝐾, 𝐾, 𝐾, … >.
As a result of Example 1.7., we see that any set consisting of just one point
may be written as a sequence, each of whose terms is the given point.
Example 1.8. Define the index mapping 𝒇 as follows: For each 𝒏 ∈ 𝑰𝟎 ,
𝟏 𝐢𝐟 𝒏 𝐢𝐬 𝐨𝐝𝐝
𝒇(𝒏) = {
𝟎 𝐢𝐟 𝒏 𝐢𝐬 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧
Note that 𝒇 may also be written in the form𝒇(𝒏) = [𝟏 − (−𝟏)𝒏 ]/𝟐 for
each𝑛 ∈ 𝐼0 This mapping yields the sequence.

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 < 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, … >
Note that the sequence of Example 1.8. contains subsequences of the type
in Example 1.7., with 𝒌 = 𝟎 and 𝒌 = 𝟏.

Probability

At the present time probability has become an acceptable part of

mathematics.
In ordinary language the probability of an event means the likelihood of its
occurrence, and mathematical probability defines an exact measurement of this
by assigning values from 0 to 1. Thus if an event is impossible, its probability
equals 0; and if it is absolutely certain, its probability equals 1. If it is neither
impossible nor absolutely certain, then its probability has some value between 0
and 1.
A die has 6 faces indicating the numbers from 1 to 6. The probability of
throwing a 7 with one throw of 1 die equals 0 since this cannot happen. The
probability that the number throw is less than 7 equals 1, since this cannot fail
(assuming ordinary conditions such that some face must come up).
Suppose an honest player throws an unloaded die. What is the probability
of number 3 coming up? Since there are 6 ways the die can come up and, of
these 6 ways, exactly I way is for number 3 to come up, we say that the
probability of throwing a 3 is ¼. Here we note that there is one way in which
this event can happen and 5 ways it can fail ant that all 6 ways are equally likely.
Under such circumstances probability is measured as follows: If an event
can happen in 𝒉 ways an can fail in 𝒇 ways (all equally likely) then the
probability that it will happen in given by

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 ℎ
𝑝=
ℎ+𝑓
The probability that it will fail is given by
𝑓
𝑞=
ℎ+𝑓
Since the event must certainly either happen or fail, the probability of its
either happening of failing must equal 1. In accordance with this, we see that
𝟏 𝟏
𝒑 + 𝒒 = 𝟏. Thus, the probability of throwing a 3 ways = , so the
𝟏+𝟓 𝟔
𝟏 𝟓
probability of not throwing a 3 must be 𝟏 − = .
𝟔 𝟔

Two events are mutually exclusive if they cannot both happen (under some
specified conditions). Thus, when a coin is tossed once, “heads” and “tails” are
mutually exclusive events.
Events which cannot affect each other n any way are called independent
events. Thus the heads or tails that comes up with any particular toss of a coin is
not influenced in any way by the results of previous tosses.
If the occurrence of event 𝒂 affects the probability of event 𝒃, then 𝒃 is said
to be dependent on 𝒂.
Suppose I draw out one cart at random from an ordinary pack, keep this
card and then draw a second card. What I dray first will the probabilities in
regard to the second card drawn.

Integration
1.1. The study of integration first arose from the need to calculate areas and
volumes. It was originally developed quite independently of differentiation, and
the discovery that these two processes were closely related was an important
landmark in the history of analysis.
We must not allow geometrical intuition to cloud the analytical problem.
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 In particular, if would be wrong to assume that a region bounded by curved
lines has a number associated with it which we may call its “area”. On the other
hand, once the definition of integral has been developed, it will be found to
embrace functions – for example, certain discontinuous functions – with whose
graphs we should not expect to associate an area.
The geometrical illustration which we shall use throughout this chapter is
the “area under a curve”; that is, the area bounded by two vertical lines and
those parts of the 𝒙-axis and of the curve which lie between these lines.
We shall adopt the definition associated with the name of Riemann. The
basic idea is that the region is divided into a number of vertical strips, each of
which is supposed to have an area approximately equal to that of a certain
rectangle. The integral is then defined as a bound of the set of approximate
values so obtained (an integral can also be defined as a limit; the definition as a
bound is more convenient, as it is easier to prove that a function is bounded than
that it has a limit).
In recent years a number of alternative definitions of an integral have been
given which embrace an even wider class of functions than does Riemann’s
definition.
1.2.Definition. If [𝒂, 𝒃] is a closes interval, any finite set of numbers,
𝑎, 𝑥1, 𝑥2,…, 𝑥𝑛−1, 𝒃 such that
𝒂 < 𝒙𝟏 < 𝒙𝟐 < ⋯ < 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 < 𝑏
is called a subdivision of [𝒂, 𝒃].
This subdivision will be denoted by the symbol.
{𝒂, 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒙𝟐 , … , 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 , 𝒃}
Subdivisions will frequently be referred to be single Greek letters
𝜶, 𝜷, 𝜸, 𝒆𝒕𝒄.
Associated with the subdivision 𝛼 = {𝑎, 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛−1, 𝑏}
are the 𝒏 intervals [𝒂, 𝒙𝟏 ], [𝒙𝟏 , 𝒙𝟐 ], [𝒙𝒏−𝟏 , 𝒃], Each of these is called a sub-
interval of 𝜶
131
 It is sometimes convenient to write 𝑎 = 𝑥0 and 𝑏 = 𝑥𝑛 .

Sequences

1.1. Function whose domain is the set of positive integers play an important
part in analysis. Such functions are frequently called sequences. The limitation
of the domain may be implicit in the formula which defines the function, as
happens with a function such as (𝒙 − 𝟏); but 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 would also be called a
sequence if the arguments were specifically restricted to positive integral values.
It is customary to use the letter 𝒏, rather than 𝒙, to represent a general value
of the argument of a sequence. The numbers 𝒇(𝟏), 𝒇(𝟐) etc., are called the
terms of the sequence. It is also a common practice to denote the 𝒏𝒕𝒉term of a
sequence by the symbol 𝒖𝒏 , rather than 𝒇(𝒏), especially in connexion with
infinite series; this notation will be adopted whenever it is found to be more
convenient.
1.2. The graph of a sequence is a set of isolated points.
Definition: If, for any number 𝑨 it is possible to find 𝒂 number 𝒒
(depending on 𝑨) such that, for all integers 𝒏 > 𝑞, 𝒇(𝒏) > 𝐴, then 𝒇(𝒏) tends to
infinity.
The definition of 𝒇(𝒏) → −∞is similar.
Definition: If there is a number 𝒍 with the property that, for any positive
number 𝜺, it is possible to find a number 𝒒 (depending on 𝒆) such that, for all
integers 𝒏 > 𝑞,
|𝒇(𝒏) − 𝒍| < 𝜀, than 𝒇(𝒏) tends to 𝒍.
1.3. We suggest that the bounds of a sequence should be defined, as for
other functions, as the bounds of its ordinate set. If, however, a sequence is

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bounded for all integers 𝒏 > 𝑘, it is bounded for all values of its argument, since
the integers 𝒏 ≤ 𝒌 only add a finite set of numbers to the ordinated set.
Definition: If 𝒇(𝒏) does not tend to a limit or to ±∞ and if 𝒇(𝒏) is
bounded, then 𝒇(𝒏) oscillates finitely. If it is unbounded, then 𝒇(𝒏) oscilates
infinitely.
1.4. Care must be exercised with sequences which are defined by means of
a formula, when this formula also has a meaning for non-integral values of the
argument. Consider as an example 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟐𝝅𝒙). Regarded as a function of
the real variable 𝒙, 𝒇(𝒙) oscillates finitely as 𝒙 → ∞. On the other hand, the
sequence 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟐𝝅𝒏) always has the value 𝟏, so that
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝝅𝒏) = 𝟏
Thus it is not true that, if then 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝝅𝒏) = 𝟏, then
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒍 The converse result is, however, true; for if 𝒇(𝒙) lies between𝑙 −
𝜀 and 𝑙 + 𝜖for all real numbers greater than 𝒒, it certainly does so for all
integers greater than 𝒒.
1.5. It is occasionally convenient to extend the definition of sequences in
one of two ways:
(i) To allow the argument also to take the value 𝟎.The sequence then has
𝒇(𝒏 − 𝟏) as its 𝒏𝒕𝒉 term. The most important use of this is with power series.
(ii) To include functions which are undefined for a finite number of values
of 𝒏. If 𝒌 is the largest of these, then all the limit definitions will still be
applicable provided that we take 𝒒 > 𝑘.

Continuity

1.1. A continuous function may be described roughly as one whose graph

contains no sudden jumps, so that it may be drawn without lifting the pencil
133
from the paper. Thus a function is continuous at 𝒙 = 𝒄 if, when 𝒙 is just greater
than or just less then 𝒄, its values are nearly equal to 𝒇(𝒄).
Definition. If 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇(𝒙) both exist and
𝒙 → 𝑐 + 0𝒙 → 𝑐 − 0
equal 𝒇(𝒄), 𝒇(𝒙) is continuous at 𝒙 = 𝒄. Otherwise 𝒇(𝒙) is discontinuous
at 𝒙 = 𝒄.
1.2. Functions may be discontinuous in several different ways:
(i) the graph may make a leap at 𝒙 = 𝒄, the limits as 𝒙 tends to 𝒄 + 𝟎 and
𝒄 − 𝟎 exist, but they are not both equal to 𝒇(𝒄). There are various possibilities:
the limits may be inequal, with 𝒇(𝒄) equal to one of them (e.g. [𝒙] at 𝒙 = 𝟏) or
to neither of them (e.g. 𝒇(𝒙) = |𝑥|/𝑥 when 𝒙 ≠ 𝟎, 𝒇(𝟎) = 𝟎 at 𝒙 = 𝟎);
alternatively the limits may be equal to each other but not to 𝒇(𝒄) (e.g. [−𝒙𝟐 ] at
𝒙 = 𝟎) In all these cases 𝒇(𝒙) is said to have a simple discontinuity at 𝒙 = 𝒄.
(ii) Either or both of the limits may not exist. For example, the function
may oscillate as 𝒙 tends to 𝒄 + 𝟎 or 𝒄 − 𝟎, as does
𝟏 when 𝒙 is rational
𝒇(𝒙) = {
𝟐 when 𝒙 is irrational
at 𝒙 = 𝟎. It may tend to infinity, as
𝟏⁄
𝒇(𝒙) = { 𝒙 when 𝒙 ≠ 𝟎
𝟎 when 𝒙 = 𝟎
(iii) The function may be undefined at 𝒙 = 𝒄, or in an interval having 𝒄 as
an and value. For example √(𝒙 − 𝒄) and 𝟏/(𝒙 − 𝒄) are undefined for 𝒙 < 𝑐 and
𝒙 = 𝒄 respectively, so that neither function is described as continuous at = 𝒄 .
1.3. Closer examination of the definition given in 1.1. shows that it goes
beyond the original idea of a continuously drawn line on which it was based.
Amongst other things if allows the possibility of a function being continuous for
a single value of 𝒙; such a function is
𝒙 when 𝒙 is rational
𝒇(𝒙) = {
𝟎 when 𝒙 is irrational

134
whose graph is illustrated in Fig. 5. (This diagram must be imagined to be
composed of densely packed sets of points on 𝒕𝒘𝒐

Fig. 5

lines, and not of 𝒕𝒘𝒐 continuous lines. Any value of 𝒙 will give a point on
𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 of these lines, but not on both). The only number 𝒄 for which
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) an 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙) exist is 𝒄 = 𝟎, and then both limits are equal to
𝒙→𝒄+𝟎 𝒙→𝒄−𝟎

𝟎; but 𝒇(𝟎) = 𝟎 also. Hence the function is continuous only at 𝒙 = 𝟎.

Although the definition does not therefor accord with the idea of a
continuous function which we had hoped to express, it proves nevertheless to be
a useful one. A definition which corresponds more closely to the original
graphical idea is that of a function continuous in an interval.
Definition: If 𝒇(𝒙) is continuous for every number in the open interval
(𝒂, 𝒃), it is continuous in the open interval (𝒂, 𝒃).
1.4. It might seem natural to define continuity in a closed interval in the
same way, but this would impose an unnecessary limitation on the function. For
example, it would preclude √(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 ) from being continuous in [𝟎, 𝟏] on the
grounds that 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙)and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) do not exist; but these limits depend
𝒙→𝒄−𝟎 𝒙→𝒄+𝟎

only on values of x outside [𝟎, 𝟏]. The following definition, which is slightly
less exacting than that just proposed, will suffice.
Definition: If 𝒇(𝒙) is continuous in the open interval (𝒂, 𝒃) and if an
addition
135
 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒂) and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒃)
𝒙→𝒄+𝟎 𝒙→𝒄−𝟎

then 𝒇(𝒙) is continuous in the closed interval [𝒂, 𝒃].

1.5. The condition for continuity at 𝒙 = 𝒄 can be written, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒄).
𝒙→𝒄

The alternative from of the definition given there, combined with the
observation that |𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒇(𝒄) = 𝟎| when |𝒙 − 𝒄| = 𝟎, shows that the
definition given 1.1. is equivalent to the next definition.
Definition: If, whatever positive number 𝜺 be given, it is possible to find a
positive number 𝜼 (depending on 𝜺, and also on 𝒄) such that, whenever|𝑥 − 𝑐| <
𝜂, |𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑓 (𝑐 ) < 𝜀, then 𝒇(𝒙) is continuous at 𝒙 = 𝒄.

Ordinary Differential Equations

1. An ordinary differential equation is an equation involving one or more

derivatives of the dependent variable 𝒚 with respect to a single independent
variable 𝒙.
The order of the equation is that of the highest derivative contained in it, so
that the general differential equation of order 𝒏 can be written in the form
𝐹{𝑦 (𝑛) , 𝑦 (𝑛−1), … , 𝑦 (1) 𝑦, 𝑥} = 0, (1)
the symbol 𝒚𝒓 denoting 𝑑 𝑟 𝑦/𝑑𝑥 𝑟 . The degree of the equation is defined
mathematically to be that of its highest order derivative, when the equation has
been made rational as far as the derivatives are concerned. The equation
1/2
𝑦 𝑛 = (𝑥𝑦 5/2 + 𝑦 ′ ) , (2)


This is often replaces by𝑦 𝐼 , 𝑦 𝐼𝐼 , 𝑦 𝐼𝐼𝐼 , 𝑦 𝐼𝑉 etc., with unbracketed roman superscripts, when a specific order is
intended.

136
for example, is of order 2 and degree 2, since the equation must be squared to
rationalize the contributions from the derivatives.
The definition of order is adopted in numerical work also, but the definition
of degree is not very relevant. We shall refer to and equation of the form
𝒚(𝒏) + 𝒇𝒏−𝟏 (𝒙)𝒚(𝒏−𝟏) + 𝒇𝒏−𝟐 (𝒙)𝒚(𝒏−𝟐) + ⋯ 𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) 𝒚′ + 𝒇𝟎 (𝒙)𝒚 = 𝒈(𝒙), (3)
in which the 𝒇(𝒙) are functions of 𝒙 only, as linear, and any other type of
equation will be called non-linear. The reason for this is fairly clear: in many
methods of solution we shall replace derivatives by linear combinations of
several discrete values 𝒚(𝒙𝒓 ) and, if the 𝒇𝒓 (3) also contain 𝒚 or any derivative,
the resulting algebraic equation will contain nonlinear terms 𝒚𝒔 , 𝒔 ≠ 𝟏.
2. Simultaneous ordinary differential equations involve several dependent
variables 𝒚, 𝒛, … and their derivatives. The equations do not necessarily have
the same order or degree, but there are usually the same number of equations as
the number of unknown functions. General simultaneous equations in two
variables will have the form
𝐹1 {𝑦 (𝑝), 𝑦 (𝑝−1), … , 𝑦1, 𝑦; 𝑧 (𝑞) , 𝑧 (𝑞−1), … , 𝑧 1 , 𝑧} = 0
} (4)
𝐹1{𝑦 (𝑟) , 𝑦 (𝑟−1) , … , 𝑦1, 𝑦; 𝑧 (𝑠) , 𝑧 (𝑠−1), … , 𝑧 1, 𝑧} = 0
3. It can be proved that the most general solution of an ordinary differential
equation of order 𝒏 contains 𝒏 arbitrary constants. This general solution is
called the Complete Primitive, and a Particular Integral is obtained by giving
specific values to these arbitrary constants.
Non-linear equations may also have singular solutions, not obtainable from
the complete primitive.
For the linear differential equation (3) the particular integral, as before, is
any solution 𝒚𝟎 (𝒙) which contains no arbitrary constants. The Complementary
Function is of the form
𝒚(𝒙) = ∑𝒏𝟏 𝑨𝒓 𝒚𝒓 (𝒙),

137
 in which the functions 𝒚𝒓 (𝒙) are independent solutions of the homogenous
equation obtained from (3) by replacing 𝒈(𝒙) by zero, and the arbitrary
constants 𝑨, appear linearly. the general solutions of (3) is then given by
𝒏

𝒚(𝒙) = 𝒚𝟎 (𝒙) + ∑ 𝑨𝒓 𝒚𝒓 (𝒙)

𝟏

138
 FUNCTIONS

The concept of a function is fundamental in analysis, but it is not easy to

give a precise definition of it.
Clearly it deals with the set of values of a variable y when another variable
x takes certain values.
Consider, for example, the two functions:
(i) the function whose walue is 1 when x≥0and 0 shen x<0.
(ii) the function whose value is 1 when x is rational and 0 when x is
irrational.
The set of values of each of these functions is the finite set containing the
two numbers 0 and 1; but the two functions are quite different from each other.
The sets of values of the two functions x3 and x5 are identical (in this case the set
of all real numbers), but the functions are not the same.
The essential feature of the definition of a function is the concept of a
“correspondence” or “relationship” between the individual members of two sets.
This correspondence is known as “many-one”, that is if x denotes any member
of one set and y any member of the other, then to one value of y there may
correspond one, or several, or even infinitely many values of x. The student may
have encountered “one-one” correspondence in geometry. this is a special case
of many-one correspondence.
Definition: If to each member x of a certain set M there corresponds
one value of a variable y, then y is said to be a function of the variable x. The
variable x is called the argument of the function, and the set M the domain of the
function. The set of all the values taken by the variable y is called the ordinate
set. Both the domain and the ordinate set may be either finite or infinite,
bounded or unbounded. A function is frequently denoted by a symbol such as
f(x). If a is a particular member of the domain of f(x), the corresponding value of
y is denoted by f(a).

139
 It is important to observe that it is not implicit in the definition of a
function that there should exist an algebraic equation connecting x and y. If y
and x are related so that y is a function of x, it does not necessarily follow that x
is a function of y, although this may sometimes be true. For let X be the domain
of this function and Y the ordinate set. Then if x is any member of X, we know
that there is just one member y of Y which corresponds to it.
But if y is a member of Y, there may be more than one value of x in X
which gives rise to a particular number, as the correspondence is many-one. If
there are any values of y for which this is so, then x is not a function of y
according to the definition.
Functions may be represented geometrically. For this we take a rectangular
system of Cartesian coordinates in a plane and associate with each member x of
the domain of the function the point P whose coordinate are (x, y). The set of
points P is called the graph of the function. A function defined by means of a
formula may have its domain restricted by the character of the formula itself.

140
 FUNCTIONS

To Leibniz (1646-1716), who first used the word “function”, and to the
mathematicians of the eighteenth century, the idea of a functional relationship
was more or less identified with the existence of a simple mathematical formula
expressing the exact nature of the relationship. Later on the concept of function
was subjected to a long process of generalization and clarification. And all
modern mathematics centres around the concept of function. The concept of
function is of the greatest importance not only in pure mathematics but also in
practical applications.
Physical laws are statements concerning the way in which certain quantities
depend on others when some of these very. The task of the physicist is
determining the exact or approximate nature of this functional dependence. An
expression such x2+2x-3 has no definite numerical value until the value of x is
assigned.
We say that the value of this expression is a function of the value of x, and
write
x2+2x-3=f(x)
For example, when x=2, then
22+2·2-3=5, so thatf(2)=5
In the same way we may find by direct substitution the value of f(x) for any
integral, fractional, irrational, or even complex number x.
The area of a triangle is a function of the lengths of its three sides: it varies
as the lengths of the sides vary and is determined when these lengths are given
definite values. If a plane is subjected to a projective or a topological
transformation, then the coordinates of a point after the transformation depend
on, i.e. are functions of the original coordinates of the point. The concept of
function enters whenever quantities are connected by a definite physical
relationship.

141
 The atmospheric pressure is a function of the altitude above sea level. The
whole domain of periodic phenomena – the motion of the tides, the vibrations of
a plucked string, the emission of light waves – is governed by the simple
trigonometric functions sinx and cosx.

Point out which sentence expresses the main idea of the text
1. Leibniz was the first to use the world “function”.
2. The atmospheric pressure is the function of the altitude above the sea
level.
3. All modern mathematics centres around the concept of function which
is of greatest importance not only in pure mathematics but also in
practical applications.

142
 ELEMENTARY ANALYSIS

Elementary analysis is essentially the theory of the calculus, and one of its
main themes is the possibility of inferring global properties of functions from
local properties. (We make such an inference when, for example, we obtain the
general situation of a differential equation).
The concept of a local property is a fairly subtle one; it was formed at a
comparatively late stage in the development of mathematics, and it was not
thoroughly understood until quite recent times. This, no doubt, is of one of the
reasons for the widespread practice of teaching the calculus without giving
adequate attention to its logical foundations.
Many books have been written an which the calculus is presented as though
it were an inductive science like physics. This may sometimes have been done
through ignorance, but probably is most cases it has been done in the fallacious
belief that a different subject can be made easier by concealing its logical
structure from the student, at least in the early stages of instruction. That this
kind of approach is unsatisfactory becomes increasingly clear as “pre-calculus
mathematics” becomes increasingly provided by the spirit of pure mathematics.
An intelligent student who has tasted the delights of the axiomatic method
will want the calculus to be presented as a strictly deductive discipline. It is still
not easy to do this, but some of the traditional difficulties can now be reduced.
Although local properties are relatively difficult to understand, it is usual to
introduce them at or near the beginning of a course in elementary analysis, with
little or no preliminary discussion of global properties. Generally, local
continuity is discussed before uniform continuity and the notion of a derivative
is discussed before that of an integral. However, a reversal of this order can be
advantageous, particularly (but not exclusively) in the case of students who,
thought not unintelligent, cannot give much time to the study of mathematics.
Let us consider the main features of a course based on this pedagogical notion.

143
 From the axiomatic point of view, an appropriate starting-point for a course
in elementary analysis is the concept of a totally ordered field, of which the
system of rational numbers is a familiar example. It is easy to show that the
algebraic rules by which inequalities are manipulated are valid for any totally
ordered field, and that the system of rational numbers is isomorphically
embedded in any such field (and, indeed, that it is essentially the only minimal
one). One can then introduce the idea of exact bounds of sets in a totally ordered
field, and prove that if the field is complete, in the sense that every non-empty
set that has upper bounds has a least upper bound, then every positive element
has a square root in the field.
This motivates the postulation of the system of real numbers as a complete
totally ordered field. That such a system exists and is unique to within
isomorphism should be stated, but need not be proved at this stage (It is easy
enough to define the real numbers in terms of the rational numbers, as Dedekind
sections for example, but to verify that one then has a system with all the
required properties is a somewhat tedious mutter).
The system of real numbers having been postulated in this way (or in some
equivalent way), the idea of a function of a real variable can be considered, and
illustrated by simple examples. Such functions can be classified according to
certain global properties that they may or may not have, including boundedness,
monotonicity univalence, representability by rational expressions. Continuity
also can be defined at this state as a global property; in fact as uniform
continuity on bounded closed intervals.
The fundamental mapping theorems for continuous functions, and the usual
theorems about the continuity of compound functions, can be deduced from this
definition with no greater difficulty than one has with local continuity; indeed
some simplifications are possible. Once these theorems are available it is very
easy to establish the existence and continuity of various algebraic functions, and
the student has a substantial amount of useful equipment at his disposal (The

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fundamental mapping theorems state that if f is a continuous function on a
bounded closed interval I than (i) the set f(I) is a bounded closes interval, and
(ii) if f is also univalent on I – which, by virtue of (i), is the case only if f is
strictly monotonic on I – then the inverse function f-1is continuous on f(I)).
The next step is to consider upper and lower Riemann sums of a bounded
function on a bounded closed interval, and to derive the notion of integrability.
With the definition of community that has been adopted, it is trivially easy to
prove that continuous functions are integrable. Some numerical computation of
integrals can now be done; this serves to emphasize that integration is essentially
a process of approximation, and that an approximation is worthless unless it is
accompanied by an estimate of accuracy (obtained in this case by computing
both upper and lower sums).
The fundamental properties of the integration process – linearity, positivity,
additivity, integrability of the modulus – can be established in a straightforward
way, but in a short course these need only be stated. One is then in a position to
define the logarithmic function and to establish its functional equation (logxy=
=logx + logy), its continuity, and the fact that it has a continuous inverse, which
is the exponential function. This provides on efficient way of assigning an
unambiguous meaning to the symbol ax, where a>0 and x is any real number.
The circular functions can be introduced in an essentially similar way
(independently of trigonometry), but the detailed study of these functions is best
deferred until the calculus has been more fully developed.
Continuity can be expressed in terms of the concept of a limit through
Heine’s theorem (which states that a function has the global property of being
uniformly continuous on a bounded closed interval I if it has the local property
of being continuous at each point of I), and the fundamental theorems about
limits of compound functions can be proved by arguments of a type with which
the student is now familiar.
At this point the concept of a derivative can be introduced, and the

145
fundamental theorems on which the technique of differentiation is based can be
proved without difficulty. By way of the mean-value theorem one them reaches
the fundamental theorem of the calculus, which confers the power of evaluating
integrals by “antidifferentiation” the technique of this (“systematic integration”)
can be developed as part of the wider, and more interesting, technique of solving
differential equations, and it is natural to develop concurrently the theory of the
elementary transcendental functions of a real variable (the non-algebraic
functions already mentioned, and functions simply related to these). It is by no
means necessary to use infinite series to represent either numbers or functions in
work at this level; it is only in more advanced analysis that infinite series core
genninely required, and their theory and usefulness can perhaps be best best
appreciated by the student who already has a sound knowledge of the calculus.

Mathematical analysis

Mathematical analysis is the branch of mathematics dealing

with limits and related theories, such as differentiation, integration, measure,
infinite series, and analytic functions.
These theories are usually studied in the context
of real and complex numbers and functions. Analysis evolved from calculus,
which involves the elementary concepts and techniques of analysis. Analysis
may be distinguished from geometry; however, it can be applied to
any space of mathematical objects that has a definition of nearness
(a topological space) or specific distances between objects (a metric space).

146
 Archimedes used the method of exhaustion to compute the area inside a
circle by finding the area of regular polygons with more and more sides. This
was an early but informal example of a limit, one of the most basic concepts in
mathematical analysis.
Mathematical analysis formally developed in the 17th century during
the Scientific Revolution, but many of its ideas can be traced back to earlier
mathematicians. Early results in analysis were implicitly present in the early
days of ancient Greek mathematics. For instance, an infinite geometric sum is
implicit in Zeno's paradox of the dichotomy. Later, Greek mathematicians such
as Eudoxus and Archimedes made more explicit, but informal, use of the
concepts of limits and convergence when they used the method of exhaustion to
compute the area and volume of regions and solids. The explicit use
of infinitesimals appears in Archimedes' The Method of Mechanical Theorems, a
work rediscovered in the 20th century. In Asia, the Chinese mathematician Liu
Hui used the method of exhaustion in the 3rd century AD to find the area of a
circle. Zu Chongzhiestablished a method that would later be called Cavalieri's
principle to find the volume of a sphere in the 5th century. The Indian
mathematician Bhāskara II gave examples of the derivative and used what is
now known as Rolle's theorem in the 12th century.
In the 14th century, Madhava of Sangamagrama developed infinite
series expansions, like the power series and the Taylor series, of functions such
as sine, cosine, tangent and arctangent. Alongside his development of the
Taylor series of the trigonometric functions, he also estimated the magnitude of
the error terms created by truncating these series and gave a rational
approximation of an infinite series. His followers at the Kerala School of
Astronomy and Mathematics further expanded his works, up to the 16th century.
The modern foundations of mathematical analysis were established in 17th
century Europe. Descartes and Fermat independently developed analytic
geometry, and a few decades later Newton and Leibniz independently
developed infinitesimal calculus, which grew, with the stimulus of applied work
that continued through the 18th century, into analysis topics such as the calculus
of variations, ordinary and partial differential equations, Fourier analysis,
and generating functions. During this period, calculus techniques were applied
to approximate discrete problems by continuous ones.
In the 18th century, Euler introduced the notion of mathematical function. Real
analysis began to emerge as an independent subject when Bernard
Bolzano introduced the modern definition of continuity in 1816, but Bolzano's
work did not become widely known until the 1870s. In 1821, Cauchy began to
put calculus on a firm logical foundation by rejecting the principle of
the generality of algebra widely used in earlier work, particularly by Euler.
Instead, Cauchy formulated calculus in terms of geometric ideas
and infinitesimals. Thus, his definition of continuity required an infinitesimal
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change in x to correspond to an infinitesimal change in y. He also introduced the
concept of the Cauchy sequence, and started the formal theory of complex
analysis. Poisson, Liouville, Fourier and others studied partial differential
equations and harmonic analysis. The contributions of these mathematicians and
others, such as Weierstrass, developed the (ε, δ)-definition of limit approach,
thus founding the modern field of mathematical analysis.
In the middle of the 19th century Riemann introduced his theory of integration.
The last third of the century saw the arithmetization of analysis by Weierstrass,
who thought that geometric reasoning was inherently misleading, and introduced
the "epsilon-delta" definition of limit. Then, mathematicians started worrying
that they were assuming the existence of a continuum of real numbers without
proof. Dedekind then constructed the real numbers by Dedekind cuts, in which
irrational numbers are formally defined, which serve to fill the "gaps" between
rational numbers, thereby creating a complete set: the continuum of real
numbers, which had already been developed by Simon Stevin in terms
of decimal expansions. Around that time, the attempts to refine the theorems of
Riemann integration led to the study of the "size" of the set of discontinuities of
real functions.
Also, "monsters" (nowhere continuous functions, continuous but nowhere
differentiable functions, space-filling curves) began to be investigated. In this
context, Jordan developed his theory of measure, Cantor developed what is now
called naive set theory, and Baireproved the Baire category theorem. In the
early 20th century, calculus was formalized using an axiomatic set
theory. Lebesgue solved the problem of measure, and Hilbert introduced Hilbert
spaces to solve integral equations. The idea of normed vector space was in the
air, and in the 1920s Banach created functional analysis.
Real analysis
Real analysis (traditionally, the theory of functions of a real variable) is
a branch of mathematical analysis dealing with the real numbers and real-valued
functions of a real variable. In particular, it deals with the analytic properties of
real functions and sequences, including convergence and limits of
sequences of real numbers, the calculus of the real numbers,
and continuity, smoothness and related properties of real-valued functions.

Complex analysis

Complex analysis, traditionally known as the theory of functions of a

complex variable, is the branch of mathematical analysis that
investigates functions of complex numbers. It is useful in many branches of
mathematics, including algebraic geometry, number theory, applied
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mathematics; as well as in physics, including hydrodynamics,
thermodynamics, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and
particularly, quantum field theory.
Complex analysis is particularly concerned with the analytic functions of
complex variables (or, more generally, meromorphic functions). Because the
separate real and imaginary parts of any analytic function must satisfy Laplace's
equation, complex analysis is widely applicable to two-dimensional problems
in physics.

Functional analysis

Functional analysis is a branch of mathematical analysis, the core of

which is formed by the study of vector spaces endowed with some kind of limit-
related structure (e.g. inner product, norm, topology, etc.) and the linear
operators acting upon these spaces and respecting these structures in a suitable
sense. The historical roots of functional analysis lie in the study of spaces of
functions and the formulation of properties of transformations of functions such
as the Fourier transform as transformations defining continuous, unitary etc.
operators between function spaces. This point of view turned out to be
particularly useful for the study of differential and integral equations.

Discrete Mathematics

Graphs like this are among the objects studied by discrete mathematics, for their
interesting mathematical properties, their usefulness as models of real-world
problems, and their importance in developing computer algorithms.
Discrete mathematics is the study of mathematical structures that are
fundamentally discrete rather than continuous. In contrast to real numbers that
have the property of varying "smoothly", the objects studied in discrete
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mathematics – such as integers, graphs, and statements in logic– do not vary
smoothly in this way, but have distinct, separated values. Discrete mathematics
therefore excludes topics in "continuous mathematics" such
as calculus or Euclidean geometry. Discrete objects can often be enumerated by
integers. More formally, discrete mathematics has been characterized as the
branch of mathematics dealing with countable sets (finite sets or sets with the
same cardinality as the natural numbers). However, there is no exact definition
of the term "discrete mathematics." Indeed, discrete mathematics is described
less by what is included than by what is excluded: continuously varying
quantities and related notions.
The set of objects studied in discrete mathematics can be finite or infinite. The
term finite mathematics is sometimes applied to parts of the field of discrete
mathematics that deals with finite sets, particularly those areas relevant to
business.
Research in discrete mathematics increased in the latter half of the twentieth
century partly due to the development of digital computers which operate in
discrete steps and store data in discrete bits. Concepts and notations from
discrete mathematics are useful in studying and describing objects and problems
in branches of computer science, such as computer algorithms, programming
languages, cryptography, automated theorem proving, and software
development. Conversely, computer implementations are significant in applying
ideas from discrete mathematics to real-world problems, such as in operations
research.
Although the main objects of study in discrete mathematics are discrete objects,
analytic methods from continuous mathematics are often employed as well.
In university curricula, "Discrete Mathematics" appeared in the 1980s, initially
as a computer science support course; its contents were somewhat haphazard at
the time. The curriculum has thereafter developed in conjunction with efforts
by ACM and MAA into a course that is basically intended to
develop mathematical maturity in freshmen; therefore it is nowadays a
prerequisite for mathematics majors in some universities as well. Some high-
school-level discrete mathematics textbooks have appeared as well. At this level,
discrete mathematics is sometimes seen as a preparatory course, not
unlike precalculus in this respect.
The Fulkerson Prize is awarded for outstanding papers in discrete mathematics.

150
Much research in graph theory was motivated by attempts to prove that all maps,
like this one, can be coloredusing only four colors so that no areas of the same
color share an edge. Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken proved this in 1976.
The history of discrete mathematics has involved a number of challenging
problems which have focused attention within areas of the field. In graph theory,
much research was motivated by attempts to prove the four color theorem, first
stated in 1852, but not proved until 1976 (by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang
Haken, using substantial computer assistance). In logic, the second
problem on David Hilbert's list of open problems presented in 1900 was to prove
that the axioms of arithmetic are consistent. Gödel's second incompleteness
theorem, proved in 1931, showed that this was not possible – at least not within
arithmetic itself. Hilbert's tenth problem was to determine whether a given
polynomial Diophantine equation with integer coefficients has an integer
solution. In 1970, Yuri Matiyasevich proved that this could not be done.
The need to break German codes in World War II led to advances
in cryptography and theoretical computer science, with the first programmable
digital electronic computer being developed at England's Bletchley Park with the
guidance of Alan Turing and his seminal work, On Computable Numbers. At the
same time, military requirements motivated advances in operations research.
The Cold War meant that cryptography remained important, with fundamental
advances such as public-key cryptography being developed in the following
decades. Operations research remained important as a tool in business and
project management, with the critical path method being developed in the 1950s.
The telecommunication industry has also motivated advances in discrete
mathematics, particularly in graph theory and information theory. Formal
verification of statements in logic has been necessary for software
development of safety-critical systems, and advances in automated theorem
proving have been driven by this need.
Computational geometry has been an important part of the computer
graphics incorporated into modern video games and computer-aided
design tools.
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Several fields of discrete mathematics, particularly theoretical computer science,
graph theory, and combinatorics, are important in addressing the
challenging bioinformatics problems associated with understanding the tree of
life. Currently, one of the most famous open problems in theoretical computer
science is the P = NP problem, which involves the relationship between
the complexity classes P and NP. The Clay Mathematics Institute has offered a
$1 million USD prize for the first correct proof, along with prizes for six other
mathematical problems.
Theoretical computer science
Main article: Theoretical computer science

Complexity studies the time taken by algorithms, such as this sorting routine.
Theoretical computer science includes areas of discrete mathematics relevant to
computing. It draws heavily on graph theory and mathematical logic. Included
within theoretical computer science is the study of algorithms for computing
mathematical results. Computability studies what can be computed in principle,
and has close ties to logic, while complexity studies the time, space, and other
resources taken by computations. Automata theory and formal language theory
are closely related to computability. Petri nets and process algebras are used to
model computer systems, and methods from discrete mathematics are used in
analyzing VLSI electronic circuits. Computational geometry applies algorithms
to geometrical problems, while computer image analysis applies them to
representations of images. Theoretical computer science also includes the study
of various continuous computational topics.
Information theory

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The ASCII codes for the word "Wikipedia", given here in binary, provide a way
of representing the word in information theory, as well as for information-
processing algorithms.
Information theory involves the quantification of information. Closely related
is coding theory which is used to design efficient and reliable data transmission
and storage methods. Information theory also includes continuous topics such
as: analog signals, analog coding, analog encryption.
Logic is the study of the principles of valid reasoning and inference, as well as
of consistency, soundness, and completeness. For example, in most systems of
logic (but not in intuitionistic logic) Peirce's law (((P→Q)→P)→P) is a
theorem. For classical logic, it can be easily verified with a truth table. The study
of mathematical proof is particularly important in logic, and has applications
to automated theorem proving and formal verification of software.
Logical formulas are discrete structures, as are proofs, which form finite trees or,
more generally, directed acyclic graph structures (with each inference
step combining one or more premise branches to give a single conclusion).
The truth values of logical formulas usually form a finite set, generally restricted
to two values: true and false, but logic can also be continuous-valued, e.g., fuzzy
logic. Concepts such as infinite proof trees or infinite derivation trees have also
been studied, e.g. infinitary logic.
Set theory
Set theory is the branch of mathematics that studies sets, which are collections
of objects, such as {blue, white, red} or the (infinite) set of all prime
numbers. Partially ordered sets and sets with other relations have applications in
several areas.
In discrete mathematics, countable sets (including finite sets) are the main focus.
The beginning of set theory as a branch of mathematics is usually marked
by Georg Cantor's work distinguishing between different kinds of infinite set,
motivated by the study of trigonometric series, and further development of the
theory of infinite sets is outside the scope of discrete mathematics. Indeed,
contemporary work in descriptive set theory makes extensive use of traditional
continuous mathematics.
Combinatorics
Combinatorics studies the way in which discrete structures can be combined or
arranged. Enumerative combinatorics concentrates on counting the number of
certain combinatorial objects - e.g. the twelvefold way provides a unified
framework for counting permutations, combinations and partitions. Analytic
combinatorics concerns the enumeration (i.e., determining the number) of
combinatorial structures using tools from complex analysis and probability
theory. In contrast with enumerative combinatorics which uses explicit
153
combinatorial formulae and generating functions to describe the results, analytic
combinatorics aims at obtaining asymptotic formulae. Design theory is a study
of combinatorial designs, which are collections of subsets with
certain intersection properties. Partition theory studies various enumeration and
asymptotic problems related to integer partitions, and is closely related to q-
series, special functions and orthogonal polynomials. Originally a part
of number theory and analysis, partition theory is now considered a part of
combinatorics or an independent field. Order theory is the study of partially
ordered sets, both finite and infinite.
Graph theory

Graph theory has close links to group theory. This truncated tetrahedron graph is
related to the alternating group A4.
Graph theory, the study of graphs and networks, is often considered part of
combinatorics, but has grown large enough and distinct enough, with its own
kind of problems, to be regarded as a subject in its own right. Graphs are one of
the prime objects of study in discrete mathematics. They are among the most
ubiquitous models of both natural and human-made structures. They can model
many types of relations and process dynamics in physical, biological and social
systems. In computer science, they can represent networks of communication,
data organization, computational devices, the flow of computation, etc. In
mathematics, they are useful in geometry and certain parts of topology, e.g. knot
theory. Algebraic graph theory has close links with group theory. There are
also continuous graphs, however for the most part research in graph theory falls
within the domain of discrete mathematics.
Probability
Discrete probability theory deals with events that occur in countable sample
spaces. For example, count observations such as the numbers of birds in flocks
comprise only natural number values {0, 1, 2, ...}. On the other hand, continuous
observations such as the weights of birds comprise real number values and
would typically be modeled by a continuous probability distribution such as
the normal. Discrete probability distributions can be used to approximate
continuous ones and vice versa. For highly constrained situations such as
throwing dice or experiments with decks of cards, calculating the probability of
events is basically enumerative combinatorics.

154
Number theory

The Ulam spiral of numbers, with black pixels showing prime numbers. This
diagram hints at patterns in the distribution of prime numbers.
Number theory is concerned with the properties of numbers in general,
particularly integers. It has applications to cryptography and cryptanalysis,
particularly with regard to modular arithmetic, diophantine equations, linear and
quadratic congruences, prime numbers and primality testing. Other discrete
aspects of number theory include geometry of numbers. In analytic number
theory, techniques from continuous mathematics are also used. Topics that go
beyond discrete objects include transcendental numbers, diophantine
approximation, p-adic analysis and function fields.
Algebraic structures occur as both discrete examples and continuous examples.
Discrete algebras include: boolean algebra used in logic gates and
programming; relational algebra used in databases; discrete and finite versions
of groups, rings and fields are important in algebraic coding theory;
discrete semigroups and monoids appear in the theory of formal languages.
A function defined on an interval of the integers is usually called a sequence. A
sequence could be a finite sequence from a data source or an infinite sequence
from a discrete dynamical system. Such a discrete function could be defined
explicitly by a list (if its domain is finite), or by a formula for its general term, or
it could be given implicitly by a recurrence relation or difference equation.
Difference equations are similar to a differential equations, but
replace differentiation by taking the difference between adjacent terms; they can
be used to approximate differential equations or (more often) studied in their
own right. Many questions and methods concerning differential equations have
counterparts for difference equations. For instance, where there are integral
transforms in harmonic analysis for studying continuous functions or analogue
signals, there are discrete transforms for discrete functions or digital signals. As
well as the discrete metric there are more general discrete or finite metric
spaces and finite topological spaces.
Geometry

155
Computational geometry applies computer algorithms to representations
of geometrical objects.
Discrete geometry and combinatorial geometry are about combinatorial
properties of discrete collections of geometrical objects. A long-standing topic
in discrete geometry is tiling of the plane. Computational geometry applies
algorithms to geometrical problems.
Although topology is the field of mathematics that formalizes and generalizes
the intuitive notion of "continuous deformation" of objects, it gives rise to many
discrete topics; this can be attributed in part to the focus on topological
invariants, which themselves usually take discrete values. See combinatorial
topology, topological graph theory, topological combinatorics, computational
topology, discrete topological space, finite topological space, topology
(chemistry).

PERT charts like this provide a project management technique based on graph
theory.
Operations research provides techniques for solving practical problems in
engineering, business, and other fields — problems such as allocating resources
to maximize profit, or scheduling project activities to minimize risk. Operations
research techniques include linear programming and other areas
of optimization, queuing theory, scheduling theory, network theory. Operations
research also includes continuous topics such as continuous-time Markov
process, continuous-time martingales, process optimization, and continuous and
hybrid control theory.

156
Decision theory is concerned with identifying Cooperate Defect
the values, uncertainties and other issues
relevant in a given decision, its rationality, and Cooperate −1, −1 −10, 0
the resulting optimal decision.
Defect 0, −10 −5, −5
Utility theory is about measures of the
relative economic satisfaction from, or Payoff matrix for
desirability of, consumption of various goods the Prisoner's dilemma, a
and services. common example in game
Social choice theory is about voting. A more theory. One player chooses a
puzzle-based approach to voting is ballot row, the other a column; the
theory. resulting pair gives their
payoffs
Game theory deals with situations where
success depends on the choices of others, which makes choosing the best course
of action more complex. There are even continuous games, see differential
game. Topics include auction theory and fair division.
Discretization concerns the process of transferring continuous models and
equations into discrete counterparts, often for the purposes of making
calculations easier by using approximations. Numerical analysis provides an
important example.
There are many concepts in continuous mathematics which have discrete
versions, such as discrete calculus, discrete probability distributions, discrete
Fourier transforms, discrete geometry, discrete logarithms, discrete differential
geometry, discrete exterior calculus, discrete Morse theory, difference
equations, discrete dynamical systems, and discrete vector measures.
In applied mathematics, discrete modelling is the discrete analogue
of continuous modelling. In discrete modelling, discrete formulae are fit to data.
A common method in this form of modelling is to use recurrence relation.
In algebraic geometry, the concept of a curve can be extended to discrete
geometries by taking the spectra of polynomial rings over finite fields to be
models of the affine spaces over that field, and letting subvarieties or spectra of
other rings provide the curves that lie in that space.
The time scale calculus is a unification of the theory of difference equations with
that of differential equations, which has applications to fields requiring
simultaneous modelling of discrete and continuous data. Another way of
modeling such a situation is the notion of hybrid dynamical system.

157
 Computational Mathematics

A black and white rendition of the Yale Babylonian Collection's Tablet YBC
7289 (c. 1800–1600 BCE), showing a Babylonian approximation to the square
root of 2 (1 24 51 10 w: sexagesimal) in the context of Pythagoras' Theorem for
an isosceles triangle. The tablet also gives an example where one side of the
square is 30, and the resulting diagonal is 42 25 35 or 42.4263888.
Computational mathematics may refer to two different aspect of the relation
between computing and mathematics. Computational applied
mathematics consists roughly of using mathematics for allowing and
improving computercomputation in applied mathematics. Computational
mathematics may also refer to the use of computers for mathematics itself. This
includes the use of computers for mathematical computations (computer
algebra), the study of what can (and cannot) be computerized in mathematics
(effective methods), which computations may be done with present technology
(complexity theory), and which proofs can be done on computers (proof
assistants).
Computational applied mathematics involves mathematical research in areas
of science where computing plays a central and essential role, emphasizing
algorithms, numerical methods, and symbolic computations. Computation in
research is prominent. Computational mathematics emerged as a distinct part of
applied mathematics by the early 1950s. Currently, computational mathematics
can refer to or include:

 computational science, also known as scientific computation

or computational engineering
 solving mathematical problems by computer simulation as opposed to
analytic methods of applied mathematics
 numerical methods used in scientific computation, for example numerical
linear algebra and numerical solution of partial differential equations
158
 stochastic methods, such as Monte Carlo methods and other
representations of uncertainty in scientific computation, for
example stochastic finite elements
 the mathematics of scientific computation (the theoretical side
involving mathematical proofs), in particular numerical analysis, the theory
of numerical methods (but theory of computation and complexity of
algorithms belong to theoretical computer science)
 symbolic computation and computer algebra systems
 computer-assisted research in various areas of mathematics, such
as logic (automated theorem proving), discrete mathematics (search for
mathematical structures such as groups), number theory (primality
testing and factorization), cryptography, and computational algebraic
topology
 computational linguistics, the use of mathematical and computer
techniques in natural languages
 computational algebraic geometry
 computational group theory
 computational geometry
 computational number theory
 computational topology
 computational statistics
 algorithmic information theory
 algorithmic game theory
 use of mathematics in economics, finance and to certain extents of
accounting i.e. use of differential and integral calculus(newton's method) and
financial maths to solve real life problems.

Statistics

Statistics

159
More probability density is found as one gets closer to the expected (mean)
value in a normal distribution. Statistics used in standardized testingassessment
are shown. The scales include standard deviations, cumulative percentages, Z-
scores, and T-scores.

Scatter plots are used in descriptive statistics to show the observed relationships
between different variables.
Statistics is a branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, organization,
analysis, interpretation and presentation of data. In applying statistics to, for
example, a scientific, industrial, or social problem, it is conventional to begin
with a statistical population or a statistical model process to be studied.
Populations can be diverse topics such as "all people living in a country" or
"every atom composing a crystal". Statistics deals with all aspects of data
including the planning of data collection in terms of the design
of surveys and experiments.[1] See glossary of probability and statistics.
When census data cannot be collected, statisticians collect data by developing
specific experiment designs and survey samples. Representative sampling
assures that inferences and conclusions can reasonably extend from the sample
to the population as a whole. An experimental study involves taking
160
measurements of the system under study, manipulating the system, and then
taking additional measurements using the same procedure to determine if the
manipulation has modified the values of the measurements. In contrast,
an observational study does not involve experimental manipulation.
Two main statistical methods are used in data analysis: descriptive statistics,
which summarize data from a sample using indexes such as
the mean or standard deviation, and inferential statistics, which draw
conclusions from data that are subject to random variation (e.g., observational
errors, sampling variation). Descriptive statistics are most often concerned with
two sets of properties of a distribution (sample or population): central
tendency (or location) seeks to characterize the distribution's central or typical
value, while dispersion (or variability) characterizes the extent to which
members of the distribution depart from its center and each other. Inferences on
mathematical statistics are made under the framework of probability theory,
which deals with the analysis of random phenomena.
A standard statistical procedure involves the test of the relationship between two
statistical data sets, or a data set and synthetic data drawn from an idealized
model. A hypothesis is proposed for the statistical relationship between the two
data sets, and this is compared as an alternative to an idealized null
hypothesis of no relationship between two data sets. Rejecting or disproving the
null hypothesis is done using statistical tests that quantify the sense in which the
null can be proven false, given the data that are used in the test. Working from a
null hypothesis, two basic forms of error are recognized: Type I errors (null
hypothesis is falsely rejected giving a "false positive") and Type II errors (null
hypothesis fails to be rejected and an actual difference between populations is
missed giving a "false negative"). Multiple problems have come to be associated
with this framework: ranging from obtaining a sufficient sample size to
specifying an adequate null hypothesis. Measurement processes that generate
statistical data are also subject to error. Many of these errors are classified as
random (noise) or systematic (bias), but other types of errors (e.g., blunder, such
as when an analyst reports incorrect units) can also be important. The presence
of missing data or censoring may result in biased estimates and specific
techniques have been developed to address these problems.
Statistics can be said to have begun in ancient civilization, going back at least to
the 5th century BC, but it was not until the 18th century that it started to draw
more heavily from calculus and probability theory. In more recent years
statistics has relied more on statistical software to produce tests such as
descriptive analysis.

 Merriam-Webster dictionary defines statistics as "a branch of

mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and
presentation of masses of numerical data." Statistician Arthur Lyon

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 Bowley defines statistics as "Numerical statements of facts in any
department of inquiry placed in relation to each other."
Statistics is a mathematical body of science that pertains to the collection,
analysis, interpretation or explanation, and presentation of data, or as a branch
of mathematics. Some consider statistics to be a distinct mathematical science
rather than a branch of mathematics. While many scientific investigations make
use of data, statistics is concerned with the use of data in the context of
uncertainty and decision making in the face of uncertainty. Mathematical
statistics is the application of mathematics to statistics. Mathematical techniques
used for this include mathematical analysis, linear algebra, stochastic
analysis, differential equations, and measure-theoretic probability theory.
In applying statistics to a problem, it is common practice to start with
a population or process to be studied. Populations can be diverse topics such as
"all persons living in a country" or "every atom composing a crystal".
Ideally, statisticians compile data about the entire population (an operation
called census). This may be organized by governmental statistical
institutes. Descriptive statistics can be used to summarize the population data.
Numerical descriptors include mean and standard deviation for continuous
data types (like income), while frequency and percentage are more useful in
terms of describing categorical data (like race).
When a census is not feasible, a chosen subset of the population called
a sample is studied. Once a sample that is representative of the population is
determined, data is collected for the sample members in an observational
or experimental setting. Again, descriptive statistics can be used to summarize
the sample data. However, the drawing of the sample has been subject to an
element of randomness, hence the established numerical descriptors from the
sample are also due to uncertainty. To still draw meaningful conclusions about
the entire population, inferential statistics is needed. It uses patterns in the
sample data to draw inferences about the population represented, accounting for
randomness. These inferences may take the form of: answering yes/no questions
about the data (hypothesis testing), estimating numerical characteristics of the
data (estimation), describing associations within the data (correlation) and
modeling relationships within the data (for example, using regression analysis).
Inference can extend to forecasting, prediction and estimation of unobserved
values either in or associated with the population being studied; it can
include extrapolation and interpolation of time series or spatial data, and can
also include data mining.
When full census data cannot be collected, statisticians collect sample data by
developing specific experiment designs and survey samples. Statistics itself also
provides tools for prediction and forecasting through statistical models. The idea
of making inferences based on sampled data began around the mid-1600s in

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connection with estimating populations and developing precursors of life
insurance.
To use a sample as a guide to an entire population, it is important that it truly
represents the overall population. Representative sampling assures that
inferences and conclusions can safely extend from the sample to the population
as a whole. A major problem lies in determining the extent that the sample
chosen is actually representative. Statistics offers methods to estimate and
correct for any bias within the sample and data collection procedures. There are
also methods of experimental design for experiments that can lessen these issues
at the outset of a study, strengthening its capability to discern truths about the
population.
Sampling theory is part of the mathematical discipline of probability theory.
Probability is used in mathematical statistics to study the sampling
distributions of sample statistics and, more generally, the properties of statistical
procedures. The use of any statistical method is valid when the system or
population under consideration satisfies the assumptions of the method. The
difference in point of view between classic probability theory and sampling
theory is, roughly, that probability theory starts from the given parameters of a
total population to deduce probabilities that pertain to samples. Statistical
inference, however, moves in the opposite direction—inductively inferring from
samples to the parameters of a larger or total population.
A common goal for a statistical research project is to investigate causality, and
in particular to draw a conclusion on the effect of changes in the values of
predictors or independent variables on dependent variables. There are two major
types of causal statistical studies: experimental studies and observational studies.
In both types of studies, the effect of differences of an independent variable (or
variables) on the behavior of the dependent variable are observed. The
difference between the two types lies in how the study is actually conducted.
Each can be very effective. An experimental study involves taking
measurements of the system under study, manipulating the system, and then
taking additional measurements using the same procedure to determine if the
manipulation has modified the values of the measurements. In contrast, an
observational study does not involve experimental manipulation. Instead, data
are gathered and correlations between predictors and response are investigated.
While the tools of data analysis work best on data from randomized studies, they
are also applied to other kinds of data—like natural
experiments and observational studies—for which a statistician would use a
modified, more structured estimation method (e.g., Difference in differences
estimation and instrumental variables, among many others) that
produce consistent estimators.
The basic steps of a statistical experiment are:

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 1. Planning the research, including finding the number of replicates of the
study, using the following information: preliminary estimates regarding
the size of treatment effects, alternative hypotheses, and the
estimated experimental variability. Consideration of the selection of
experimental subjects and the ethics of research is necessary. Statisticians
recommend that experiments compare (at least) one new treatment with a
standard treatment or control, to allow an unbiased estimate of the
difference in treatment effects.
2. Design of experiments, using blocking to reduce the influence
of confounding variables, and randomized assignment of treatments to
subjects to allow unbiased estimates of treatment effects and
experimental error. At this stage, the experimenters and statisticians write
the experimental protocol that will guide the performance of the
experiment and which specifies the primary analysis of the experimental
data.
3. Performing the experiment following the experimental
protocol and analyzing the data following the experimental protocol.
4. Further examining the data set in secondary analyses, to suggest new
hypotheses for future study.
5. Documenting and presenting the results of the study.
Experiments on human behavior have special concerns. The famous Hawthorne
study examined changes to the working environment at the Hawthorne plant of
the Western Electric Company. The researchers were interested in determining
whether increased illumination would increase the productivity of the assembly
line workers. The researchers first measured the productivity in the plant, then
modified the illumination in an area of the plant and checked if the changes in
illumination affected productivity. It turned out that productivity indeed
improved (under the experimental conditions). However, the study is heavily
criticized today for errors in experimental procedures, specifically for the lack of
a control group and blindness. The Hawthorne effect refers to finding that an
outcome (in this case, worker productivity) changed due to observation itself.
Those in the Hawthorne study became more productive not because the lighting
was changed but because they were being observed.
An example of an observational study is one that explores the association
between smoking and lung cancer. This type of study typically uses a survey to
collect observations about the area of interest and then performs statistical
analysis. In this case, the researchers would collect observations of both smokers
and non-smokers, perhaps through a cohort study, and then look for the number
of cases of lung cancer in each group. [17] A case-control study is another type of
observational study in which people with and without the outcome of interest
(e.g. lung cancer) are invited to participate and their exposure histories are
collected.

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Various attempts have been made to produce a taxonomy of levels of
measurement. The psychophysicist Stanley Smith Stevens defined nominal,
ordinal, interval, and ratio scales. Nominal measurements do not have
meaningful rank order among values, and permit any one-to-one transformation.
Ordinal measurements have imprecise differences between consecutive values,
but have a meaningful order to those values, and permit any order-preserving
transformation. Interval measurements have meaningful distances between
measurements defined, but the zero value is arbitrary (as in the case
with longitude and temperature measurements in Celsius or Fahrenheit), and
permit any linear transformation. Ratio measurements have both a meaningful
zero value and the distances between different measurements defined, and
permit any rescaling transformation.
Because variables conforming only to nominal or ordinal measurements cannot
be reasonably measured numerically, sometimes they are grouped together
as categorical variables, whereas ratio and interval measurements are grouped
together as quantitative variables, which can be either discrete or continuous,
due to their numerical nature. Such distinctions can often be loosely correlated
with data type in computer science, in that dichotomous categorical variables
may be represented with the Boolean data type, polytomous categorical
variables with arbitrarily assigned integers in the integral data type, and
continuous variables with the real data type involving floating
point computation. But the mapping of computer science data types to statistical
data types depends on which categorization of the latter is being implemented.
Other categorizations have been proposed. For example, Mosteller and Tukey
(1977) distinguished grades, ranks, counted fractions, counts, amounts, and
balances. Nelder (1990) described continuous counts, continuous ratios, count
ratios, and categorical modes of data. See also Chrisman (1998), van den Berg
(1991).
The issue of whether or not it is appropriate to apply different kinds of statistical
methods to data obtained from different kinds of measurement procedures is
complicated by issues concerning the transformation of variables and the precise
interpretation of research questions. "The relationship between the data and what
they describe merely reflects the fact that certain kinds of statistical statements
may have truth values which are not invariant under some transformations.
Whether or not a transformation is sensible to contemplate depends on the
question one is trying to answer" (Hand, 2004, p. 82).
Consider independent identically distributed (IID) random variables with a
given probability distribution: standard statistical inference and estimation
theory defines a random sample as the random vector given by the column
vector of these IID variables. The populationbeing examined is described by a
probability distribution that may have unknown parameters.

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A statistic is a random variable that is a function of the random sample, but not a
function of unknown parameters. The probability distribution of the statistic,
though, may have unknown parameters.
Consider now a function of the unknown parameter: an estimator is a statistic
used to estimate such function. Commonly used estimators include sample
mean, unbiased sample variance and sample covariance.
A random variable that is a function of the random sample and of the unknown
parameter, but whose probability distribution does not depend on the unknown
parameter is called a pivotal quantity or pivot. Widely used pivots include the z-
score, the chi square statistic and Student's t-value.
Between two estimators of a given parameter, the one with lower mean squared
error is said to be more efficient. Furthermore, an estimator is said to
be unbiased if its expected value is equal to the true value of the unknown
parameter being estimated, and asymptotically unbiased if its expected value
converges at the limit to the true value of such parameter.
Other desirable properties for estimators include: UMVUE estimators that have
the lowest variance for all possible values of the parameter to be estimated (this
is usually an easier property to verify than efficiency) and consistent estimators
which converges in probabilityto the true value of such parameter.
This still leaves the question of how to obtain estimators in a given situation and
carry the computation, several methods have been proposed: the method of
moments, the maximum likelihood method, the least squares method and the
more recent method of estimating equations.
Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis
Interpretation of statistical information can often involve the development of
a null hypothesis which is usually (but not necessarily) that no relationship
exists among variables or that no change occurred over time.
The best illustration for a novice is the predicament encountered by a criminal
trial. The null hypothesis, H0, asserts that the defendant is innocent, whereas the
alternative hypothesis, H1, asserts that the defendant is guilty. The indictment
comes because of suspicion of the guilt. The H0 (status quo) stands in opposition
to H1 and is maintained unless H1 is supported by evidence "beyond a reasonable
doubt". However, "failure to reject H0" in this case does not imply innocence,
but merely that the evidence was insufficient to convict. So the jury does not
necessarily accept H0 but fails to reject H0. While one can not "prove" a null
hypothesis, one can test how close it is to being true with a power test, which
tests for type II errors.
What statisticians call an alternative hypothesis is simply a hypothesis that
contradicts the null hypothesis.
Working from a null hypothesis, two basic forms of error are recognized:
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 Type I errors where the null hypothesis is falsely rejected giving a "false
positive".
 Type II errors where the null hypothesis fails to be rejected and an actual
difference between populations is missed giving a "false negative".
Standard deviation refers to the extent to which individual observations in a
sample differ from a central value, such as the sample or population mean,
while Standard error refers to an estimate of difference between sample mean
and population mean.
A statistical error is the amount by which an observation differs from
its expected value, a residual is the amount an observation differs from the value
the estimator of the expected value assumes on a given sample (also called
prediction).
Mean squared error is used for obtaining efficient estimators, a widely used class
of estimators. Root mean square error is simply the square root of mean squared
error.

A least squares fit: in red the points to be fitted, in blue the fitted line.
Many statistical methods seek to minimize the residual sum of squares, and
these are called "methods of least squares" in contrast to Least absolute
deviations. The latter gives equal weight to small and big errors, while the
former gives more weight to large errors. Residual sum of squares is
also differentiable, which provides a handy property for doing regression. Least
squares applied to linear regression is called ordinary least squares method and
least squares applied to nonlinear regression is called non-linear least squares.
Also in a linear regression model the non deterministic part of the model is
called error term, disturbance or more simply noise. Both linear regression and
non-linear regression are addressed in polynomial least squares, which also
describes the variance in a prediction of the dependent variable (y axis) as a
function of the independent variable (x axis) and the deviations (errors, noise,
disturbances) from the estimated (fitted) curve.
Measurement processes that generate statistical data are also subject to error.
Many of these errors are classified as random (noise) or systematic (bias), but
other types of errors (e.g., blunder, such as when an analyst reports incorrect
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units) can also be important. The presence of missing data or censoring may
result in biased estimates and specific techniques have been developed to
address these problems.

Confidence intervals: the red line is true value for the mean in this example, the
blue lines are random confidence intervals for 100 realizations.
Most studies only sample part of a population, so results don't fully represent the
whole population. Any estimates obtained from the sample only approximate the
population value. Confidence intervals allow statisticians to express how closely
the sample estimate matches the true value in the whole population. Often they
are expressed as 95% confidence intervals. Formally, a 95% confidence interval
for a value is a range where, if the sampling and analysis were repeated under
the same conditions (yielding a different dataset), the interval would include the
true (population) value in 95% of all possible cases. This does not imply that the
probability that the true value is in the confidence interval is 95%. From
the frequentist perspective, such a claim does not even make sense, as the true
value is not a random variable. Either the true value is or is not within the given
interval. However, it is true that, before any data are sampled and given a plan
for how to construct the confidence interval, the probability is 95% that the yet-
to-be-calculated interval will cover the true value: at this point, the limits of the
interval are yet-to-be-observed random variables. One approach that does yield
an interval that can be interpreted as having a given probability of containing the
true value is to use a credible interval from Bayesian statistics: this approach
depends on a different way of interpreting what is meant by "probability", that is
as a Bayesian probability.
In principle confidence intervals can be symmetrical or asymmetrical. An
interval can be asymmetrical because it works as lower or upper bound for a
parameter (left-sided interval or right sided interval), but it can also be
asymmetrical because the two sided interval is built violating symmetry around
the estimate. Sometimes the bounds for a confidence interval are reached
asymptotically and these are used to approximate the true bounds.
Statistics rarely give a simple Yes/No type answer to the question under
analysis. Interpretation often comes down to the level of statistical significance
applied to the numbers and often refers to the probability of a value accurately
rejecting the null hypothesis (sometimes referred to as the p-value).

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In this graph the black line is probability distribution for the test statistic,
the critical region is the set of values to the right of the observed data point
(observed value of the test statistic) and the p-valueis represented by the green
area.
The standard approach] is to test a null hypothesis against an alternative
hypothesis. A critical region is the set of values of the estimator that leads to
refuting the null hypothesis. The probability of type I error is therefore the
probability that the estimator belongs to the critical region given that null
hypothesis is true (statistical significance) and the probability of type II error is
the probability that the estimator doesn't belong to the critical region given that
the alternative hypothesis is true. The statistical power of a test is the probability
that it correctly rejects the null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is false.
Referring to statistical significance does not necessarily mean that the overall
result is significant in real world terms. For example, in a large study of a drug it
may be shown that the drug has a statistically significant but very small
beneficial effect, such that the drug is unlikely to help the patient noticeably.
Although in principle the acceptable level of statistical significance may be
subject to debate, the p-value is the smallest significance level that allows the
test to reject the null hypothesis. This test is logically equivalent to saying that
the p-value is the probability, assuming the null hypothesis is true, of observing
a result at least as extreme as the test statistic. Therefore, the smaller the p-value,
the lower the probability of committing type I error.

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Some problems are usually associated with this framework (See criticism of
hypothesis testing):

 A difference that is highly statistically significant can still be of no

practical significance, but it is possible to properly formulate tests to account
for this. One response involves going beyond reporting only the significance
level to include the p-value when reporting whether a hypothesis is rejected
or accepted. The p-value, however, does not indicate the size or importance
of the observed effect and can also seem to exaggerate the importance of
minor differences in large studies. A better and increasingly common
approach is to report confidence intervals. Although these are produced from
the same calculations as those of hypothesis tests or p-values, they describe
both the size of the effect and the uncertainty surrounding it.
 Fallacy of the transposed conditional, aka prosecutor's fallacy: criticisms
arise because the hypothesis testing approach forces one hypothesis (the null
hypothesis) to be favored, since what is being evaluated is the probability of
the observed result given the null hypothesis and not probability of the null
hypothesis given the observed result. An alternative to this approach is
offered by Bayesian inference, although it requires establishing a prior
probability. Rejecting the null hypothesis does not automatically prove the
alternative hypothesis.
 As everything in inferential statistics it relies on sample size, and
therefore under fat tails p-values may be seriously mis-computed.

Some well-known statistical tests and procedures are:

 Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

 Chi-squared test
 Correlation
 Factor analysis
 Mann–Whitney U
 Mean square weighted deviation (MSWD)
 Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient
 Regression analysis
 Spearman's rank correlation coefficient
 Student's t-test
 Time series analysis
 Conjoint Analysis
Misuse of statistics can produce subtle, but serious errors in description and
interpretation—subtle in the sense that even experienced professionals make
such errors, and serious in the sense that they can lead to devastating decision
errors. For instance, social policy, medical practice, and the reliability of
structures like bridges all rely on the proper use of statistics.
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Even when statistical techniques are correctly applied, the results can be difficult
to interpret for those lacking expertise. The statistical significance of a trend in
the data—which measures the extent to which a trend could be caused by
random variation in the sample—may or may not agree with an intuitive sense
of its significance. The set of basic statistical skills (and skepticism) that people
need to deal with information in their everyday lives properly is referred to
as statistical literacy.
There is a general perception that statistical knowledge is all-too-frequently
intentionally misused by finding ways to interpret only the data that are
favorable to the presenter.[28] A mistrust and misunderstanding of statistics is
associated with the quotation, "There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies,
and statistics". Misuse of statistics can be both inadvertent and intentional, and
the book How to Lie with Statistics outlines a range of considerations. In an
attempt to shed light on the use and misuse of statistics, reviews of statistical
techniques used in particular fields are conducted (e.g. Warne, Lazo, Ramos,
and Ritter (2012)).
Ways to avoid misuse of statistics include using proper diagrams and
avoiding bias. Misuse can occur when conclusions are overgeneralized and
claimed to be representative of more than they really are, often by either
deliberately or unconsciously overlooking sampling bias. Bar graphs are
arguably the easiest diagrams to use and understand, and they can be made
either by hand or with simple computer programs. Unfortunately, most people
do not look for bias or errors, so they are not noticed. Thus, people may often
believe that something is true even if it is not well represented. To make data
gathered from statistics believable and accurate, the sample taken must be
representative of the whole. According to Huff, "The dependability of a sample
can be destroyed by [bias]... allow yourself some degree of skepticism."
To assist in the understanding of statistics Huff proposed a series of questions to
be asked in each case:

 Who says so? (Does he/she have an axe to grind?)

 How does he/she know? (Does he/she have the resources to know the
facts?)
 What’s missing? (Does he/she give us a complete picture?)
 Did someone change the subject? (Does he/she offer us the right answer
to the wrong problem?)
 Does it make sense? (Is his/her conclusion logical and consistent with
what we already know?)

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The confounding variableproblem: X and Y may be correlated, not because there
is causal relationship between them, but because both depend on a third
variable Z. Z is called a confounding factor.
The concept of correlation is particularly noteworthy for the potential confusion
it can cause. Statistical analysis of a data set often reveals that two variables
(properties) of the population under consideration tend to vary together, as if
they were connected. For example, a study of annual income that also looks at
age of death might find that poor people tend to have shorter lives than affluent
people. The two variables are said to be correlated; however, they may or may
not be the cause of one another. The correlation phenomena could be caused by
a third, previously unconsidered phenomenon, called a lurking variable
or confounding variable. For this reason, there is no way to immediately infer
the existence of a causal relationship between the two variables.
(See Correlation does not imply causation.)

Gerolamo Cardano, the earliest pioneer on the mathematics of probability.

Some scholars pinpoint the origin of statistics to 1663, with the publication
of Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality by John
Graunt. Early applications of statistical thinking revolved around the needs of
states to base policy on demographic and economic data, hence its stat-
etymology. The scope of the discipline of statistics broadened in the early 19th
century to include the collection and analysis of data in general. Today, statistics
is widely employed in government, business, and natural and social sciences.
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Its mathematical foundations were laid in the 17th century with the development
of the probability theory by Gerolamo Cardano, Blaise Pascal and Pierre de
Fermat. Mathematical probability theory arose from the study of games of
chance, although the concept of probability was already examined in medieval
law and by philosophers such as Juan Caramuel. The method of least
squares was first described by Adrien-Marie Legendre in 1805.

Karl Pearson, a founder of mathematical statistics.

The modern field of statistics emerged in the late 19th and early 20th century in
three stages. The first wave, at the turn of the century, was led by the work
of Francis Galton and Karl Pearson, who transformed statistics into a rigorous
mathematical discipline used for analysis, not just in science, but in industry and
politics as well. Galton's contributions included introducing the concepts
of standard deviation, correlation, regression analysis and the application of
these methods to the study of the variety of human characteristics—height,
weight, eyelash length among others. Pearson developed the Pearson product-
moment correlation coefficient, defined as a product-moment, the method of
moments for the fitting of distributions to samples and the Pearson distribution,
among many other things. Galton and Pearson founded Biometrika as the first
journal of mathematical statistics and biostatistics (then called biometry), and
the latter founded the world's first university statistics department at University
College London.
Ronald Fisher coined the term null hypothesis during the Lady tasting
tea experiment, which "is never proved or established, but is possibly disproved,
in the course of experimentation".
The second wave of the 1910s and 20s was initiated by William Gosset, and
reached its culmination in the insights of Ronald Fisher, who wrote the
textbooks that were to define the academic discipline in universities around the
world. Fisher's most important publications were his 1918 seminal paper The
Correlation between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance,
which was the first to use the statistical term, variance, his classic 1925
work Statistical Methods for Research Workers and his 1935 The Design of
Experiments, where he developed rigorous design of experiments models. He
originated the concepts of sufficiency, ancillary statistics, Fisher's linear
discriminator and Fisher information. In his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of
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Natural Selection he applied statistics to various biological concepts such
as Fisher's principle). Nevertheless, A. W. F. Edwardshas remarked that it is
"probably the most celebrated argument in evolutionary biology". (about the sex
ratio), the Fisherian runaway, a concept in sexual selection about a positive
feedback runaway affect found in evolution.
The final wave, which mainly saw the refinement and expansion of earlier
developments, emerged from the collaborative work between Egon
Pearson and Jerzy Neyman in the 1930s. They introduced the concepts of "Type
II" error, power of a test and confidence intervals. Jerzy Neyman in 1934
showed that stratified random sampling was in general a better method of
estimation than purposive (quota) sampling. Today, statistical methods are
applied in all fields that involve decision making, for making accurate inferences
from a collated body of data and for making decisions in the face of uncertainty
based on statistical methodology. The use of modern computers has expedited
large-scale statistical computations, and has also made possible new methods
that are impractical to perform manually. Statistics continues to be an area of
active research, for example on the problem of how to analyze Big data.
Applied statistics comprises descriptive statistics and the application of
inferential statistics. Theoretical statistics concerns the logical arguments
underlying justification of approaches to statistical inference, as well as
encompassing mathematical statistics. Mathematical statistics includes not only
the manipulation of probability distributions necessary for deriving results
related to methods of estimation and inference, but also various aspects
of computational statistics and the design of experiments.
There are two applications for machine learning and data mining: data
management and data analysis. Statistics tools are necessary for the data
analysis.
Statistics is applicable to a wide variety of academic disciplines,
including natural and social sciences, government, and business. Statistical
consultants can help organizations and companies that don't have in-house
expertise relevant to their particular questions.
Statistical computing

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gretl, an example of an open source statistical package
The rapid and sustained increases in computing power starting from the second
half of the 20th century have had a substantial impact on the practice of
statistical science. Early statistical models were almost always from the class
of linear models, but powerful computers, coupled with suitable
numerical algorithms, caused an increased interest in nonlinear models (such
as neural networks) as well as the creation of new types, such as generalized
linear models and multilevel models.
Increased computing power has also led to the growing popularity of
computationally intensive methods based on resampling, such as permutation
tests and the bootstrap, while techniques such as Gibbs sampling have made use
of Bayesian models more feasible. The computer revolution has implications for
the future of statistics with new emphasis on "experimental" and "empirical"
statistics. A large number of both general and special purpose statistical
software are now available. Examples of available software capable of complex
statistical computation include programs such as Mathematica, SAS, SPSS,
and R.
Traditionally, statistics was concerned with drawing inferences using a semi-
standardized methodology that was "required learning" in most sciencesThis
tradition has changed with use of statistics in non-inferential contexts. What was
once considered a dry subject, taken in many fields as a degree-requirement, is
now viewed enthusiastically. Initially derided by some mathematical purists, it is
now considered essential methodology in certain areas.

 In number theory, scatter plots of data generated by a distribution function

may be transformed with familiar tools used in statistics to reveal underlying
patterns, which may then lead to hypotheses.
 Methods of statistics including predictive methods in forecasting are
combined with chaos theory and fractal geometry to create video works that
are considered to have great beauty.
 The process art of Jackson Pollock relied on artistic experiments whereby
underlying distributions in nature were artistically revealed. With the advent
of computers, statistical methods were applied to formalize such distribution-
driven natural processes to make and analyze moving video art.Methods of
statistics may be used predicatively in performance art, as in a card trick
based on a Markov process that only works some of the time, the occasion of
which can be predicted using statistical methodology.
 Statistics can be used to predicatively create art, as in the statistical
or stochastic music invented by Iannis Xenakis, where the music is
performance-specific. Though this type of artistry does not always come out
as expected, it does behave in ways that are predictable and tunable using
statistics.
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Statistical techniques are used in a wide range of types of scientific and social
research, including: biostatistics, computational biology, computational
sociology, network biology, social science, sociology and social research. Some
fields of inquiry use applied statistics so extensively that they have specialized
terminology. These disciplines include:

 Actuarial science (assesses risk in the insurance and finance industries)

 Applied information economics
 Astrostatistics (statistical evaluation of astronomical data)
 Biostatistics
 Business statistics
 Chemometrics (for analysis of data from chemistry)
 Data mining (applying statistics and pattern recognition to discover
knowledge from data)
 Data science
 Demography (statistical study of populations)
 Econometrics (statistical analysis of economic data)
 Energy statistics
 Engineering statistics
 Epidemiology (statistical analysis of disease)
 Geography and geographic information systems, specifically in spatial
analysis
 Image processing
 Medical statistics
 Political science
 Psychological statistics
 Reliability engineering
 Social statistics
 Statistical mechanics
In addition, there are particular types of statistical analysis that have also
developed their own specialised terminology and methodology:

 Bootstrap / Jackknife resampling

 Multivariate statistics
 Statistical classification
 Structured data analysis (statistics)
 Structural equation modelling
 Survey methodology
 Survival analysis

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 Statistics in various sports, particularly baseball – known
as Sabermetrics – and cricket
Statistics form a key basis tool in business and manufacturing as well. It is used
to understand measurement systems variability, control processes (as
in statistical process control or SPC), for summarizing data, and to make data-
driven decisions. In these roles, it is a key tool, and perhaps the only reliable
tool.

Mathematical Model

A mathematical model is a description of a system using mathematical

concepts and language. The process of developing a mathematical model is
termed mathematical modeling. Mathematical models are used in the natural
sciences (such as physics, biology, earth science, chemistry)
and engineering disciplines (such as computer science, electrical engineering),
as well as in the social sciences (such
as economics, psychology, sociology, political science).
A model may help to explain a system and to study the effects of different
components, and to make predictions about behaviour.
Mathematical models can take many forms, including dynamical
systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game theoretic models.
These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a
variety of abstract structures. In general, mathematical models may
include logical models. In many cases, the quality of a scientific field depends
on how well the mathematical models developed on the theoretical side agree
with results of repeatable experiments. Lack of agreement between theoretical
mathematical models and experimental measurements often leads to important
advances as better theories are developed.
In the physical sciences, a traditional mathematical model contains most of the
following elements:

1. Governing equations
2. Supplementary sub-models
1. Defining equations
2. Constitutive equations
3. Assumptions and constraints
1. Initial and boundary conditions
2. Classical constraints and kinematic equations
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Mathematical models are usually composed of relationships and variables.
Relationships can be described by operators, such as algebraic operators,
functions, differential operators, etc. Variables are abstractions of
system parameters of interest, that can be quantified. Several classification
criteria can be used for mathematical models according to their structure:

 Linear vs. nonlinear: If all the operators in a mathematical model

exhibit linearity, the resulting mathematical model is defined as linear. A
model is considered to be nonlinear otherwise. The definition of linearity and
nonlinearity is dependent on context, and linear models may have nonlinear
expressions in them. For example, in a statistical linear model, it is assumed
that a relationship is linear in the parameters, but it may be nonlinear in the
predictor variables. Similarly, a differential equation is said to be linear if it
can be written with linear differential operators, but it can still have nonlinear
expressions in it. In a mathematical programming model, if the objective
functions and constraints are represented entirely by linear equations, then
the model is regarded as a linear model. If one or more of the objective
functions or constraints are represented with a nonlinear equation, then the
model is known as a nonlinear model.
Nonlinearity, even in fairly simple systems, is often associated with
phenomena such as chaos and irreversibility. Although there are exceptions,
nonlinear systems and models tend to be more difficult to study than linear
ones. A common approach to nonlinear problems is linearization, but this can
be problematic if one is trying to study aspects such as irreversibility, which
are strongly tied to nonlinearity.
 Static vs. dynamic: A dynamic model accounts for time-dependent
changes in the state of the system, while a static (or steady-state) model
calculates the system in equilibrium, and thus is time-invariant. Dynamic
models typically are represented by differential equations or difference
equations.
 Explicit vs. implicit: If all of the input parameters of the overall model
are known, and the output parameters can be calculated by a finite series of
computations, the model is said to be explicit. But sometimes it is
the output parameters which are known, and the corresponding inputs must
be solved for by an iterative procedure, such as Newton's method (if the
model is linear) or Broyden's method (if non-linear). In such a case the
model is said to be implicit. For example, a jet engine's physical properties
such as turbine and nozzle throat areas can be explicitly calculated given a
design thermodynamic cycle (air and fuel flow rates, pressures, and
temperatures) at a specific flight condition and power setting, but the
engine's operating cycles at other flight conditions and power settings cannot
be explicitly calculated from the constant physical properties.

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 Discrete vs. continuous: A discrete model treats objects as discrete, such
as the particles in a molecular model or the states in a statistical model; while
a continuous model represents the objects in a continuous manner, such as
the velocity field of fluid in pipe flows, temperatures and stresses in a solid,
and electric field that applies continuously over the entire model due to a
point charge.
 Deterministic vs. probabilistic (stochastic): A deterministic model is
one in which every set of variable states is uniquely determined by
parameters in the model and by sets of previous states of these variables;
therefore, a deterministic model always performs the same way for a given
set of initial conditions. Conversely, in a stochastic model—usually called a
"statistical model"—randomness is present, and variable states are not
described by unique values, but rather by probability distributions.
 Deductive, inductive, or floating: A deductive model is a logical
structure based on a theory. An inductive model arises from empirical
findings and generalization from them. The floating model rests on neither
theory nor observation, but is merely the invocation of expected structure.
Application of mathematics in social sciences outside of economics has been
criticized for unfounded models. Application of catastrophe theory in science
has been characterized as a floating model.
Mathematical models are of great importance in the natural sciences, particularly
in physics. Physical theories are almost invariably expressed using mathematical
models.
Throughout history, more and more accurate mathematical models have been
developed. Newton's laws accurately describe many everyday phenomena, but at
certain limits relativity theory and quantum mechanics must be used; even these
do not apply to all situations and need further refinement. It is possible to obtain
the less accurate models in appropriate limits, for example relativistic mechanics
reduces to Newtonian mechanics at speeds much less than the speed of light.
Quantum mechanics reduces to classical physics when the quantum numbers are
high. For example, the de Broglie wavelength of a tennis ball is insignificantly
small, so classical physics is a good approximation to use in this case.
It is common to use idealized models in physics to simplify things. Massless
ropes, point particles, ideal gases and the particle in a box are among the many
simplified models used in physics. The laws of physics are represented with
simple equations such as Newton's laws, Maxwell's equations and
the Schrödinger equation. These laws are such as a basis for making
mathematical models of real situations. Many real situations are very complex
and thus modeled approximate on a computer, a model that is computationally
feasible to compute is made from the basic laws or from approximate models
made from the basic laws. For example, molecules can be modeled by molecular
orbital models that are approximate solutions to the Schrödinger equation.
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In engineering, physics models are often made by mathematical methods such
as finite element analysis.
Different mathematical models use different geometries that are not necessarily
accurate descriptions of the geometry of the universe. Euclidean geometry is
much used in classical physics, while special relativity and general relativity are
examples of theories that use geometries which are not Euclidean.
Since prehistorical times simple models such as maps and diagrams have been
used.
Often when engineers analyze a system to be controlled or optimized, they use a
mathematical model. In analysis, engineers can build a descriptive model of the
system as a hypothesis of how the system could work, or try to estimate how an
unforeseeable event could affect the system. Similarly, in control of a system,
engineers can try out different control approaches in simulations.
A mathematical model usually describes a system by a set of variables and a set
of equations that establish relationships between the variables. Variables may be
of many types; real or integer numbers, boolean values or strings, for example.
The variables represent some properties of the system, for example, measured
system outputs often in the form of signals, timing data, counters, and event
occurrence (yes/no). The actual model is the set of functions that describe the
relations between the different variables.
In business and engineering, mathematical models may be used to maximize a
certain output. The system under consideration will require certain inputs. The
system relating inputs to outputs depends on other variables too: decision
variables, state variables, exogenousvariables, and random variables.
Decision variables are sometimes known as independent variables. Exogenous
variables are sometimes known as parameters or constants. The variables are not
independent of each other as the state variables are dependent on the decision,
input, random, and exogenous variables. Furthermore, the output variables are
dependent on the state of the system (represented by the state variables).
Objectives and constraints of the system and its users can be represented
as functions of the output variables or state variables. The objective
functions will depend on the perspective of the model's user. Depending on the
context, an objective function is also known as an index of performance, as it is
some measure of interest to the user. Although there is no limit to the number of
objective functions and constraints a model can have, using or optimizing the
model becomes more involved (computationally) as the number increases.
For example, economists often apply linear algebra when using input-output
models. Complicated mathematical models that have many variables may be
consolidated by use of vectors where one symbol represents several variables.

A priori information
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To analyse something with a typical "black box approach", only the behavior of
the stimulus/response will be accounted for, to infer the (unknown) box. The
usual representation of this black box system is a data flow diagram centered in
the box.
Mathematical modeling problems are often classified into black box or white
box models, according to how much a priori information on the system is
available. A black-box model is a system of which there is no a priori
information available. A white-box model (also called glass box or clear box) is
a system where all necessary information is available. Practically all systems are
somewhere between the black-box and white-box models, so this concept is
useful only as an intuitive guide for deciding which approach to take.
Usually it is preferable to use as much a priori information as possible to make
the model more accurate. Therefore, the white-box models are usually
considered easier, because if you have used the information correctly, then the
model will behave correctly. Often the a priori information comes in forms of
knowing the type of functions relating different variables. For example, if we
make a model of how a medicine works in a human system, we know that
usually the amount of medicine in the blood is an exponentially
decaying function. But we are still left with several unknown parameters; how
rapidly does the medicine amount decay, and what is the initial amount of
medicine in blood? This example is therefore not a completely white-box model.
These parameters have to be estimated through some means before one can use
the model.
In black-box models one tries to estimate both the functional form of relations
between variables and the numerical parameters in those functions. Using a
priori information we could end up, for example, with a set of functions that
probably could describe the system adequately. If there is no a priori information
we would try to use functions as general as possible to cover all different
models. An often used approach for black-box models are neural
networks which usually do not make assumptions about incoming data.
Alternatively the NARMAX (Nonlinear AutoRegressive Moving Average
model with eXogenous inputs) algorithms which were developed as part
of nonlinear system identification can be used to select the model terms,
determine the model structure, and estimate the unknown parameters in the
presence of correlated and nonlinear noise. The advantage of NARMAX models
compared to neural networks is that NARMAX produces models that can be
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written down and related to the underlying process, whereas neural networks
produce an approximation that is opaque.
Subjective information
Sometimes it is useful to incorporate subjective information into a mathematical
model. This can be done based on intuition, experience, or expert opinion, or
based on convenience of mathematical form. Bayesian statistics provides a
theoretical framework for incorporating such subjectivity into a rigorous
analysis: we specify a prior probability distribution (which can be subjective),
and then update this distribution based on empirical data.
An example of when such approach would be necessary is a situation in which
an experimenter bends a coin slightly and tosses it once, recording whether it
comes up heads, and is then given the task of predicting the probability that the
next flip comes up heads. After bending the coin, the true probability that the
coin will come up heads is unknown; so the experimenter would need to make a
decision (perhaps by looking at the shape of the coin) about what prior
distribution to use. Incorporation of such subjective information might be
important to get an accurate estimate of the probability.

Complexity
In general, model complexity involves a trade-off between simplicity and
accuracy of the model. Occam's razor is a principle particularly relevant to
modeling, its essential idea being that among models with roughly equal
predictive power, the simplest one is the most desirable. While added
complexity usually improves the realism of a model, it can make the model
difficult to understand and analyze, and can also pose computational problems,
including numerical instability. Thomas Kuhn argues that as science progresses,
explanations tend to become more complex before a paradigm shift offers
radical simplification. For example, when modeling the flight of an aircraft, we
could embed each mechanical part of the aircraft into our model and would thus
acquire an almost white-box model of the system. However, the computational
cost of adding such a huge amount of detail would effectively inhibit the usage
of such a model. Additionally, the uncertainty would increase due to an overly
complex system, because each separate part induces some amount of variance
into the model. It is therefore usually appropriate to make some approximations
to reduce the model to a sensible size. Engineers often can accept some
approximations in order to get a more robust and simple model. For
example, Newton's classical mechanics is an approximated model of the real
world. Still, Newton's model is quite sufficient for most ordinary-life situations,
that is, as long as particle speeds are well below the speed of light, and we study
macro-particles only.
Any model which is not pure white-box contains some parameters that can be
used to fit the model to the system it is intended to describe. If the modeling is
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done by an artificial neural network or other machine learning, the optimization
of parameters is called training], while the optimization of model
hyperparameters is called tuning and often uses cross-validation. In more
conventional modeling through explicitly given mathematical functions,
parameters are often determined by curve fitting.
A crucial part of the modeling process is the evaluation of whether or not a
given mathematical model describes a system accurately. This question can be
difficult to answer as it involves several different types of evaluation.
Usually the easiest part of model evaluation is checking whether a model fits
experimental measurements or other empirical data. In models with parameters,
a common approach to test this fit is to split the data into two disjoint subsets:
training data and verification data. The training data are used to estimate the
model parameters. An accurate model will closely match the verification data
even though these data were not used to set the model's parameters. This
practice is referred to as cross-validation in statistics.
Defining a metric to measure distances between observed and predicted data is a
useful tool of assessing model fit. In statistics, decision theory, and
some economic models, a loss function plays a similar role.
While it is rather straightforward to test the appropriateness of parameters, it can
be more difficult to test the validity of the general mathematical form of a
model. In general, more mathematical tools have been developed to test the fit
of statistical models than models involving differential equations. Tools
from non-parametric statistics can sometimes be used to evaluate how well the
data fit a known distribution or to come up with a general model that makes only
minimal assumptions about the model's mathematical form.
Assessing the scope of a model, that is, determining what situations the model is
applicable to, can be less straightforward. If the model was constructed based on
a set of data, one must determine for which systems or situations the known data
is a "typical" set of data.
The question of whether the model describes well the properties of the system
between data points is called interpolation, and the same question for events or
data points outside the observed data is called extrapolation.
As an example of the typical limitations of the scope of a model, in evaluating
Newtonian classical mechanics, we can note that Newton made his
measurements without advanced equipment, so he could not measure properties
of particles travelling at speeds close to the speed of light. Likewise, he did not
measure the movements of molecules and other small particles, but macro
particles only. It is then not surprising that his model does not extrapolate well
into these domains, even though his model is quite sufficient for ordinary life
physics.

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Many types of modeling implicitly involve claims about causality. This is
usually (but not always) true of models involving differential equations. As the
purpose of modeling is to increase our understanding of the world, the validity
of a model rests not only on its fit to empirical observations, but also on its
ability to extrapolate to situations or data beyond those originally described in
the model. One can think of this as the differentiation between qualitative and
quantitative predictions. One can also argue that a model is worthless unless it
provides some insight which goes beyond what is already known from direct
investigation of the phenomenon being studied.
An example of such criticism is the argument that the mathematical models
of optimal foraging theory do not offer insight that goes beyond the common-
sense conclusions of evolution and other basic principles of ecology.

Examples

 One of the popular examples in computer science is the mathematical

models of various machines, an example is the deterministic finite
automaton (DFA) which is defined as an abstract mathematical concept, but
due to the deterministic nature of a DFA, it is implementable in hardware
and software for solving various specific problems. For example, the
following is a DFA M with a binary alphabet, which requires that the input
contains an even number of 0s.

The state diagram for M

M = (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F) where

 Q = {S1, S2},
 Σ = {0, 1},
 q0 = S1,
 F = {S1}, and
 δ is defined by the following state transition table:
0 1
S1 S2 S1
S2 S1 S2
The state S1 represents that there has been an even number of 0s in the input
so far, while S2 signifies an odd number. A 1 in the input does not change the
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state of the automaton. When the input ends, the state will show whether the
input contained an even number of 0s or not. If the input did contain an even
number of 0s, M will finish in state S1, an accepting state, so the input string
will be accepted.
The language recognized by M is the regular language given by the regular
expression 1*( 0 (1*) 0 (1*) )*, where "*" is the Kleene star, e.g., 1* denotes
any non-negative number (possibly zero) of symbols "1".

 Many everyday activities carried out without a thought are uses of

mathematical models. A geographical map projection of a region of the
earth onto a small, plane surface is a model[5] which can be used for many
purposes such as planning travel.
 Another simple activity is predicting the position of a vehicle from its
initial position, direction and speed of travel, using the equation that
distance traveled is the product of time and speed. This is known as dead
reckoning when used more formally. Mathematical modeling in this way
does not necessarily require formal mathematics; animals have been
shown to use dead reckoning.
 Population Growth. A simple (though approximate) model of population
growth is the Malthusian growth model. A slightly more realistic and
largely used population growth model is the logistic function, and its
extensions.
 Model of a particle in a potential-field. In this model we consider a
particle as being a point of mass which describes a trajectory in space
which is modeled by a function giving its coordinates in space as a
function of time. The potential field is given by a function and the
trajectory, that is a function , is the solution of the differential
equation:

that can be written also as:

Note this model assumes the particle is a point mass, which is certainly
known to be false in many cases in which we use this model; for example,
as a model of planetary motion.

 Model of rational behavior for a consumer. In this model we

assume a consumer faces a choice of n commodities labeled
1,2,...,n each with a market price p1, p2,..., pn. The consumer is
assumed to have an ordinal utility function U (ordinal in the
sense that only the sign of the differences between two utilities,
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 and not the level of each utility, is meaningful), depending on
the amounts of commodities x1, x2,..., xn consumed. The model
further assumes that the consumer has a budget M which is
used to purchase a vector x1, x2,..., xn in such a way as to
maximize U(x1, x2,..., xn). The problem of rational behavior in
this model then becomes an optimization problem, that is:

subject to:

This model has been used in a wide variety of economic contexts, such as
in general equilibrium theory to show existence and Pareto efficiency of
economic equilibria.

 Neighbour-sensing model explains

the mushroom formation from the initially
chaotic fungal network.
 Computer science: models in Computer Networks, data
models, surface model,...
 Mechanics: movement of rocket model,...

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 Biographies of Great Mathematicians
Pythagoras

Born Approximately 569 BC, Samos Greece

Died Approximately 500 - 475 BC, Metapontum Italy

Pythagoras is often referred to as the first pure mathematician. He was

born on the island of Samos, Greece in 569 BC. Various writings place his death
between 500 BC and 475 BC in Metapontum, Lucania, Italy. His father,
Mnesarchus, was a gem merchant. His mother's name was Pythais. Pythagoras
had two or three brothers.

Some historians say that Pythagoras was married to a woman named

Theano and had a daughter Damo, and a son named Telauges, who succeeded
Pythagoras as a teacher and possibly taught Empedocles. Others say that Theano
was one of his students, not his wife, and say that Pythagoras never married and
had no children.

Pythagoras was well educated, and he played the lyre throughout his
lifetime, knew poetry and recited Homer. He was interested in mathematics,
philosophy, astronomy and music, and was greatly influenced by Pherekydes
(philosophy), Thales (mathematics and astronomy) and Anaximander
(philosophy, geometry).

Pythagoras left Samos for Egypt in about 535 B.C. to study with the
priests in the temples. Many of the practices of the society he created later in
Italy can be traced to the beliefs of Egyptian priests, such as the codes of
secrecy, striving for purity, and refusal to eat beans or to wear animal skins as
clothing.

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 Ten years later, when Persia invaded Egypt, Pythagoras was taken
prisoner and sent to Babylon (in what is now Iraq), where he met the Magoi,
priests who taught him sacred rites. Iamblichus (250-330 AD), a Syrian
philosopher, wrote about Pythagoras, "He also reached the acme of perfection in
arithmetic and music and the other mathematical sciences taught by the
Babylonians..."

In 520 BC, Pythagoras, now a free man, left Babylon and returned to
Samos, and sometime later began a school called The Semicircle. His methods
of teaching were not popular with the leaders of Samos, and their desire for him
to become involved in politics did not appeal to him, so he left.

Pythagoras settled in Crotona, a Greek colony in southern Italy, about 518

BC, and founded a philosophical and religious school where his many followers
lived and worked. The Pythagoreans lived by rules of behavior, including when
they spoke, what they wore and what they ate. Pythagoras was the Master of the
society, and the followers, both men and women, who also lived there, were
known as mathematikoi. They had no personal possessions and were
vegetarians. Another group of followers who lived apart from the school were
allowed to have personal possessions and were not expected to be vegetarians.
They all worked communally on discoveries and theories. Pythagoras believed:

 All things are numbers. Mathematics is the basis for everything, and
geometry is the highest form of mathematical studies. The physical
world can understood through mathematics.
 The soul resides in the brain, and is immortal. It moves from one
being to another, sometimes from a human into an animal, through a
series of reincarnations called transmigration until it becomes pure.
Pythagoras believed that both mathematics and music could purify.
 Numbers have personalities, characteristics, strengths and
weaknesses.
 The world depends upon the interaction of opposites, such as male
and female, lightness and darkness, warm and cold, dry and moist,
light and heavy, fast and slow.
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  Certain symbols have a mystical significance.
 All members of the society should observe strict loyalty and secrecy.
Because of the strict secrecy among the members of Pythagoras' society, and
the fact that they shared ideas and intellectual discoveries within the group and
did not give individuals credit, it is difficult to be certain whether all the
theorems attributed to Pythagoras were originally his, or whether they came
from the communal society of the Pythagoreans. Some of the students of
Pythagoras eventually wrote down the theories, teachings and discoveries of the
group, but the Pythagoreans always gave credit to Pythagoras as the Master for:

1. The sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles.

2. The theorem of Pythagoras - for a right-angled triangle the square on the
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides. The
Babylonians understood this 1000 years earlier, but Pythagoras proved it.
3. Constructing figures of a given area and geometrical algebra. For example
they solved various equations by geometrical means.
4. The discovery of irrational numbers is attributed to the Pythagoreans, but
seems unlikely to have been the idea of Pythagoras because it does not
align with his philosophy the all things are numbers, since number to him
meant the ratio of two whole numbers.
5. The five regular solids (tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, icosahedron,
dodecahedron). It is believed that Pythagoras knew how to construct the
first three but not last two.
6. Pythagoras taught that Earth was a sphere in the center of the Kosmos
(Universe), that the planets, stars, and the universe were spherical because
the sphere was the most perfect solid figure. He also taught that the paths
of the planets were circular. Pythagoras recognized that the morning star
was the same as the evening star, Venus.

Pythagoras studied odd and even numbers, triangular numbers, and

perfect numbers. Pythagoreans contributed to our understanding of angles,
triangles, areas, proportion, polygons, and polyhedra.

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 Pythagoras also related music to mathematics. He had long played the
seven string lyre, and learned how harmonious the vibrating strings sounded
when the lengths of the strings were proportional to whole numbers, such as 2:1,
3:2, 4:3. Pythagoreans also realized that this knowledge could be applied to
other musical instruments.

The reports of Pythagoras' death are varied. He is said to have been killed
by an angry mob, to have been caught up in a war between the Agrigentum and
the Syracusans and killed by the Syracusans, or been burned out of his school in
Crotona and then went to Metapontum where he starved himself to death. At
least two of the stories include a scene where Pythagoras refuses to trample a
crop of bean plants in order to escape, and because of this, he is caught.

The Pythagorean Theorem is a cornerstone of mathematics, and continues

to be so interesting to mathematicians that there are more than 400 different
proofs of the theorem, including an original proof by President Garfield.

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 Blaise Pascal

(/pæˈskæl, pɑːˈskɑːl/; French: [blɛz paskal]; 19 June 1623 – 19 August 1662)

was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and Catholic theologian.
He was a child prodigy who was educated by his father, a tax collector in Rouen.
Pascal's earliest work was in the natural and applied sciences where he made
important contributions to the study of fluids, and clarified the concepts
of pressure and vacuum by generalising the work of Evangelista Torricelli.
Pascal also wrote in defence of the scientific method.
In 1642, while still a teenager, he started some pioneering work on calculating
machines. After three years of effort and 50 prototypes, he built 20 finished
machines (called Pascal's calculators and later Pascalines) over the following 10
years, establishing him as one of the first two inventors of the mechanical
calculator.
Pascal was an important mathematician, helping create two major new areas of
research: he wrote a significant treatise on the subject of projective geometry at
the age of 16, and later corresponded with Pierre de Fermat on probability
theory, strongly influencing the development of modern economics and social
science. Following Galileo Galilei and Torricelli, in 1647, he rebutted Aristotle's
followers who insisted that nature abhors a vacuum. Pascal's results caused
many disputes before being accepted.

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In 1646, he and his sister Jacqueline identified with the religious movement
within Catholicism known by its detractors as Jansenism. His father died in
1651. Following a religious experience in late 1654, he began writing influential
works on philosophy and theology. His two most famous works date from this
period: the Lettres provinciales and the Pensées, the former set in the conflict
between Jansenists and Jesuits. In that year, he also wrote an important treatise
on the arithmetical triangle. Between 1658 and 1659 he wrote on the cycloid and
its use in calculating the volume of solids.
Throughout his life, Pascal was in frail health, especially after the age of 18; he
died just two months after his 39th birthday.
Pascal was born in Clermont-Ferrand, which is in France's Auvergne region. He
lost his mother, Antoinette Begon, at the age of three. His father, Étienne
Pascal (1588–1651), who also had an interest in science and mathematics, was a
local judge and member of the "Noblesse de Robe". Pascal had two sisters, the
younger Jacqueline and the elder Gilberte.
In 1631, five years after the death of his wife, Étienne Pascal moved with his
children to Paris. The newly arrived family soon hired Louise Delfault, a maid
who eventually became an instrumental member of the family. Étienne, who
never remarried, decided that he alone would educate his children, for they all
showed extraordinary intellectual ability, particularly his son Blaise. The young
Pascal showed an amazing aptitude for mathematics and science.

Portrait of Pascal
Particularly of interest to Pascal was a work of Desargues on conic sections.
Following Desargues' thinking, the 16-year-old Pascal produced, as a means of
proof, a short treatise on what was called the "Mystic Hexagram", Essai pour les
coniques ("Essay on Conics") and sent it—his first serious work of
mathematics—to Père Mersenne in Paris; it is known still today as Pascal's
theorem. It states that if a hexagon is inscribed in a circle (or conic) then the
three intersection points of opposite sides lie on a line (called the Pascal line).
Pascal's work was so precocious that Descartes was convinced that Pascal's
father had written it. When assured by Mersenne that it was, indeed, the product
of the son and not the father, Descartes dismissed it with a sniff: "I do not find it
strange that he has offered demonstrations about conics more appropriate than
those of the ancients," adding, "but other matters related to this subject can be
proposed that would scarcely occur to a 16-year-old child."
In France at that time offices and positions could be—and were—bought and
sold. In 1631 Étienne sold his position as second president of the Cour des
Aides for 65,665 livres. The money was invested in a government bondwhich
provided, if not a lavish, then certainly a comfortable income which allowed the
Pascal family to move to, and enjoy, Paris. But in 1638 Richelieu, desperate for
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money to carry on the Thirty Years' War, defaulted on the government's bonds.
Suddenly Étienne Pascal's worth had dropped from nearly 66,000 livres to less
than 7,300.

An early Pascaline on display at the Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris

Like so many others, Étienne was eventually forced to flee Paris because of his
opposition to the fiscal policies of Cardinal Richelieu, leaving his three children
in the care of his neighbour Madame Sainctot, a great beauty with an infamous
past who kept one of the most glittering and intellectual salons in all France. It
was only when Jacqueline performed well in a children's play with Richelieu in
attendance that Étienne was pardoned. In time, Étienne was back in good graces
with the cardinal and in 1639 had been appointed the king's commissioner of
taxes in the city of Rouen—a city whose tax records, thanks to uprisings, were
in utter chaos.
In 1642, in an effort to ease his father's endless, exhausting calculations, and
recalculations, of taxes owed and paid (into which work the young Pascal had
been recruited), Pascal, not yet 19, constructed a mechanical calculator capable
of addition and subtraction, called Pascal's calculator or the Pascaline. Of the
eight Pascalines known to have survived, four are held by the Musée des Arts et
Métiers in Paris and one more by the Zwinger museum in Dresden, Germany,
exhibit two of his original mechanical calculators. Though these machines are
pioneering forerunners to a further 400 years of development of mechanical
methods of calculation, and in a sense to the later field of computer engineering,
the calculator failed to be a great commercial success. Partly because it was still
quite cumbersome to use in practice, but probably primarily because it was
extraordinarily expensive, the Pascaline became little more than a toy, and
a status symbol, for the very rich both in France and elsewhere in Europe. Pascal
continued to make improvements to his design through the next decade, and he
refers to some 50 machines that were built to his design.

Contributions to mathematics

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Pascal's triangle. Each number is the sum of the two directly above it. The
triangle demonstrates many mathematical properties in addition to
showing binomial coefficients.
Pascal continued to influence mathematics throughout his life. His Traité du
triangle arithmétique ("Treatise on the Arithmetical Triangle") of 1653
described a convenient tabular presentation for binomial coefficients, now
called Pascal's triangle. The triangle can also be represented:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 2 3 4 5 6

2 1 3 6 10 15

3 1 4 10 20

4 1 5 15

5 1 6

6 1

He defines the numbers in the triangle by recursion: Call the number in the
(m + 1)th row and (n + 1)th column tmn. Then tmn = tm–1,n + tm,n–1,
for m = 0, 1, 2, ... and n = 0, 1, 2, ... The boundary conditions
are tm,−1 = 0, t−1,n = 0 for m = 1, 2, 3, ... and n = 1, 2, 3, ... The generator t00 = 1.
Pascal concludes with the proof,

In 1654 he proved Pascal's identity relating the sums of the p-th powers of the
first n positive integers for p = 0, 1, 2, …, k.
In 1654, prompted by his friend the Chevalier de Méré, he corresponded
with Pierre de Fermat on the subject of gambling problems, and from that
collaboration was born the mathematical theory of probabilities. The specific
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problem was that of two players who want to finish a game early and, given the
current circumstances of the game, want to divide the stakes fairly, based on the
chance each has of winning the game from that point. From this discussion, the
notion of expected value was introduced. Pascal later (in the Pensées) used a
probabilistic argument, Pascal's Wager, to justify belief in God and a virtuous
life. The work done by Fermat and Pascal into the calculus of probabilities laid
important groundwork for Leibniz' formulation of the calculus.
After a religious experience in 1654, Pascal mostly gave up work in
mathematics.

Isaac Newton

Born in 1643 in Woolsthorpe, England, Sir Isaac Newton began developing his
influential theories on light, calculus and celestial mechanics while on break
from Cambridge University. Years of research culminated with the 1687
publication of “Principia,” a landmark work that established the universal laws
of motion and gravity. Newton’s second major book, “Opticks,” detailed his
experiments to determine the properties of light. Also a student of Biblical
history and alchemy, the famed scientist served as president of the Royal
Society of London and master of England’s Royal Mint until his death in 1727.

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Isaac Newton was born on January 4, 1643, in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire,
England. The son of a farmer, who died three months before he was born,
Newton spent most of his early years with his maternal grandmother after his
mother remarried. His education interrupted by a failed attempt to turn him into
a farmer, he attended the King’s School in Grantham before enrolling at the
University of Cambridge’s Trinity College in 1661.

Newton studied a classical curriculum at Cambridge, but he became fascinated

by the works of modern philosophers such as René Descartes, even devoting a
set of notes to his outside readings he titled “Quaestiones Quaedam
Philosophicae” (“Certain Philosophical Questions”). When the Great Plague
shuttered Cambridge in 1665, Newton returned home and began formulating his
theories on calculus, light and color, his farm the setting for the supposed
falling apple that inspired his work on gravity.

Newton returned to Cambridge in 1667 and was elected a minor fellow. He

constructed the first reflecting telescope in 1668, and the following year he
received his Master of Arts degree and took over as Cambridge’s Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics. Asked to give a demonstration of his telescope to the
Royal Society of London in 1671, he was elected to the Royal Society the
following year and published his notes on optics for his peers.

Through his experiments with refraction, Newton determined that white light
was a composite of all the colors on the spectrum, and he asserted that light was
composed of particles instead of waves. His methods drew sharp rebuke from
established Society member Robert Hooke, who was unsparing again with
Newton’s follow-up paper in 1675. Known for his temperamental defense of his
work, Newton engaged in heated correspondence with Hooke before suffering a
nervous breakdown and withdrawing from the public eye in 1678. In the
following years, he returned to his earlier studies on the forces governing
gravity and dabbled in alchemy.

In 1684, English astronomer Edmund Halley paid a visit to the secluded

Newton. Upon learning that Newton had mathematically worked out the
elliptical paths of celestial bodies, Halley urged him to organize his notes. The
result was the 1687 publication of “Philosophiae Naturalis Principia

196
Mathematica” (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), which
established the three laws of motion and the law of universal gravity. Principia
propelled Newton to stardom in intellectual circles, eventually earning universal
acclaim as one of the most important works of modern science.

With his newfound influence, Newton opposed the attempts of King James II to
reinstitute Catholic teachings at English Universities, and was elected to
represent Cambridge in Parliament in 1689. He moved to London permanently
after being named warden of the Royal Mint in 1696, earning a promotion to
master of the Mint three years later. Determined to prove his position wasn’t
merely symbolic, Newton moved the pound sterling from the silver to the gold
standard and sought to punish counterfeiters.

The death of Hooke in 1703 allowed Newton to take over as president of the
Royal Society, and the following year he published his second major work,
“Opticks.” Composed largely from his earlier notes on the subject, the book
detailed Newton’s painstaking experiments with refraction and the color
spectrum, closing with his ruminations on such matters as energy and
electricity. In 1705, he was knighted by Queen Anne of England.

Around this time, the debate over Newton’s claims to originating the field of
calculus exploded into a nasty dispute. Newton had developed his concept of
“fluxions” (differentials) in the mid 1660s to account for celestial orbits, though
there was no public record of his work. In the meantime, German
mathematician Gottfried Leibniz formulated his own mathematical theories and
published them in 1684. As president of the Royal Society, Newton oversaw an
investigation that ruled his work to be the founding basis of the field, but the
debate continued even after Leibniz’s death in 1716. Researchers later
concluded that both men likely arrived at their conclusions independent of one
another.

Newton was also an ardent student of history and religious doctrines, his
writings on those subjects compiled into multiple books that were published
posthumously. Having never married, Newton spent his later years living with
his niece at Cranbury Park, near Winchester, England. He died on March 31,
1727, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

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A giant even among the brilliant minds that drove the Scientific Revolution,
Newton is remembered as a transformative scholar, inventor and writer. He
eradicated any doubts about the heliocentric model of the universe by
establishing celestial mechanics, his precise methodology giving birth to what
is known as the scientific method. Although his theories of space-time and
gravity eventually gave way to those of Albert Einstein, his work remains the
bedrock on which modern physics was built.

René Descartes
FRENCH MATHEMATICIAN AND PHILOSOPHER
René Descartes, (born March 31, 1596, La Haye, Touraine, France—died
February 11, 1650, Stockholm, Sweden), French mathematician, scientist, and
philosopher. Because he was one of the first to abandon
scholastic Aristotelianism, because he formulated the first modern version
of mind-body dualism, from which stems the mind-body problem, and because
he promoted the development of a new science grounded in observation and
experiment, he has been called the father of modern philosophy. Applying an
original system of methodical doubt, he dismissed apparent knowledge derived
from authority, the senses, and reason and erected new epistemic foundations on
the basis of the intuition that, when he is thinking, he exists; this he expressed in
the dictum “I think, therefore I am” (best known in its Latin formulation,
“Cogito, ergo sum,” though originally written in French, “Je pense, donc je
suis”). He developed a metaphysical dualism that distinguishes radically
between mind, the essence of which is thinking, and matter, the essence of
which is extension in three dimensions. Descartes’s metaphysics is rationalist,
based on the postulation of innate ideas of mind, matter, and God, but his
physics and physiology, based on sensory experience, are mechanistic and
empiricist.

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Descartes, RenéRené Descartes.National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland

Early Life And Education

Although Descartes’s birthplace, La Haye (now Descartes), France, is in

Touraine, his family connections lie south, across the Creuse River in Poitou,
where his father, Joachim, owned farms and houses in Châtellerault and Poitiers.
Because Joachim was a councillor in the Parlement of Brittany in Rennes,
Descartes inherited a modest rank of nobility. Descartes’s mother died when he
was one year old. His father remarried in Rennes, leaving him in La Haye to be
raised first by his maternal grandmother and then by his great-uncle in
Châtellerault. Although the Descartes family was Roman Catholic, the Poitou
region was controlled by the Protestant Huguenots, and Châtellerault, a
Protestant stronghold, was the site of negotiations over the Edict of
Nantes (1598), which gave Protestants freedom of worship in France following
the intermittent Wars of Religion between Protestant and Catholic forces in
France. Descartes returned to Poitou regularly until 1628.
In 1606 Descartes was sent to the Jesuit college at La Flèche, established in
1604 by Henry IV (reigned 1589–1610). At La Flèche, 1,200 young men were
trained for careers in military engineering, the judiciary, and government
administration. In addition to classical studies, science, mathematics, and
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metaphysics—Aristotle was taught from scholastic commentaries—they studied
acting, music, poetry, dancing, riding, and fencing. In 1610 Descartes
participated in an imposing ceremony in which the heart of Henry IV, whose
assassination that year had destroyed the hope of religious tolerance in France
and Germany, was placed in the cathedral at La Flèche.
In 1614 Descartes went to Poitiers, where he took a law degree in 1616. At this
time, Huguenot Poitiers was in virtual revolt against the young King Louis
XIII (reigned 1610–43). Descartes’s father probably expected him to enter
Parlement, but the minimum age for doing so was 27, and Descartes was only
20. In 1618 he went to Breda in the Netherlands, where he spent 15 months as
an informal student of mathematics and military architecture in the peacetime
army of the Protestant stadholder, Prince Maurice (ruled 1585–1625). In Breda,
Descartes was encouraged in his studies of science and mathematics by the
physicist Isaac Beeckman (1588–1637), for whom he wrote the Compendium of
Music (written 1618, published 1650), his first surviving work.
Descartes spent the period 1619 to 1628 traveling in northern and southern
Europe, where, as he later explained, he studied “the book of the world.” While
in Bohemia in 1619, he invented analyticgeometry, a method of solving
geometric problems algebraically and algebraic problems geometrically. He also
devised a universal method of deductive reasoning, based on mathematics, that
is applicable to all the sciences. This method, which he later formulated
in Discourse on Method(1637) and Rules for the Direction of the Mind (written
by 1628 but not published until 1701), consists of four rules: (1) accept nothing
as true that is not self-evident, (2) divide problems into their simplest parts, (3)
solve problems by proceeding from simple to complex, and (4) recheck the
reasoning. These rules are a direct application of mathematical procedures. In
addition, Descartes insisted that all key notions and the limits of each problem
must be clearly defined.
Descartes also investigated reports of esoteric knowledge, such as the claims of
the practitioners of theosophy to be able to command nature. Although
disappointed with the followers of the Catalan mystic Ramon Llull (1232/33–
1315/16) and the German alchemist Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa von
Nettesheim (1486–1535), he was impressed by the German mathematician
Johann Faulhaber (1580–1635), a member of the mystical society of
the Rosicrucians.
Descartes shared a number of Rosicrucian goals and habits. Like the
Rosicrucians, he lived alone and in seclusion, changed his residence often
(during his 22 years in the Netherlands, he lived in 18 different places),
practiced medicine without charge, attempted to increase human longevity, and
took an optimistic view of the capacity of science to improve the human
condition. At the end of his life, he left a chest of personal papers (none of
which has survived) with a Rosicrucian physician—his close friend Corneille
van Hogelande, who handled his affairs in the Netherlands. Despite
these affinities, Descartes rejected the Rosicrucians’ magical and mystical
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beliefs. For him, this period was a time of hope for a revolution in science. The
English philosopher Francis Bacon (1561–1626), in Advancement of
Learning (1605), had earlier proposed a new science of observation and
experiment to replace the traditional Aristotelian science, as Descartes himself
did later.
In 1622 Descartes moved to Paris. There he gambled, rode, fenced, and went to
the court, concerts, and the theatre. Among his friends were the poets Jean-Louis
Guez de Balzac (1597–1654), who dedicated his Le Socrate chrétien (1652;
“Christian Socrates”) to Descartes, and Théophile de Viau(1590–1626), who
was burned in effigy and imprisoned in 1623 for writing verses mocking
religious themes. Descartes also befriended the mathematician Claude Mydorge
(1585–1647) and Father Marin Mersenne (1588–1648), a man of universal
learning who corresponded with hundreds of scholars, writers, mathematicians,
and scientists and who became Descartes’s main contact with the
larger intellectual world. During this time Descartes regularly hid from his
friends to work, writing treatises, now lost, on fencing and metals. He acquired a
considerable reputation long before he published anything.
At a talk in 1628, Descartes denied the alchemist Chandoux’s claim that
probabilities are as good as certainties in science and demonstrated his own
method for attaining certainty. The Cardinal Pierre de Bérulle (1575–1629)—
who had founded the Oratorian teaching congregation in 1611 as a rival to
the Jesuits—was present at the talk. Many commentators speculate that Bérulle
urged Descartes to write a metaphysics based on the philosophy of St.
Augustine as a replacement for Jesuit teaching. Be that as it may, within weeks
Descartes left for the Netherlands, which was Protestant, and—taking great
precautions to conceal his address—did not return to France for 16 years. Some
scholars claim that Descartes adopted Bérulle as director of his conscience, but
this is unlikely, given Descartes’s background and beliefs (he came from a
Huguenot province, he was not a Catholic enthusiast, he had been accused of
being a Rosicrucian, and he advocated religious tolerance and championed the
use of reason).
Final Years And Heritage

In 1644, 1647, and 1648, after 16 years in the Netherlands, Descartes returned to
France for brief visits on financial business and to oversee the translation into
French of the Principles, the Meditations, and the Objections and Replies. (The
translators were, respectively, Picot, Charles d’Albert, duke de Luynes, and
Claude Clerselier.) In 1647 he also met with Gassendi and Hobbes, and he
suggested to Pascal the famous experiment of taking a barometer up Mount Puy-
de-Dôme to determine the influence of the weight of the air. Picot returned with
Descartes to the Netherlands for the winter of 1647–48. During Descartes’s final
stay in Paris in 1648, the French nobility revolted against the crown in a series
of wars known as the Fronde. Descartes left precipitously on August 17, 1648,
only days before the death of his old friend Mersenne.
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Clerselier’s brother-in-law, Hector Pierre Chanut, who was French resident in
Sweden and later ambassador, helped to procure a pension for Descartes
from Louis XIV, though it was never paid. Later, Chanut engineered an
invitation for Descartes to the court of Queen Christina, who by the close of
the Thirty Years’ War (1618–48) had become one of the most important and
powerful monarchs in Europe. Descartes went reluctantly, arriving early in
October 1649. He may have gone because he needed patronage; the Fronde
seemed to have destroyed his chances in Paris, and the Calvinist theologians
were harassing him in the Netherlands.
In Sweden—where, Descartes said, in winter men’s thoughts freeze like the
water—the 22-year-old Christina perversely made the 53-year-old Descartes rise
before 5:00 AM to give her philosophy lessons, even though she knew of his
habit of lying in bed until 11 o’clock in the morning. She also is said to have
ordered him to write the verses of a ballet, The Birth of Peace (1649), to
celebrate her role in the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years’
War. The verses in fact were not written by Descartes, though he did write the
statutes for a Swedish Academy of Arts and Sciences. While delivering these
statutes to the queen at 5:00 AM on February 1, 1650, he caught a chill, and he
soon developed pneumonia. He died in Stockholm on February 11. Many pious
last words have been attributed to him, but the most trustworthy report is that of
his German valet, who said that Descartes was in a coma and died without
saying anything at all.
Descartes’s papers came into the possession of Claude Clerselier, a pious
Catholic, who began the process of turning Descartes into a saint by cutting,
adding to, and selectively publishing his letters. This cosmetic work culminated
in 1691 in the massive biography by Father Adrien Baillet, who was at work on
a 17-volume Lives of the Saints. Even during Descartes’s lifetime there were
questions about whether he was a Catholic apologist, primarily concerned with
supporting Christian doctrine, or an atheist, concerned only with protecting
himself with pious sentiments while establishing a deterministic, mechanistic,
and materialistic physics.
These questions remain difficult to answer, not least because all the papers,
letters, and manuscripts available to Clerselier and Baillet are now lost. In 1667
the Roman Catholic church made its own decision by putting Descartes’s works
on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (Latin: “Index of Prohibited Books”) on
the very day his bones were ceremoniously placed in Sainte-Geneviève-du-Mont
in Paris. During his lifetime, Protestant ministers in the Netherlands called
Descartes a Jesuit and a papist—which is to say an atheist. He retorted that they
were intolerant, ignorant bigots. Up to about 1930, a majority of scholars, many
of whom were religious, believed that Descartes’s major concerns were
metaphysical and religious. By the late 20th century, however, numerous
commentators had come to believe that Descartes was a Catholic in the same
way he was a Frenchman and a royalist—that is, by birth and by convention.

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Descartes himself said that good sense is destroyed when one thinks too much of
God. He once told a German protégée, Anna Maria van Schurman (1607–78),
who was known as a painter and a poet, that she was wasting her intellect
studying Hebrew and theology. He also was perfectly aware of—though he tried
to conceal—the atheistic potential of his materialist physics and physiology.
Descartes seemed indifferent to the emotional depths of religion. Whereas
Pascal trembled when he looked into the infinite universe and perceived the
puniness and misery of man, Descartes exulted in the power of human reason to
understand the cosmos and to promote happiness, and he rejected the view that
human beings are essentially miserable and sinful. He held that it is impertinent
to pray to God to change things. Instead, when we cannot change the world, we
must change ourselves.

Carl Friedrich Gauss

GERMAN MATHEMATICIAN
Carl Friedrich Gauss, original name Johann Friedrich Carl Gauss, (born
April 30, 1777, Brunswick [Germany]—died February 23, 1855, Göttingen,
Hanover), German mathematician, generally regarded as one of the greatest
mathematicians of all time for his contributions to number
theory, geometry, probability theory, geodesy, planetary astronomy, the theory
of functions, and potential theory (including electromagnetism).

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Gauss was the only child of poor parents. He was rare among mathematicians in
that he was a calculating prodigy, and he retained the ability to do elaborate
calculations in his head most of his life. Impressed by this ability and by his gift
for languages, his teachers and his devoted mother recommended him to
the duke of Brunswick in 1791, who granted him financial assistance to continue
his education locally and then to study mathematics at the University of
Göttingen from 1795 to 1798. Gauss’s pioneering work gradually established
him as the era’s preeminent mathematician, first in the German-speaking world
and then farther afield, although he remained a remote and aloof figure.
Gauss’s first significant discovery, in 1792, was that a regular polygon of 17
sides can be constructed by ruler and compass alone. Its significance lies not in
the result but in the proof, which rested on a profound analysis of the
factorization of polynomial equations and opened the door to later ideas of
Galois theory. His doctoral thesis of 1797 gave a proof of the fundamental
theorem of algebra: every polynomial equation with real or complex coefficients
has as many roots (solutions) as its degree (the highest power of the variable).
Gauss’s proof, though not wholly convincing, was remarkable for its critique of
earlier attempts. Gauss later gave three more proofs of this major result, the last
on the 50th anniversary of the first, which shows the importance he attached to
the topic.
Gauss’s recognition as a truly remarkable talent, though, resulted from two
major publications in 1801. Foremost was his publication of the first systematic
textbook on algebraic number theory, Disquisitiones Arithmeticae. This book
begins with the first account of modular arithmetic, gives a thorough account of
the solutions of quadratic polynomials in two variables in integers, and ends
with the theory of factorization mentioned above. This choice of topics and its
natural generalizations set the agenda in number theory for much of the 19th
century, and Gauss’s continuing interest in the subject spurred much research,
especially in German universities.
The second publication was his rediscovery of the asteroid Ceres. Its original
discovery, by the Italian astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi in 1800, had caused a
sensation, but it vanished behind the Sun before enough observations could be
taken to calculate its orbit with sufficient accuracy to know where it would
reappear. Many astronomers competed for the honour of finding it again, but
Gauss won. His success rested on a novel method for dealing with errors in
observations, today called the method of least squares. Thereafter Gauss worked
for many years as an astronomer and published a major work on the
computation of orbits—the numerical side of such work was much less onerous
for him than for most people. As an intensely loyal subject of the duke of
Brunswick and, after 1807 when he returned to Göttingen as an astronomer, of
the duke of Hanover, Gauss felt that the work was socially valuable.
Similar motives led Gauss to accept the challenge of surveying the territory
of Hanover, and he was often out in the field in charge of the observations. The
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project, which lasted from 1818 to 1832, encountered numerous difficulties, but
it led to a number of advancements. One was Gauss’s invention of the heliotrope
(an instrument that reflects the Sun’s rays in a focused beam that can be
observed from several miles away), which improved the accuracy of the
observations. Another was his discovery of a way of formulating the concept of
the curvature of a surface. Gauss showed that there is an intrinsic measure of
curvature that is not altered if the surface is bent without being stretched. For
example, a circular cylinder and a flat sheet of paper have the same intrinsic
curvature, which is why exact copies of figures on the cylinder can be made on
the paper (as, for example, in printing). But a sphere and a plane have different
curvatures, which is why no completely accurate flat map of the Earth can be
made.
Gauss published works on number theory, the mathematical theory of map
construction, and many other subjects. In the 1830s he became interested
in terrestrial magnetism and participated in the first worldwide survey of the
Earth’s magnetic field (to measure it, he invented the magnetometer). With his
Göttingen colleague, the physicist Wilhelm Weber, he made the first electric
telegraph, but a certain parochialism prevented him from pursuing the invention
energetically. Instead, he drew important mathematical consequences from this
work for what is today called potential theory, an important branch
of mathematical physics arising in the study of electromagnetism
and gravitation.
Gauss also wrote on cartography, the theory of map projections. For his study of
angle-preserving maps, he was awarded the prize of the Danish Academy of
Sciences in 1823. This work came close to suggesting that complex functions of
a complex variable are generally angle-preserving, but Gauss stopped short of
making that fundamental insight explicit, leaving it for Bernhard Riemann, who
had a deep appreciation of Gauss’s work. Gauss also had other unpublished
insights into the nature of complex functions and their integrals, some of which
he divulged to friends.
In fact, Gauss often withheld publication of his discoveries. As a student at
Göttingen, he began to doubt the a priori truth of Euclidean geometry and
suspected that its truth might be empirical. For this to be the case, there must
exist an alternative geometric description of space. Rather than publish such a
description, Gauss confined himself to criticizing various a priori defenses of
Euclidean geometry. It would seem that he was gradually convinced that there
exists a logical alternative to Euclidean geometry. However, when the
Hungarian János Bolyai and the Russian Nikolay Lobachevsky published their
accounts of a new, non-Euclidean geometry about 1830, Gauss failed to give
a coherent account of his own ideas. It is possible to draw these ideas together
into an impressive whole, in which his concept of intrinsic curvature plays a
central role, but Gauss never did this. Some have attributed this failure to his
innate conservatism, others to his incessant inventiveness that always drew him
on to the next new idea, still others to his failure to find a central idea that would
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govern geometry once Euclidean geometry was no longer unique. All these
explanations have some merit, though none has enough to be the whole
explanation.
Another topic on which Gauss largely concealed his ideas from his
contemporaries was elliptic functions. He published an account in 1812 of an
interesting infinite series, and he wrote but did not publish an account of
the differential equation that the infinite series satisfies. He showed that the
series, called the hypergeometric series, can be used to define many familiar and
many new functions. But by then he knew how to use the differential equation to
produce a very general theory of elliptic functions and to free the theory entirely
from its origins in the theory of elliptic integrals. This was a major
breakthrough, because, as Gauss had discovered in the 1790s, the theory of
elliptic functions naturally treats them as complex-valued functions of a
complex variable, but the contemporary theory of complex integrals was utterly
inadequate for the task. When some of this theory was published by the
Norwegian Niels Abel and the German Carl Jacobi about 1830, Gauss
commented to a friend that Abel had come one-third of the way. This was
accurate, but it is a sad measure of Gauss’s personality in that he still withheld
publication.
Gauss delivered less than he might have in a variety of other ways also. The
University of Göttingen was small, and he did not seek to enlarge it or to bring
in extra students. Toward the end of his life, mathematicians of
the calibre of Richard Dedekind and Riemann passed through Göttingen, and he
was helpful, but contemporaries compared his writing style to thin gruel: it is
clear and sets high standards for rigour, but it lacks motivation and can be slow
and wearing to follow. He corresponded with many, but not all, of the people
rash enough to write to him, but he did little to support them in public. A rare
exception was when Lobachevsky was attacked by other Russians for his ideas
on non-Euclidean geometry. Gauss taught himself enough Russian to follow the
controversy and proposed Lobachevsky for the Göttingen Academy of Sciences.
In contrast, Gauss wrote a letter to Bolyai telling him that he had already
discovered everything that Bolyai had just published.
After Gauss’s death in 1855, the discovery of so many novel ideas among his
unpublished papers extended his influence well into the remainder of the
century. Acceptance of non-Euclidean geometry had not come with the original
work of Bolyai and Lobachevsky, but it came instead with the almost
simultaneous publication of Riemann’s general ideas about geometry, the
Italian Eugenio Beltrami’s explicit and rigorous account of it, and Gauss’s
private notes and correspondence.

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 Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14,

1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his
schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert
continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss
Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and
mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he acquired Swiss
citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position
as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor's
degree.

During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of
his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In
1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of
Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a
similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical
Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen
in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for
political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of
Theoretical Physics at Princeton*. He became a United States citizen in 1940
and retired from his post in 1945.

After World War II, Einstein was a leading figure in the World Government
Movement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he
207
declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishing the
Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and
the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to
visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major
achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.

At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies of

Newtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed from an
attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic
field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in
which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the
Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of
light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the
photon theory of light.

In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correct interpretation of
the special theory of relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in
1916 he published his paper on the general theory of relativity. During this time
he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation and statistical
mechanics.

In the 1920s, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories,

although he continued to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum
theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to
statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic
gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic
transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology.

After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic
concepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation, to the
majority of physicists.

Einstein's researches are, of course, well chronicled and his more important
works include Special Theory of Relativity (1905), Relativity (English
translations, 1920 and 1950), General Theory of Relativity (1916), Investigations
on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), and The Evolution of Physics (1938).
Among his non-scientific works, About Zionism (1930), Why War? (1933), My
Philosophy (1934), and Out of My Later Years (1950) are perhaps the most
important.

Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and

philosophy from many European and American universities. During the 1920's
208
he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East, and he was awarded
Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout
the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the
Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal
of the Franklin Institute in 1935.

Einstein's gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude

and, for relaxation, music played an important part in his life. He married
Mileva Maric in 1903 and they had a daughter and two sons; their marriage was
dissolved in 1919 and in the same year he married his cousin, Elsa Löwenthal,
who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.

209
Karl Weierstrass

“A mathrmatician who is not also something of poet will never be a complete

(perfect) mathematician.” (Karl Weiertrass)
Karl Theodor Wilhelm Weierstrass (German: Weierstraß [ˈvaɪɐʃtʁas]; 31
October 1815 – 19 February 1897) was a German mathematician often cited as
the "father of modern analysis". Despite leaving university without a degree, he
studied mathematics and trained as a teacher, eventually teaching mathematics,
physics, botany and gymnastics.
Weierstrass formalized the definition of the continuity of a function, proved
the intermediate value theorem and the Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem, and used
the latter to study the properties of continuous functions on closed bounded
intervals.

Biography
Weierstrass was born in Ostenfelde, part of Ennigerloh, Province of Westphalia.
Weierstrass was the son of Wilhelm Weierstrass, a government official, and
Theodora Vonderforst. His interest in mathematics began while he was

210
a gymnasium student at the Theodorianum (de) in Paderborn. He was sent to
the University of Bonn upon graduation to prepare for a government position.
Because his studies were to be in the fields of law, economics, and finance, he
was immediately in conflict with his hopes to study mathematics. He resolved
the conflict by paying little heed to his planned course of study, but continued
private study in mathematics. The outcome was to leave the university without a
degree. After that he studied mathematics at the Münster Academy (which was
even at this time very famous for mathematics) and his father was able to obtain
a place for him in a teacher training school in Münster. Later he was certified as
a teacher in that city. During this period of study, Weierstrass attended the
lectures of Christoph Gudermann and became interested in elliptic functions.
In 1843 he taught in Deutsch Krone in West Prussia and since 1848 he taught at
the Lyceum Hosianum in Braunsberg. Besides mathematics he also taught
physics, botany, and gymnastics.
Weierstrass may have had an illegitimate child named Franz with the widow of
his friend Carl Wilhelm Borchardt. After 1850 Weierstrass suffered from a long
period of illness, but was able to publish papers that brought him fame and
distinction. The University of Königsberg conferred an honorary doctor's
degree on him on 31 March 1854. In 1856 he took a chair at the
Gewerbeinstitut, which later became the Technical University of Berlin. In 1864
he became professor at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Berlin, which later
became the Humboldt Universität zu Berlin.
At the age of fifty-five, Weierstrass met Sonya Kovalevsky whom he tutored
privately after failing to secure her admission to the University. They had a
fruitful intellectual, but troubled personal relationship that "far transcended the
usual teacher-student relationship". The misinterpretation of this relationship
and Kovalevsky's early death in 1891 was said to have contributed to
Weierstrass' later ill-health. He was immobile for the last three years of his life,
and died in Berlin from pneumonia.
Weierstrass was interested in the soundness of calculus, and at the time, there
were somewhat ambiguous definitions regarding the foundations of calculus,
and hence important theorems could not be proven with sufficient rigour.
While Bolzano had developed a reasonably rigorous definition of a limit as early
as 1817 (and possibly even earlier) his work remained unknown to most of the
mathematical community until years later, and many mathematicians had only
vague definitions of limits and continuity of functions.
Delta-epsilon proofs are first found in the works of Cauchy in the 1820s. Cauchy
did not clearly distinguish between continuity and uniform continuity on an
interval. Notably, in his 1821 Cours d'analyse, Cauchy argued that the
(pointwise) limit of (pointwise) continuous functions was itself (pointwise)
continuous, a statement interpreted as being incorrect by many scholars. The
correct statement is rather that the uniform limit of continuous functions is
211
continuous (also, the uniform limit of uniformly continuous functions is
uniformly continuous). This required the concept of uniform convergence,
which was first observed by Weierstrass's advisor, Christoph Gudermann, in an
1838 paper, where Gudermann noted the phenomenon but did not define it or
elaborate on it. Weierstrass saw the importance of the concept, and both
formalized it and applied it widely throughout the foundations of calculus.
Using this definition, he proved the Intermediate Value Theorem. He also
proved the Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem and used it to study the properties of
continuous functions on closed and bounded intervals.
Weierstrass also made significant advancements in the field of calculus of
variations. Using the apparatus of analysis that he helped to develop,
Weierstrass was able to give a complete reformulation of the theory which
paved the way for the modern study of the calculus of variations. Among the
several significant axioms, Weierstrass established a necessary condition for the
existence of strong extrema of variational problems. He also helped devise
the Weierstrass–Erdmann condition, which gives sufficient conditions for an
extremal to have a corner along a given extrema, and allows one to find a
minimizing curve for a given integral.

Students
 Edmund Husserl
 Sofia Kovalevskaya
 Gösta Mittag-Leffler
 Hermann Schwarz
 Carl Johannes Thomae
 Georg Cantor

Honours and awards

The lunar crater Weierstrass and the asteroid 14100 Weierstrass are named after
him. Also, there is the Weierstrass Institute for Applied Analysis and
Stochastics in Berlin.

212
 N. I. LOBACHEVSKY (1792 - 1856)

N. I. Lobachevsky was born on December 1, 1792 near Nizhni Novgorod.

When he was a child, his family moved to Kazan where Lobachevsky entered
the gymnasium. His progress in mathematics was extremely rapid there.

When he was only 14 years old, he entered the University of Kazan.

At the age of 19 Lobachevsky was awarded a Master's Degree. At the age

of 24 he became a professor of mathematics at Kazan University. In 1827
Lobachevsky was appointed rector of the University and later re-elected six
times. So he was at the head of the University for 19 years.

I 1826 when Lobachevsky was 34 years old, he succeeded in solving the

problem which the mathematicians of the world had failed to solve for more
than 2,000 years - he created non-Euclidean geometry, one of the greatest
masterpieces of mathematics.

In spite of Lobachevsky's great contribution to science the scientists of

Russian Academy did not support him. They even laughed at him and his
geometry. The scientists of Europe didn't support him either. In 1846 he was
dismissed from his office. In spite of this he continued his work and when he
got blind, he dictated his new masterpiece Pan-geometry to his pupils.

213
 Lobachevsky died in 1856 at the age of 63. He was both an outstanding
mathematician and philosopher-materialist. His non-Euclidean geometry had
a great influence on the development of mathematical sciences.

Today Lobachevsky's name is known all over the world and as he was a
revolutionary in science, he is often called Copernicus of geometry.

be awarded a degree სამეცნიერო ხარისხის მიღება

either აგრეთვე

had failed to solve აქ არ შეეძლოთ ახსნა

succeeded in solving აქ შეძლო გადაწყვეტა

SOPHIA KOVALEVSKAYA

S. Kovalevskaya, a great Russian mathematician, the first woman-

academician, professor, Correspondent Member of Petersburg Academy of
Sciences was born in 1850. She spent her childhood in her father's estate, in a
village of Palibino Vitebsk Region. The house where the family lived had a
large park and the girl loved to walk there thinking about different things.

Her first teacher of mathematics was the wall. Yes, don't be surprised, one
of the walls of her room was papered with sheets from the book Higher
214
Mathematics by Ostrogradsky. The girl used to stand before the wall and tried
to understand the signs and symbols of higher mathematics.

To understand some formulas she used the textbook of physics by

professor Tirtov. Professor Tirtov often visited Kovalevskaya's parents. One
day he saw that the girl was studying his book.

“This book is not for you”, he said. “It is based on trigonometry which you
haven't studied.”

“But I do know trigonometry”, the girl answered and she explained the
astonished professor all the functions and formulas. The professor called
Sophia a genius, compared her with Pascal and insisted on her studying
mathematics. But at that time it was impossible for a woman to enter any
higher school, so she had to leave her country and go abroad. She went to
Berlin but women were not admitted to the University there either. So she
found the address of a famous professor Weierstrass and went to him. He met
her coldly but gave her some very difficult problems to solve. He was sure
she was not able to solve them. But at the appointed time. Sophia came to him
and showed all his problems which she had solved brilliantly.

After that professor Weierstrass agreed to teach Kovalevskaya privately.

When three scientific masterpieces by Kovalevskaya appeared in 1874,
Hettingen University awarded her the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Only
her hard work helped her to graduate from the University and to get a
Doctor's Degree.

She was eager to return to her native country, but the tsarist Government
did not want to have women-professors in Russia. So she went to Sweden in
1883 and worked at the University in Stockholm. She continued her scientific
work and at the same time she wrote her Memories of My Childhood, a
drama Struggle for Happiness, and a novel Nihilist. In her numerous scientific
works Kovalevskaya solved the problems which many scientists had failed to
solve during many years. In 1888 Kovalevskaya got the First reward of 5,000
francs from Paris Academy of Sciences for her The Rotation of a Solid at the
Fixed Point. In 1889 Kovalevskaya got the reward from the Swedish
Academy of Sciences. She became famous.

Her portraits appeared in magazines and newspapers.

In 1889 Russian academicians Chebishev, Imshenetsky and Bunjakovsky

succeeded in electing Sophia Kovalevskaya a Correspondent Member of the
Russian Academy of Sciences. On the 10th of February 1891 Sophia
Kovalevskaya died of consumption. She was only 41. In 1896 Russian

215
 women together with some social organizations erected a monument to a
great Russian woman - Sophia Kovalevskaya.

but I do know მაგრამ მე დანამდვილებით ვიცი

fixed point ფიქსირებული უძრავი წერტილი

papered გაწებილი

rotation ბრუნვა

solid მყარი სხეული

were not admitted არ დაშვება

A.Razmadze Mathematical Institute

Mathematical research in Georgia began immediately after the opening of

Tbilisi State University (1918). The initiators of the research were the first
Georgian scientists in
mathematics A. Razmadze, N. Muskhelishvili, A. Kharadze and G. Nikoladze.

On October 8, 1933 a research institute of mathematics, physics and mechanics

with N. Muskhelishvili as director was set up under Tbilisi State University.

On October 1, 1935, at the initiative of N. Muskhelishvili and his closest

associates V. Kupradze and I. Vekua, the mathematics and mechanics section of
the above-mentioned institute was transformed into a mathematical research
institute under the auspices of the Georgian Branch of the USSR Academy of
Sciences. The institute was included into the Georgian Academy of Sciences
216
after the latter was founded in February, 1941. In 1944 the institute was granted
the name of A. Razmadze.

Along with N. Muskhelishvili, V. Kupradze and I. Vekua, to the first generation

of mathematical researchers of the institute
belong A. Bitsadze, V. Chelidze, G. Chogoshvili, D. Dolidze, L. Gokieli,
A. Gorgidze, A. Kalandia, I. Kartsivadze, A. Kharadze, B. Khvedelidze, D. Kve
selava,G. Lomadze, L. Magnaradze, K. Marjanishvili, Sh. Mikeladze, A. Rukha
dze, N. Vekua, A. Walfisz. Their fundamental results on the mathematical
theory of elasticity [28, 48-56, 71, 72, 74, 75, 77, 80, 91, 97-100], singular
integral equations [73, 76, 78, 79, 81, 82, 101-103], complex and real analysis
[7, 8, 31-33, 93, 95, 96], differential equations and mathematical physics [2-5,
44-47, 70, 83, 90, 92, 94], topology [10-14], the theory of numbers [104-108]
and computational mathematics [60-68] won the institute a high scientific
reputation worldwide.

At various times, with institute collaborated the outstanding foreign scientists P.

S. Aleksandrov, S. Bergman, S. N. Bernstein, M. V. Keldysh, M. A. Lavrentyev,
V. I. Smirnov and S. L. Sobolev.

The first director of the institute was V. Kupradze (1935-1941). Throughout

1941-1976 the institute almost unintermittently was headed
by N. Muskhelishvili. From September, 1951 to April, 1952 the acting director
of the institute was V. Chelidze. In 1976-1989 the institute was directed
by N. Vekua, and in 1989-2006 by I. Kiguradze. From June, 2006 to April, 2008
the acting director of the institute was N. Partsvania. Since April, 2008 N.
Partsvania is a director of the institute.

The institute's deputy directors for scientific research were I. Vekua (1940-
1941), A. Gorgidze (1941-1954), G. Manjavidze (1954-1977)
and T. Burchuladze (1977-1989), V. Kokilashvili (1989-2006). Since June
2006, the deputy director of the institute is R. Gachechiladze.

At various times, the research departments of the institute were headed

by R. Bantsuri, S. Bergman,
S. Bernstein, V. Chelidze, G. Chogoshvili, T. Gegelia, A. Kalandia, R. Kapanad
ze, A. Kharadze,
E. Khmaladze, B. Khvedelidze, V. Kupradze, L. Magnaradze, G. Mania, M. Mik
eladze,Sh. Mikeladze, N. Muskhelishvili, T. Shervashidze, O. Tsereteli, I. Veku
a, N. Vekua, A. Walfisz, and the scientific workers of the institute
were R. Abdulaev, R. Chichinadze, A. Dzhishkariani, J. Gvazava, G.
Janashia, T. Kandelaki, G. Khuskivadze, O.
Maisaia, E. Obolashvili, V. Paatashvili,D. Pataraia, G. Tevzadze, A.
Tsitskishvili.
217
The institute had 9 scientific departments:

 Department of Algebra (head H. Inassaridze)

 Department of Mathematical Logics (head M. Jibladze)
 Department of Geometry and Topology (head T. Kadeishvili)
 Department of Mathematical Analysis (head V. Kokilashvili)
 Department of Differential Equations (head I. Kiguradze)
 Department of Mathematical Physics (head R. Duduchava)
 Department of Elasticity Theory (head N. Shavlakadze)
 Department of Theoretical Physics (head M. Eliashvili)
 Department of Probability Theory and Mathematical Statistics (head M.
Mania)

Since 1937 the institute has been publishing the scientific journal "Proceedings
of A. Razmadze Mathematical Institute" (from 2016 is published by ELSEVIER
as Transactions of A. Razmadze Mathematical Institute).

The institute is the founder of two international scientific journals: "Georgian

Mathematical Journal" and "Memoirs on Differential Equations and
Mathematical Physics".

As from 1997, the Symposium on Differential Equations and Mathematical

Physics (DEMPh) was annually held at the institute.

From 1997 till 2006 teInstitute was functioning in Merab Alexidze st #1

and from 2006 it was united to TSU and now is situated in Tamarashvili st #
6 (Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University – Elerter Andronikashvili Institutr
of Physics) and it is Independent research Institute.

The brilliant Representatives of the Georegian

Mathematical School

ILYA VEKUA

218
 Ilya Vekua was born in the village Shesheleti (Samurzakano, prezently the
Gali district of Georgia) on April 23, 1907. He finished school in Zygdidy in
1925 and entered the physical and mathematical Faculty of Tbilisi State
University. Scientific and teaching activities at the Faculty were conducted by
celebrated mathematicians: Muskhelishvili, Nikoladze, Razmadze, Kharadze. A
third year student Ilya was elected chairman of the students’ physical and
mathematical circle.
In 1929-30 Ilya Vekua worked in the geophysical observatory of Georgia.
In the late 20-s and 30-s new technical schools of higher learning were opened
in Tbilisi and a necessity arose to start a systemic preparation of highly skilled
mathematical specialists. On Muskhelishvili’s initiative * a large group of
mathematicians was sent to post-graduate courses at the research institutes and
higher educational institutions of Moscow and Leningrad. In 1930 Ilya Vekua
took up the post-graduated course at the USSR Academy of Sciences in
Leningrad. The greatest Soviet Mathematicians Vinogradov, Günter, Kochin
delivered interesting special courses in theoretical and applied maths. During
those years Mushkelishvili visited Leningrad where he read lectures on the
mathematical theory of elasticly and supervised the studies of post-graduate
students, young researchers got interested in these problems and Vekua studied

*
initiative [ɪˈnɪʃətɪv]

219
the problems of torsion and bending of elastic bars and rods under the
supervision of Academician Krilov. Then his studies were devoted to the theory
of elastic wave propagation in an infinite layer with parallel plane bounderies.
By constructing an explicit formula for each of the reflected waves and
systematizing their infinite set Vekua obtained a complete solution of all the
problems, he considered. These studies formed the basis of his master’s thesis
which he defended at a later date.In 1933 Vekua finished the post-graduates
course and returned to Tbilisi and worked as researcher at the Physical and
Mathematical Faculty of Tbilisi State University. In 1935 he was scientific
secretary of the mathematical Institute of the Georgian Branch of the USSR
Academy of Sciences. In 1937 Vakua started to lead a course of lectures on
differential equations to the students. In 1937 he defended his master’s thesis on
the topic “Propagation of Elastic Waves in and Infinite Layer” and was at once
elected assistant professor of TSU.
In the 40-s Vekua was already a prominent organizer of science and higher
education in Georgia. In the severe years of the Great Patriotic war, being the
dean of the Physical and Mathematical Faculty and later, vice rector of TSU. He
did much organizational work not to interrupt the educational process.
Simultaneously he headed the chair of geometry. In 1944 he was elected
corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the Georgian SSR and in
1946 corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In 1947-50 he
headed a department of Tbilisi mathematical Institute, chairman of the
mathematical and natural science department and academician secretary of the
Academy os Sciences of the Georgian SSR. In 1946 he was awarded the sign of
Honour and medals. In 1951 Vekua with his family went to work as head of a
department in Aerohydrodynamics Institute and head of the theoretical
mechanics chair in Moscow Physical and Technical Institute. In 1952 he was
elected professor of the differential equations chair at Lomonosov State
Universicy. He wrote his Fundamental works on “Systems of Differential

220
Equations of First order and Boundery Value Problems with Application to the
Theory of Shells”. In 1959 in Akademgorodok Novosibirsk State University was
founded and Vekua was appointed its rector. He published his monograph
“Theory of Shallow* Thin Shells* of Variable Thickness”.
He was awarded the Lenin Order and in April 1963 he became the Lenin
Prize winner for the scientific work “Generalized Analytic Functions”.
He returned to Tbilisi and in 1965 he became rector of TSU. He devoted all
his organizational talent and heart to his Alma Mater. In 1968 the Georgian
people marked the 50-th anniversary of TSU. Delegates of many, large
universities of the world arrived in Tbilisi to show their respect to TSU and its
rector. In 1977 being very ill, he wrote monograph “Some General Methods of
Constructing various versions of the shell theory” and was awarded the State
Prize of the USSR. He died on December 2, 1977 and was buried in Tbilisi in
Mtatsminda Pantheon his grave being next to the grave of the teacher and
collegue Niko Muskhelishvili. Many years have passed since the demise* of
Niko Muskhelishvili and Ilya Vekua, but the scientific trends they pioneered
keep developing successfully at the world’s large research centers. Doesn’t this
mean the immortality of the scientific?

ANDRIA RAZMADZE

*
shallow layer - თხელიფენა. layer [ˈleɪə] – ფენა.
*
shell – გარსი, ფენა
*
demise [dɪˈmʌɪz]– გარდაცვალება.

221
 Andria Razmadze was born on August 11, 1889 in Chkhenishi. His father
was Mikhael Razmadze, who was employed on the railways, his mother was
Nino Nodia. Andria attended nonclassical secondary school in Kutaisi,
completing his studies there in 1906, he entered Moscow University.
Graduating with a degree in mathematics in 1910, Razmadze taught
mathematics in secondary schools, while he continued to work for his Master’s
degree. He was awarded this degree in 1917, taught at Moscow University for a
few months, then returned to Georgia near the end of 1917.
Razmadze was one of the founders of Tbilisi University and he taught at
this University from the time that it opened in 1918. He held a chair in the
Physics and Mathematics Faculty in Tbilisi State University for the rest of his
life.
As one of the founders of Tbilisi University, he directed the training of
specialists in mathematics at the University. As a result, within a short period of
time all the higher educational establishements of Georgia were supplied with
teaching and scientific personnel in mathematics. Mathematics teachers for most
secondary schools of Georgia were also trained here.
Razmadze wrote the first textbooks in Georgian on analysis and integral
calculus. His work was on the calculus of variations, continuing work by
222
Weierstrass and Hilbert. The fundamental lemma of the calculus of variations is
named after him. He also did important work on discontinuous solutions.
Razmadze presented a report on his research to the International Congress
of Mathematicians at Toronto in 1924, and for that paper he received the
doctorate in mathematics from the Sorbonne. (In 1925 ha was granted “Diplome
de Docteur es Sciences Mathematiques. Faculte des Sciences de Paris,
Academic de Paris).
Razmadze’swork had been recognized by the international mathematical
community.
Following Razmadze’s death in October 2, 1929, the outstanding French
mathematician Jacques Hadamard sent a telegram of condolence to Tbilisi
University, saying that he, together with all the mathematicians of France and
the world, was profoundly grieved at the death of Razmadze. This is
undoubtedly another expression of the international recognition of Razmadze’s
scientific contribution and his talent. In 944 Mathematical Institute was granted
the name of Andria Razmadze.

223
 VICTOR KUPRADZE
(1903 – 1985)

Victor D. Kupradze was an outstanding Georgian scientist, a public figure

and a statesman.
He was the author of man fundamental works in mathematical physics and
mechanics, collected in his numerous monographs.
Kupradze had a rare ability to combine intensive research and teaching
work with organizational, public and state activities. He was the academic
secretary of the V. Steklov Mathematics Institutes of the USSR Academy of
Sciences, director of the Tbilisi Mathematical Institute, minister of education of
the Georgian SSR, vice-rector and rector of Tbilisi State University,
academician-secretary of the mathematics and physics sector of the Georgian
SSR Academy of Sciences.
For his invaluable contribution to the treasury of science and culture of the
Republic he was bestowed the high title of Honoured Citizen of the city of
Tbilisi.
Kupradze was born on the 2nd of November 1903 in a railwayman’s family.
Little Victor went to the specialized school in Kutaisi, where, a comparatively
extended course in mathematics was taught. Victor’s turnfor mathematic
224
attracted the attention of his teacher of mathematics and, following his advice, in
1922 Kupradze became a student of the physicomathematical department of
Tbilisi State University.
Kupradze graduated from the University with honoures and as a nominee
of professors Andria Razmadze and Nikoloz Muskhelishvili was left at the
University to be prepared for research work.
During his years at the University Kupradze attracted the attention of
Muskhelishvili, set him the task of studying the properties of the Green,
Neumann and Klein functions. The first research work of Kupradze dealt with
this topic.
In 1930 Kupradze became a post-graduate student at the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR in Leningrad. At the time Kupradze got interested in
problems of the oscillation theory, having a great practical application, in
particular, in the construction of antiseismic buildings.
In the period from 1933 to 1935 Kupradze worked as academic secretary
at the V.Steklov Mathematic Institute of the Academy of sciences of the USSR.
In 1935 he defended his doctor’s thesis (skipping the candidate’s thesis, the
topic of which was “Boundary Value problems of the Electromagnetic Wave
Theory”). In 1935, upon his return to Tbilisi, he was appointed director of the
Mathematical Institute.
From 1944 to 1953 Kupradze worked as Minister of Education of the
Georgian SSR.
From 1954 to 1958 Kupradze was rector of Tbilisi State University. He
adequately continued the traditions of I. Javakhishvili and P. Melikishvili.
In 1981 he headed the chair of differential and integral equations at Tbilisi
State University.
In 1946 Kupradze was elected full Member of the Academy of Sciences of
the Georgian SSR.
In 1962 the Georgian Mathematical Society was founded and Kupradze

225
was elected its first president.
What is said above refers to the scientific work of Victor Kupradze. His
studies are in the main devoted to problems of mathematical physics.
Mathematical physics is an old science. It appeared simultaneously with
mathematics and stimulates the latter’s development. Only researchers having a
wide scope of knowledge can devote themselves to the service of mathematical
physics.
The research activities of Kupradze were versatile. They include the theory
of partial differential equations and integral equations, mathematical physics, the
theory of elasticity, applied mathematics.
Georgian scientists made a great contribution to the development of the
theory of elasticity. The mathematical theory of elasticity as expounded in their
works reached the highest level in all three main directions. The studies of N.
Muskhelishvili in the plane theory, of I. Vekua in the shell theory, and of V.
Kupradze in the sphere of spatial problems won general recognation.
Kupradze devoted several monographs to the theory of elasticity, among
which we should mention “Methods of Potential in the Theory of Elasticity”
published in Russian in Moscow in 1963 and then translated into English and
published in Jerusalem in 1965.
We would also mention the first monograph of Kupradze “Bacis Problems
of the Mathematical Diffraction Theory” which was published in Leningrad in
1935. After 17 years, in 1952 the monograph was published in English by the
University of California. Kupradze’s second monograph “Boundary Value
Problems of the Oscillation Theory and Integral Equations” published in
Moscow in 1950 and in German in Berlin in 1956.
The implementation of scientific achievements in the national economy is
of principal importance at the modern stage of the development of science. That
is why Kupradze has offered new methods for constructing algorithms, allowing
the numerical realization of solutions by means of modern computational

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facilities for a wide class of problems of mathematical physics and elasticity.
These methods of the effective construction of solutions are currently used in
structural mechanics, seismology, the theory of radiation transfer and so on
alongside with the methods of the scientists widely known throughout the world.
Kupradze was the first Georgian scientist to use the method of Gilbert
spaces in elasticity.
Speaking of the scientific work of Kupradze, we cannot help mentioning
him as an organizer of science. Only a gifted researcher, possessing vast
erudition and other good human qualities, can be entrusted with the mission of a
science organizer.
Victor Kupradze lived a full life of a scientist. Day after day his thoughts
were occupied with problems connected with science, A celebrated
educationalist and scientist, he had his bands full with many organizational and
state assignments, and nevertheless, he always found time to carry out intensive
research.
Victor Kupradze an outstanding scientist and great citizen, died on the 25 th
of April, 1985.

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 Niko Muskhelishvili
1891 – 1976

Nikoloz (Niko) Muskhelishvili was born in Tbilisi, Georgia, into a family

of engineers. After graduation from the local grammar school he went to be a
student of Physics an Mathematics Department of Saint Peterburg University
and there, after graduation, took a position of Head of Applied Mathematics
Department. His first scientific paper was published in 1915 containing a
number of issues on elasticity theory. From 1917 to 1920 he worked as an
assistant director of Petrograd University and taught mathematics at some other
institutions in Saint Petersburg, In 1920, at the request of the short-lived
Democratic Republic of Georgia he moved back to his native country in order to
organize the national scientific school. Muskhelishvili worked as an assistant
and after as a head professor giving lectures at Tbilisi State University and
Politechnical Institute. In 1921, after the Soviet invasion of Georgia,
Muskhelishvili was allowed to carry on his scientific works in Transcaucasia
Academy of Sciences.
Muskhelishvili carried out and conducted fundamental researches on the
theories of physical elasticity, integral equations, boundary value problems. He
was one of the first to apply the theory of functions of complex variables to the
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problems of elasticity theories, proposing a number of techniques that have been
successfully implemented in numerous areas of mathematics, theoretical physics
and mechanics. His works solved all major problems of the plane elasticity
theory opening a wide class of domains reducing the plane problem to finite
systems of linear algebraic equations. He is also credited with major
contributions to the theory of linear or boundary value problems for analytic
functions and one-dimensional integral equations. Muskhelishvili is the author
of various scientific articles, well-known monographs and textbooks on
mathematics and mechanics. During the world War II Muskhelishvili was
responsible for transferring the trend of Georgian Academy of Sciences to
national defense needs. He completed a series of research, experimental and
theoretical, in different areas of applied mathematics, physics and mechanics,
which all had great practical importance and decisive impact on the development
of a range of military hardware during and after the war; his research, some
theories and ideas ware considered and implemented in the development of
certain land based vehicles and aircraft, rockets and satellites, during the Cold
War; his achievements and involvement in the defense sphere earned him
several state awards; his whole scientific work was regarded as fundamental.
In General and growing recognition of his outstanding scientific
achievements, Muskhelishvili was elected academician of the USSR Academy
of Scientes (1939), academician of Georgian Academy of Sciences and its first
president (1941), honorary president of Georgian Academy of Sciences (1972),
head of Tbilisi Mathematics Institute after Andria Razmadze (one of the
founders of mathematical school in Georgia), and held this position until his
death. His two monographs (1933, 1947) are now recognized as a classic. His
achievements in mathematics and mechanics, his whole scientific work, his
services to the country were recognized with the several main governmental
awards. He had worldwide recognized authority (honorary academician of
Azerbaijan and Armenian Academics of Sciences; foreign member of Bulgarian,

229
Polish, Berlin Academy of Sciences; gold medal of Turing and Slovak
Academies of Sciences; Lomonosov gold medal). Georgian Academy of
Sciences established Nikoloz Muskehlishvili prize in mathematics and
mechanics.
Muskhelishvili advice was greatly helpful to young mathematicians. One of
them was a graduate student Niko Vakhania, who had splendidly passed his
postgraduate examinations and thus had attracted Muskhelishvili’s attention.
The president of Georgian Academy of Sciences, worldwide famous
academician Muskhelishvili gave his advice to young Vakhania to continue his
work in mathematics in Moscow (one of the serious mathematical centers of the
USSR) under the supervision of world-known mathematician academician
Sergei Sobelov. Muskhelishvili even provided the young graduate with two
letters to Sobolev: one formal, another – friendly (beginning with “Dear
Sergo”…), asking him to take Vakhanina (“who deserves your attention”) under
his guidance.
Muskhelishvili was also known for his gentle sense of humor. When the
first secretary of CPSS Khrushchov was in Tbilisi, Georgian scientists invited
him to show an interesting cybernetical device of their invention. Khrushchov
was asked to order the devicde to do something. Khrushchov did, the device was
invert; the second order was again ineffective. Khrushchov became slightly
indignant, went red in the face; the atmosphere was getting tense.
Muskhelishvili’s words “this device is accustomed to having orders only in
Georgian accent” saved the uncomfortable situation. Everybody became relaxed.
Nikoloz Muskhelishvili died on July 15, 1976 in Tbilisi. As a mark of
respect in thankful memory of him, he was buried with honors in Mtatsminda
Pantheon, a very important and sacred place for Georgians, the almost holy
place which is treated with great respect by people.

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 NIKO VAKHANIA
1930 – 2014

Nikolas (Niko) Vakhania was born on August 28, 1930 in Kutaisi (Western
Georgia). His parent’s Tamar and Nicolas Vakhanias’ younger son later became
an experienced engineer-metallurgist with highly inventive mind. Nicholoz was
a tradition-follower, hard-workingand honest person.
From 1931 the Vakhanias’ family lived in the capital of Georgia, Tbilisi.
Niko started his schooling in 1938 and graduated from it in 1949.
In 1949 Niko entered Tbilisi State University (TSU), Physics department.
His distinguished abilities and results in study were noticed; he was considered
as one of the brightest students and from the third year of studying he received a
special scholarship. During his university years Niko understood that his main
interest was Mathematics, it was Mathematics that was important for him. And
whenhe graduated from physics department in 1954, he started his postgraduate
study in Tbilisi Andria Razmadze Mathematics Institute.
Being one of the remarkable students, Niko was recommended by
academician Niko Muskhelishvili to continue his postgraduate course with
academician Sergei Sobolev at Moscow Lomonosov State University (MSU),
Department of Mathematics and Mechanisc; Muskhelishvili provided him with a
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letter of recommendation to Sobolev. For Vakhania the years spent at MSU
were really fruitful and interesting.
In 1956 Computing centre of Georgian Academy of Sciences was founded
where Vakhania became a senior scientific worker, then a head fo Department of
Mathematics Cybernetics (later, department of Probability Theory and
Functional Analysis); he began his long career of Teaching at TSU (Department
of Mechanics and Mathematics, later Department of Cybernetics). During this
period Vakhania became a professional lecturer of mathematics. He was giving
his lectures and talks with amazing zeal and enthusiasm. His colleagues and
students will forever remember his exceptional style of exposition in fine and
convincing way, which with years, was becoming more and more perfect.
Vakhania never published anything until it was as finished and perfect as
he could make it. He used to say: “Mathamaticans are makers of intellectual
tools”. For him Mathematics was Art. Careful research and accurate writing
make his works a valuable reference tool. He was always to the point, thus
reflecting the quality of precision that was also notable in his scientific work.
Vakhania had no language barriers – he, together with his native Georgian,
knew English and Russian well. Everything this was a result of his intensive
hard work, which was customary for him from his childhood; the similar
relation to work he required from his students. He used to say that Mathematics
is like a capricious lady who does not forgive betrayal.
Vakhania successfully defended his candidate (1958, Moscow, under a
supervision of academician Sobolev) and doctoral (1969, Tbilisi) dissertations;
he occupied the position of the dean of Cybernetics and Applied Mathematics
department (1970-1973) and a chair of Theory of Random Processes
Department at TSU.
The creative activities of Vakhania were not restricted only to Science and
Teaching. His talent of organization had manifested itself clearly and completely
during the period of his work as a director of Institute of Computational

232
Mathematics (DCM) which continued for 27 years from 1978; at his own will he
left the position of the director of the Institute. He was a chief scientific worker
and a head of the Scientific Council (2008-2013). He participated actively in the
work of Section of Mathematics and Physics Georgian Academy of Sciences as
a vise academician-secretary; he had a seat on many scientific boards (Tbilisi,
Moscow).
Although his administrative activities were taking rather considerable time
of Vakhania, he was nevertheless continuing his research work. His first
scientific papers were dedicated to the theory of differential equations. The
results obtained by him in this direction are still of great interest. The next cycle
of Vakhania’s scientific works, collected in his monographs (Tbilisi, Moscow,
Amsterdam “North Holand” publications), was about the theory of probability,
distributions in linear and Banach Spaces. Vakhania’s works are devoted to the
theory of differential equations, modern and classical probability theory,
functional analysis, computational mathematics and quaternionic probability
theory.
In Georgia Vakhania has founded a new direction of mathematics –
Probability Theory in Infinite-Dimensional Linear Spaces. His fruitful scientific
activity had a significant influence on the development of this direction of
research. His classical monographs, as many foreign colleagues underline, still
have numerous citations and remain a source of new ideas. He was often invited
to various scientific centers and universities of all continents of the world, made
joint scientific researches with foreign colleagues, gave courses of lectures. His
scientific activities abroad and in his native country indicate a wide international
recognition of his talent and contributions.
The scientific school created by him soon received high authority in
Georgia and abroad; it is recognized as one of the leading centers of Probability
Theory in Linear Spaces.
Everybody who knew Vakhania, gave a high estimation to his

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professionalism, to his objectivity, to the fact that he was a man of principle; he
was famous for his outstanding honesty and courage; for him mathematics was
the one great permanent happiness of his life, it gave him great satisfaction to
work. Only research, teaching, writing and his family filled his days with
pleasure. He was not only an eminent mathematician but also a gentle and kind
man. Eager to do everything in his power to help all with whom he came in
contact. Vakhanias’ words directed to the young generation about twenty years
ago have not lost their actuality to this day: “A necessary condition to achieve a
big success is to love the claim, to get enjoyment not only from an achieved
success and its consequences, but also from the process of work. The work must
be a permanent process. God distributes talent and abilities among people not
uniformly, but no one receives them so much, which could guarantee to achieve
a big success without a big effort”. Vakhania’s mathematical ideas and research
work are still being continued by his Georgian and foreign followers.

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 FORGE OF MATHEMATICIANS (SSU)

Progress of science, technology, national economy and generally progress

of humanity is defined by the progress of physics and mathematics. Namely the
methods of these sciences are the powerful weapons for determining the general
regularities of the word.
Computer science plays the principal role in the progress of science and
technology. It is not only the powerful means for information processing, but it
is also the completely new means for obtaining modern technology and
knowledge for scientific studies.
On December 12, 1931 Peoples Commissariat for Education of Georgian
SSR considered the issue of opening the Pedagogical Institute in Abkhazia and
on January 13, 1932 the relevant resolution was made about opening of
Sukhumi Pedagogical Institute with two Faculties that of Agri-biology and
Physic and Mathematics.
In September 1932, at the opening of Sukhumi Pedagogical Institute two
Faculties were created (Agriobiology and Physics and mathematics), with three
chairs (of Physics, Mathematics and Chemistry). 17 teachers were teaching there
and none of them had scientific degrees.
In 1936, 12 teachers of physics and mathematics graduated from the

235
Faculty of Physics and Mathematics. In 1937 – the number of the first graduated
were 15.
Later, on the base of Chair of Mathematics, which was opened in 1932, the
chairs of mathematical analysis, algebra and geometry were created.
At various times (in the 40-50-ies) professors from Tbilisi arrived and
delivered lectures at the Chair of Mathematics.
Activity of a docent M. Reneft (1932-1946), the first leader of Faculty
should be emphasized. Great was hiscontribution to the preparation of qualified
specialists in physics and Mathematics.
In 1946, when the Chair of Mathematical Analysis was headed by G.
Chelidze, it became possible to open post-graduate courses in “Mathematical
Analysis”.
After docent M. Raneft, in 1946-48 dean of the Faculty was K. Gakharia, in
1948-52 – I. Tabagua, in 1952-53 the Department was headed by Sh. Gulua.
The first head of the Chair of Physics, which was opened in 1932, ws
docdent P. Pravdivtsev, in 1948-51 – docent Charkviani and in 1952-73 – docent
V. Beshidze.
From1960 the new stage was started in the progress of the Faculty the
contingent was increased, the evening department and department of study by
correspondence were opened. Georgian and Russian sectors of “Physics” and
“Mathematics” started their functioning independently. Thus, if in 1936 the
Faculty prepared only 12 specialists in this branch, in 1969 the number of
graduate exceeded 130.
Former students of the Faculty came back after finished the post-graduate
courses in Tbilisi and Moscow.
In 1970-70 docent O. Gabisonia was nominated twice to the position of the
head of Chair of High Algebra and Elementary Analysis. The members of the
Chair were: docent A. Meladze, G. Dikhaminjia, serion teachers A. Sakhuria, M.
Chukbari, I. Shamba, T. Tsulaia; teachers: A. Mogilevski, N. Chikobava, M.

236
Kiria, N. Basilaia, R. Absava, engineer in computers P. Adaktilos, senior
laboratory assistant Ts. Dzidziguri.
In 1973-83, docent N. Pachulia was elected twice to the position of the
head of Chair of Mathematical Analysis.
In 1973-76 the laboratory of General Physics was headed by docents: G.
Jobava (1974-76), I. Tabagua (1973-74), and from 1976 – I. Baghbaia.
In 1972 at the Chair of Algebra and Computational mathematics, at the
efforts of docent O. Gabisonia and T. Tsulaia specialist in computer
mathematics, the room of computer mathematics was opened where the
Computer “MIR-1” equipped with printing unit was mounted. No high school of
Georgia had a computer of such capacity at that time. Technical provision of the
machine was imposed on the specialist of this sphere P. Adaktilos. Later, the
Institute of Computational Mathematics of Tbilisi transferred to the Laboratory,
from balance to balance, at about 10 micro-electric computing machines. From
November 1973 teacher of the Chair R. Absava was appointed pluralistically to
the position of the head of the laboratory.
In 1976 at the initiative and efforts of the SFT the first Problem Laboratory
in physics was opened at the Faculty (Head – docent G. Jobava).
The last period of 20 years activity of docent T. Tskhadaia should be
specifically emphasized. At this time the Faculty reached a rather high-level
development.
In 1975-76 docent O. Gabisonia acted as a dean of Faculty (pluralistically).
Secretary of the Faculty was N. chelidze, who successfully continued the deeds
started at that time, in 1976-80 the Faculty was headed by docent I. Tabagua. In
1977 the post of deputy dean was approved for ideological-education sector and
senior teacher G. Dikhamindjia was appointed to the post.
In 1981 at the leadership of docent A. Gvaramia, vice-rector of the
University (for education) the room of computational mathematics was
transformed into Laboratory of Computing Mathematics of the University. At

237
about 30 computers were assembled there (“Iskra” type, with its accessories).
In 1980-83 dean of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics was docent G.
Jobava, who in 1983 was shifted to the post of the head of Chair of Physics. In
1983-86 the Faculty was headed by docent S. Kishmaria, who in 1986 was
replaced by docent L. Karba. Number of students in those years at two forms of
studies (full-time and evening studies) and at three sectors (Georgian,
Abkhazian, Russian) exceeded eight hundred.
In 1980, on the base of Chair of High Algebra and Elementary
Mathematics the Chair of Algebra and Applied Mathematics was formed –
Head, docent A. Gvaramia.
By 1985, there were three chairs of mathematics and three chairs of physics
at the department: Mathematical Analysis, headed by candidate of sciences L.
Tarba, Algebra-Geometry – by docent A. Gvaramia, Applied Matheamtics – by
cand. sci I. Kuznetsov, General Physics – by docent I. Baghbaia, Theoretical and
Experimental Physics – by docent G. Jobava, Technical Physics (opened in
1982) – headed by academician R. Salukvadze.
Alongside with the quantitative growth of the Faculty the grade of the
qualified personnel was increasing. In the 80-ties, both candidate’s and doctor’s
theses were defended.
From May 1987, after election of professor A. Gvaramia to the position of
a rector, docent E. Agrest was appointed to the post of acting head of the Cahir
of Algebra-Geometry.
From May 1989, due to isolation of Sukhumi Branch from the University
of Abkhazia, the Faculty remained without material-technical base. It was
dislocated in the building of Sukhumi SPI. In November 1989 R. Abava was
appointed to the post of a dean of Department.
Three chairs were created: No 1 Chair of Mathematics – candidate of
sciences Sh. Akhalaia, Chair 2 of Mathematics – docent G. Dikhaminjia, Chair
of Physics – docent G. Murghulia.

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 Later, in 1990-91, on the base of Chairs No 1 and No 2 of Mathematics, the
Chair of Mathematical Analysis was created.
From the very day of opening of the Branch the activities for the creation of
material-technical base were started. A number of physical laboratories were
delivered from Tbilisi State University, more than 20 computers of “Iskra” type
were purchased.
The Faculty started the 1990-91 academic year in a new building (one of
the buildings of “Sokhum-Khelsatsko”) with its rather powerful material-
technicalbase. Number of students exceeded 500.
The students were trained in the following specialties: mathematics,
physics, applied mathematics, general technical disciplines and physics,
geophysics and mechanics.
The Faculty finished the 1991-92 academic year by better indices. Students
were enrolled on all six specialties and when the Faculty was going to
commence the next 1992-93 academic year, the was started, which brought
away lives of many teacher and students. The war stopped the study process for
one year and two months.
From November 14 1993, at the leadership and efforts of a new head of the
Sukhumi Branch, professor O. Zhordania, the Sukhumi Branch renewed its
activity.
The department started the study process in the building of Tbilisi
Secondary School No 134. The next academic year the situation at the Faculty
was gradually improved.
In 1997 at the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics, at the leadership and
great efforts of the management of the University (director professor O.
Zhordania, deputy director professor T. Chilachava) the laboratory of
Computing Mathematics was opened (headed by senior teacher T. Tsulaia)
which is expanding yearly and today it is one of the best. The Department of
High Schools of Georgia shifted to the two-stage form of study (Bachelor’s

239
Course, Master’s Course).
During the years of refuge 6 doctor’s and 8 candidate’s degrees were
defended.
From September 6-2000 till 2004, on the base of Faculty of Physics and
Mathematics two departments were formed – Faculty of Physics (dean, docent
A. Miminoshvili) and Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Sciences (dean,
docent R. Absava) with four chairs: Mathematical Analysis – professor V.
Paatashvili; Applied mathematics – professor T. Chilachava; Algebra –
Geometry and mathematical Statistics – docent R. Absava; General Mathematics
and Methods of Teaching Mathematics – docent Sh. Akhalaia.
From 2004-05 – Shota Akhalaia was acting as a dean of the exact and
Natural Sciences Faculty; From 2005-06 prof. Jumber Khubutia was the dean of
the Faculty; In 2007-08 the dean of the Faculty was prof. urab Meshveliani;
From 2008-09 prof. Guli Karchava; From 2009-11 prof. Malkhaz Ashordia was
acting as a dean of the Faculty of Maths and Computer Sciences. From 2011 till
today prof. Malkhaz Ashordia is the dean of the Maths and Computer Sciences
Faculty.
The Faculty with 300 students on all specialties Bachelor programs:
Computer Technologies, Mathematics. Master programs: Applied Mathematics;
Applied Statistics; Computer Sciences. Doctoral programs: Applied
Mathematics, Computer Sciences. Does its best to return to Abkhazia with
qualified specialists.

Expressions of Mathematicians and Public Figures

Here are some my favorite math quotes. You will find them very
interesting, notable, important to think more about this subject, they are more
general quotes so enjoy them:
240
1. “Mathematics is a language” – Josiah Willard Gibbs.
2. “The only way to learn maths is to do maths” – Paul Halmos.
3. “Numbers rule the Universe” – Pythagoras.
4. “A mathematician is a blind man in a dark room looking for a black can,
which isn’t there” – Charles Darwin.
5. “Nature’s geat book is written in Mathematics” – Gallileo.
6. “Mathematics, in one view, is the science of infinity” – P. Davis
7. “Arithmetic is where numbers fly like pigeons in and out of your head” –
Carl Sandburg.
8. “May Your life be like Arithmetic: Joys-added; Sorrows-Subtracted;
Friends-multiplied; Love-undivided” – Author Unknown.
9. Beauty in mathematics is seeing the truth without effort” – George Polya.
10. “No employment can be managed without arithmetic, no mechanical
invention without geometlry” – Benjamin Franklin.
11. “Mathematics is the Queen of the Sciences” and “Arithmetic the Queen of
mathematics” – Gauss.
12. “Mathematics may be defined as the subject in which we never know what
we are talking about, nor whether what we are saying is true” – Bertrand
Russel.
13. “Mathematics in general is fundamentally the science of self – evident
things” – Klein.
14. “Mathematics is nothing more than a game played according to certain
simple rules with meaningless marks on paper” – Hilbert.
15. “Mathematics is man’s supreme intellectual achievement and the most
original creation of the human spirit, music may rouse or pacify the soul,
painting may delight the eye, poetry may stir emotions, phylosophy may
satisfy the mind, and engineering may improve the material life of man.
But mathematics offeres all these values – M. Kline.
16. “In mathematics I can report no deficiency, except it be that men do not

241
 sufficiently understand the excellent use of pure Maths” – Francis Bacon.
17. “I would rather discover one cause than gain the kingdom of Persia” –
Democritus.
18. “Algebra is generous: she often gives more than is asked of her” – Lambert.
19. “In most sciences one generation tears down what another has built, and
what one has established another undoes. In mathematics alone each
generation builds a new story to the old structures” – Hermann Hanke.
20. “Mathematics is the key to understanding and mastering our physical,
social and biological world – Morris Kline.
21. “A maths lecture without a proof is like a movie without a love scene” –
Hendrik Lenstra.
22. “Math is the only place, where truth and beauty mean the same thing” –
Danica McKellar.
23. “For every problem, there is no solution which is simple, neat and wrong”
– H.L. Mencken (1880-1956).
24. “If people do not believe that maths is simple, it is only because they do not
realize how complicated life is” – John von Neumann.
25. “A mathematician who is not also something of a poet, will never be a
complete mathematician” – Karl Weierstrass.
26. “Mathematics possesses not only truth, but supreme beauty – a beauty cold
and austere, like that of sculpture, without appeal to any part of our weaker
nature, without the gorgeous trappings of painting or music, yet sublimely
pure, and capable of a stern perfection such as only the greatest art can
show” – Bertrand Russell.
27. “Trigonometry was invented for calculating and directions of the stars. It is
used for surveying, for alternating current engineering, for analyzing
musical chords, and for countless other purpouses” – John Haldane.
28. “Mathematicians are makers of intellectual tools” – John Haldane.
29. “Pure mathematics is, in its way, the poetry of logical ideas” – Albert

242
 Einstein.
30. “The human mind has never invented a labor – saving machine equal to
Algebra” – Author unknown.
31. “So if a man’s wit be wandering, let him study the mathematics” – Francis
Bacon.
32. “Go down deep enough into anything and you will find mathematics” –
Dean Schlicter.
33. “Pure mathematics is the world’s best game. It is more absorbing than
chess, more of a gamble than poker, and lasts longer than Monopoly. It’s
free. It can be played anywhere – Archimedes did it in a bathtub”.
34. “Arithmetic is numbers you squeeze from your head to your hand to your
pencil to your paper till you get the answer” – Carl Sandburg.
35. “God used beautiful mathematics in creating the world” – Paul Dirac.
36. “Do not worry too much about your difficulties in mathematics. I can
assure you that mine are still greater” – Albert Einstein.
37. “Mathematics is the most beautiful and most powerful creation of the
human spirit” – Stefan Banach.
38. “I am interested in mathematics, only as a creative art” – G.H. Hardy.
39. “I’ve always been interested in using mathematics to make the world work
better” – Alvin E. Roth.
40. “Mathematics is as old as man” – Stefan Banach.
41. “A man is like a Fraction whose numerator is what he is and whose
denominator is what he thinks of himself. The larger the denominator, the
smaller the Fraction” – Tolstoy.
42. “Mathematics possesses not only truth, but supreme beauty – a beauty cold
and austere, like that of sculpture, without appeal to any part of our weaker
nature, without the gorgeous trapping of painting of music, yet sublimely
pure, and capable of a stern perfection such as only the greatest art
canshow” – Bertrand Russell.

243
43. “Mathematics are well and good but nature keeps dragging us around by
the nose” – Albert Einstein.
44. “Arithmetic is where the answer is right and everything is nice and you can
look out of the window and see the blue sky – or the answer is wrong and
you have to start over and try again and see how it comes out this time” –
Carl Sandburg.
45. “The essence of Mathematics is not to make simple things complicated, but
to make complicated things simple” – S. Gudder.
46. “Go down deep enough into anything and you will find mathematics” –
Dean Schlicter.
47. “The human mind has never invented a Labour – saving machine equal to
algebra” – Author Unknown.
48. “Infinity is a floorless room without walls or ceiling” – Author Unknown.

PROBLEMS, FUNNY STORIES AND RIDDLES

Mother: If I take a potato and divide it into two parts, then into four parts,
and each of the four parts, into two parts, what would I have?

Little Emily: Potato salad.

potato картофель

Teacher: If there were four flies on the table, and I killed one, how many
would be left?

Little bright girl: One, the dead one.

fly ბუზი

bright ჭკვიანი
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 Always Last

Father: Well, my son, what is your number in the school-list this month?

Son: I am the twenty-sixth.

Father: How many boys are there in your class?

Son: There are twenty-six.

(A month later.)

Father: Well, my boy, what is your number in the list now?

Son: I am the twenty-seventh.

Father: How can that be? If I remember right, there are only twenty-six in
your class.

Son: Oh! No, we have a new boy now.

school-list მოსწავლეების სია

***

Teacher: How many fingers have you?

Bobbie: Ten.

Teacher: Well, if four were missing, what would you have then?

Family Ages

A man and his wife had three children: John, Ben and Mary, and the
difference between their parents' ages was the same as between John and Ben
and between Ben and Mary. The ages of John and Ben multiplied together
equalled the age of the father, and the ages of Ben and Mary multiplied
together equalled the age of the mother. The ages of the whole family
equalled ninety years. What was the age of each member of the family?

Bobbie: No music lessons.

Three Curious Problems

245
 1. Farmer Smith is carrying one bag of potatoes. Farmer Jones is carrying
five bags. All bags are the same size, but Smith's bag is fifty times heavier
than the bags which Jones is carrying. Why?

2. Once Jill asked her grandfather, “When were you born?” The
grandfather answered, “If you write the year when I was born on a piece of
paper, then turn the page upside-down, the year will remain the same”.

to turn upside-down გადაბრუნება

3. If a wheel has 18 spaces between the spokes, how many spokes has it?

wheel ბორბალი

space მანძილი, სივრცე

The Bag of Nuts (A problem)

Harry's father came into the room and put five paper bags on the table.
When Harry asked him what the bags contained, his father answered:

“I have put a hundred nuts in these five bags. In the first and second there
are altogether fifty-two nuts, in the second and third there are forty-three; in
the third and fourth there are thirty-four; in the fourth and fifth there are
thirty”.

How many nuts are there in each bag?

paper bag პაკეტი

nut თხილი

An Age Problem

A man has lived one-fourth of his life as a boy; one-fifth as a young man;
and thirteen years as an old man. How old is the man?

246
 Find the Numbers (A problem)

Can you find two numbers composed only of ones which give the same
result when you add them and when you multiply them? Of course 1 and 11
are very near, but these are not the numbers which you must find, because if
you add them, you will have 12, and if you multiply them, you will have only
11.

composed only of ones შემდგარი მხოლოდ ერთიანებისაგან

The Three Boys (A problem)

“Bill and I,” said John, “can do this work in ten days, but give me Alec
instead of Bill, and we can do it in nine days.”

“I can do better than that,” said Alec. “Give me Bill, and we can do this work
in eight days”.

In how many days will each boy do this work alone?

Six Apples in a Bag (A problem)

A man had six apples in a bag, and he gave one to each of six boys. After he
did it, one apple remained in the bag. How was this?

Hundreds and Hundreds

1. Arrange the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 so that they will total 100
exactly.

2. Arrange 4 eights so that they will total 1 exactly.

3. Arrange 4 fives in one line to make 100.

Strange Figures (A problem)

The father asked his three sons to write five odd figures so that after addition
they will equal fourteen. Only one of them could do it. Can you?

odd კენტი

Here Are the Riddles

247
 1. Can you distribute ten pieces of sugar in three cups so that every cup shall
contain an odd number of

pieces?

2. In a box there are six oranges. It is required to divide these among six boys
in such a way as to leave one orange in the box. How can this be done without
cutting the oranges?

3. Two ducks before a duck; two ducks behind a duck and a duck in the
middle, how many ducks are there?

4. Can you take 1 from 19 and get 20?

5. Which is correct to say, 6 and 7 are 14, or 6 and 7

A Fish Question
Ten Fish I caught without an eye.
And nine without a tail:
Six had no head, and half of eight
I weigh upon a scale.
Now who can tell me, as I ask it,
How many fish were in my basket?

ANSWERS
Family Ages. The father and the mother were both of the same age, thirty-six
years, and the three children were triplets (тройней) of six years of age.

Three Curious Problems.

1. Farmer Jones is carrying empty bags.

2. Jill's grandfather was born in 1881.

3. 18 spokes.

The Bag of Nuts. The five bags contained 27, 25, 18, 16, 14 nuts. You can
find how many nuts are in each bag if you subtract the two pairs together from
100. So, 100 - (52 + 30) = 18, the third bag.

An Age Problem. The man is sixty years old.

Find the Numbers. The two numbers are 11 and 1.1.

The Three Boys.

248
 34
Alec can do the work in 14 days;
49

23
Bill - in 17 days;
41

7
John - in 23 days.
31

Six Apples in a Bag. The sixth boy received his apple in the bag.

Hundreds and Hundreds.

1) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + (8 × 9) = 100.

8 8
2) × = 1
8 8

3) (5 + 5)·(5 + 5)=100.

Strange Figures. Write, the following four numbers composed of five odd
figures 11, 1, 1, 1. After addition you will have 14.

Here Are the Riddles

1. Place 3 pieces in one cup and 7 in another, and then place one of these in
the third cup.

2. Give one of the boys the box with an orange in it.

3. 3 ducks.

4. XIX. Take 1 away and have XX.

5. Neither, but G and 7 are 13 and 6 and 7 is 13 are both correct.

249
250
251
252
253
254
 Basic math symbols
Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

5 = 2+3
= equals sign equality
5 is equal to 2+3

5≠4
≠ not equal sign inequality
5 is not equal to 4

sin(0.01) ≈ 0.01,
approximately
≈ approximation x ≈ y means x is
equal
approximately equal to y

5>4
> strict inequality greater than
5 is greater than 4

4<5
< strict inequality less than
4 is less than 5

5 ≥ 4,
≥ inequality greater than or equal to x ≥ y means x is greater
than or equal to y

4 ≤ 5,
≤ inequality less than or equal to x ≤ y means x is less than
or equal to y
calculate expression
() parentheses 2 × (3+5) = 16
inside first

calculate expression
[] brackets [(1+2)×(1+5)] = 18
inside first

+ plus sign addition 1+1=2

− minus sign subtraction 2−1=1

both plus and minus

± plus - minus 3 ± 5 = 8 and -2
operations

both minus and plus

± minus - plus
operations
3 ∓ 5 = -2 and 8

* asterisk multiplication 2*3=6

× times sign multiplication 2×3=6

⋅ multiplication dot multiplication 2⋅3=6

division sign /
÷ division 6÷2=3
obelus

/ division slash division 6/2=3

255
Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

— horizontal line division / fraction

mod modulo remainder calculation 7 mod 2 = 1

decimal point, decimal
. period 2.56 = 2+56/100
separator

ab power exponent 23 = 8

a^b caret exponent 2 ^ 3= 8

√a square root √a ⋅ √a = a √9 = ±3

3
√a cube root 3 √a ⋅ 3√a ⋅ 3√a = a 3 √8 = 2

4
√a fourth root 4 √a ⋅ 4√a ⋅ √a ⋅ √a = a
4 4 4 √16 = ±2

n√a n-th root

(radical)
for n=3, n√8 = 2

% percent 1% = 1/100 10% × 30 = 3

‰ per-mille 1‰ = 1/1000 = 0.1% 10‰ × 30 = 0.3

ppm per-million 1ppm = 1/1000000 10ppm × 30 = 0.0003

ppb per-billion 1ppb = 1/1000000000 10ppb × 30 = 3×10-7

ppt per-trillion 1ppt = 10-12 10ppt × 30 = 3×10-10

Geometry symbols
Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

∠ angle formed by two rays ∠ABC = 30°

measured
angle ABC = 30°

spherical angle AOB = 30°

∟ right angle = 90° α = 90°

° degree 1 turn = 360° α = 60°

deg degree 1 turn = 360deg α = 60deg

′ prime arcminute, 1° = 60′ α = 60°59′

256
Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

″ double prime arcsecond, 1′ = 60″ α = 60°59′59″

line infinite line

AB line segment line from point A to point B

ray line that start from point A

arc arc from point A to point B

= 60°

⊥ perpendicular perpendicular lines (90° angle) AC ⊥ BC

∥ parallel parallel lines AB ∥ CD

∆ABC≅
≅ congruent to equivalence of geometric shapes and size
∆XYZ

~ similarity same shapes, not same size ∆ABC~ ∆XYZ

ΔABC≅
Δ triangle triangle shape
ΔBCD

|x-
distance distance between points x and y | x-y | = 5
y|
π = 3.141592654... c = π⋅d =
π pi constant
is the ratio between the circumference and 2⋅π⋅r
diameter of a circle

rad radians radians angle unit 360° = 2π rad

c radians radians angle unit 360° = 2π c

gradians / 360° = 400

grad gons grads angle unit
grad

gradians /
g grads angle unit 360° = 400 g
gons

Algebra symbols
Meaning /
Symbol Symbol Name Example
definition

unknown value to
x x variable when 2x = 4, then x = 2
find

≡ equivalence identical to

≜ equal by equal by definition

257
 Meaning /
Symbol Symbol Name Example
definition

definition

equal by
:= equal by definition
definition

approximately weak
~ equal approximation
11 ~ 10

approximately
≈ approximation sin(0.01) ≈ 0.01
equal

∝ proportional to proportional to y ∝ x when y = kx, kconstant

∞ lemniscate infinity symbol

much less
≪ than
much less than 1 ≪ 1000000

much greater
≫ much greater than 1000000 ≫ 1
than

calculate
() parentheses expression inside 2 * (3+5) = 16
first

calculate
[] brackets expression inside [(1+2)*(1+5)] = 18
first

{} braces set

rounds number to
⌊x⌋ floor brackets
lower integer
⌊4.3⌋ = 4

ceiling rounds number to

⌈x⌉ brackets upper integer
⌈4.3⌉ = 5

exclamation
x! factorial 4! = 1*2*3*4 = 24
mark

single vertical
|x| absolute value | -5 | = 5
bar

maps values of x
f (x) function of x f (x) = 3x+5
to f(x)

function (f ∘ g) (x)
(f ∘ g) composition f (x)=3x,g(x)=x-1 ⇒(f ∘ g)(x)=3(x-1)
= f (g(x))

(a,b) =
(a,b) open interval x∈ (2,6)
{x | a < x < b}

258
 Meaning /
Symbol Symbol Name Example
definition

[a,b] =
[a,b] closed interval x ∈ [2,6]
{x | a ≤ x ≤ b}

∆ delta change / difference ∆t = t1 - t0

∆ discriminant Δ = b2 - 4ac

summation - sum
∑ sigma of all values in ∑ xi= x1+x2+...+xn
range of series

∑∑ sigma double summation

product - product
∏ capital pi of all values in ∏ xi=x1∙x2∙...∙xn
range of series

e constant /
e=
e Euler's e = lim (1+1/x)x , x→∞
number 2.718281828...

Euler-
γ=
γ Mascheroni
constant 0.5772156649...

golden ratio
φ golden ratio
constant

π=
3.141592654...
π pi constant c = π⋅d = 2⋅π⋅r
is the ratio between
the circumference
and diameter of a
circle

Linear Algebra Symbols

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

· dot scalar product a·b

× cross vector product a×b
A⊗B tensor product tensor product of A and B A⊗B
inner product

[] brackets matrix of numbers

259
 Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

() parentheses matrix of numbers

|A| determinant determinant of matrix A

det(A) determinant determinant of matrix A

|| x || double vertical bars norm

AT transpose matrix transpose (AT)ij = (A)ji

A† Hermitian matrix matrix conjugate transpose (A†)ij = (A)ji
A* Hermitian matrix matrix conjugate transpose (A*)ij = (A)ji
A -1 inverse matrix A A-1 = I

rank(A) matrix rank rank of matrix A rank(A) = 3

dim(U) dimension dimension of matrix A dim(U) = 3

Probability and statistics symbols

Symbol Meaning /
Symbol Example
Name definition

probability probability of
P(A) function event A
P(A) = 0.5

probability of probability that

P(A ∩ B) events of events A and P(A∩B) = 0.5
intersection B

probability of probability that

P(A ∪ B) events union of events A or B
P(A∪B) = 0.5

probability of
conditional
event A given
P(A | B) probability P(A | B) = 0.3
event B
function
occured

probability
P(a ≤ x ≤ b) = ∫
f (x) density
function (pdf) f (x) dx

cumulative
F(x) distribution F(x) = P(X≤ x)
function (cdf)

mean of
population
μ population μ = 10
mean
values

expected value
expectation
E(X) of random E(X) = 10
value
variable X

260
 Symbol Meaning /
Symbol Example
Name definition

expected value
conditional of random
E(X | Y) expectation variable X given
E(X | Y=2) = 5
Y

variance of
var(X) variance random var(X) = 4
variable X

variance of
σ2 variance population σ2 = 4
values

standard
standard deviation of
std(X) deviation random
std(X) = 2
variable X

standard
standard deviation value
σX deviation of random
σX = 2
variable X

middle value of
median random
variable x

covariance of
random
cov(X,Y) covariance cov(X,Y) = 4
variables X and
Y

correlation of
random
corr(X,Y) correlation corr(X,Y) = 0.6
variables X and
Y

correlation of
random
ρX,Y correlation ρX,Y = 0.6
variables X and
Y

summation -
sum of all
∑ summation
values in range
of series

double double
∑∑ summation summation

value that
occurs most
Mo mode
frequently in
population

MR =
MR mid-range
(xmax+xmin)/2
sample half the
Md median population is

261
 Symbol Meaning /
Symbol Example
Name definition

below this value

25% of
lower / first
Q1 population are
quartile
below this value

50% of
median / population are
Q2 second below this value
quartile = median of
samples

75% of
upper / third
Q3 population are
quartile
below this value

sample average /
x mean arithmetic mean
x = (2+5+9) / 3 = 5.333

population
sample samples
s2 variance variance
s2 = 4
estimator

population
sample samples
s standard standard s=2
deviation deviation
estimator

standard
zx score
zx = (x-x) / sx

distribution of
distribution of
X~ random X ~ N(0,3)
X
variable X

normal gaussian
N(μ,σ2) distribution distribution
X ~ N(0,3)

equal
uniform
U(a,b) probability in X ~ U(0,3)
distribution
range a,b

exponential f (x) = λe-

exp(λ) distribution λx
, x≥0

gamma(c, gamma f (x) = λ c xc-1e-

λ) distribution λx
/ Γ(c), x≥0

f (x) = xk/2-1e-
chi-square x/2
χ 2(k) distribution
/(
k/2
2 Γ(k/2) )

F (k1, k2) F distribution

binomial f (k) = nCk pk(1-

Bin(n,p) distribution p)n-k

262
 Symbol Meaning /
Symbol Example
Name definition

Poisson f (k) = λke-

Poisson(λ) distribution λ
/ k!
geometric
Geom(p) distribution
f (k) = p(1-p) k

hyper-
HG(N,K,n) geometric
distribution

Bernoulli
Bern(p) distribution

Combinatorics Symbols
Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

n! factorial n! = 1⋅2⋅3⋅...⋅n 5! = 1⋅2⋅3⋅4⋅5 = 120

nPk permutation 5 P3 = 5! / (5-3)! = 60

nCk

combination 5C3 = 5!/[3!(5-3)!]=10

Set theory symbols

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

A = {3,7,9,14},
{} set a collection of elements
B = {9,14,28}
objects that belong to set A
A∩B intersection A ∩ B = {9,14}
and set B

objects that belong to set A or A∪B=

A∪B union
set B {3,7,9,14,28}

A is a subset of B. set A is {9,14,28} ⊆

A ⊆ B subset included in set B. {9,14,28}

proper subset / strict A is a subset of B, but A is not {9,14} ⊂

A ⊂ B subset equal to B. {9,14,28}

{9,66} ⊄
A ⊄ B not subset set A is not a subset of set B
{9,14,28}

A is a superset of B. set A {9,14,28} ⊇

A ⊇ B superset includes set B {9,14,28}

A ⊃ B proper superset / strict A is a superset of B, but B is {9,14,28} ⊃

263
Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

superset not equal to A. {9,14}

{9,14,28} ⊅
A ⊅ B not superset set A is not a superset of set B
{9,66}

2A power set all subsets of A

power set all subsets of A

A={3,9,14},
both sets have the same
A=B equality B={3,9,14},
members
A=B
all the objects that do not
Ac complement
belong to set A

A = {3,9,14},
objects that belong to A and
A\B relative complement B = {1,2,3},
not to B
A-B = {9,14}

A = {3,9,14},
objects that belong to A and
A-B relative complement B = {1,2,3},
not to B
A-B = {9,14}

A = {3,9,14},
objects that belong to A or B B = {1,2,3},
A∆B symmetric difference
but not to their intersection A∆B=
{1,2,9,14}

A = {3,9,14},
objects that belong to A or B B = {1,2,3},
A ⊖ B symmetric difference but not to their intersection A⊖B=
{1,2,9,14}
A={3,9,14}, 3 ∈
a∈A element of set membership
A

A={3,9,14}, 1 ∉
x∉A not element of no set membership
A

(a,b) ordered pair collection of 2 elements

set of all ordered pairs from A

A×B cartesian product
and B

the number of elements of set A={3,9,14},

|A| cardinality
A |A|=3

the number of elements of set A={3,9,14},

#A cardinality
A #A=3
infinite cardinality of natural
aleph-null
numbers set

264
Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

cardinality of countable ordinal

aleph-one
numbers set

Ø empty set Ø={} C = {Ø}

universal set set of all possible values

natural numbers /
0 whole numbers set 0 = {0,1,2,3,4,...} 0∈ 0
(with zero)

natural numbers /
1 whole numbers set 1 = {1,2,3,4,5,...} 6∈ 1
(without zero)

integer numbers set = {...-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...} -6 ∈

rational numbers set = {x | x=a/b, a,b∈ } 2/6 ∈

real numbers set = {x | -∞ < x <∞} 6.343434∈

complex numbers set

= {z | z=a+bi, -
6+2i ∈
∞<a<∞, -∞<b<∞}

Logic symbols
Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

⋅ and and x⋅y

^ caret / circumflex and x^y

& ampersand and x&y

+ plus or x+y

∨ reversed caret or x∨y

| vertical line or x|y

x' single quote not - negation x'

x bar not - negation x

¬ not not - negation ¬x

! exclamation mark not - negation !x

⊕ circled plus / oplus exclusive or - xor x⊕y

~ tilde negation ~x

265
Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

⇒ implies

⇔ equivalent if and only if (iff)

↔ equivalent if and only if (iff)

∀ for all

∃ there exists

∄ there does not exists

∴ therefore

∵ because / since

Calculus & analysis symbols

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

limit limit value of a function

represents a very small

ε epsilon ε→0
number, near zero

e constant / e = lim
e Euler's number
e = 2.718281828...
(1+1/x)x, x→∞
derivative - Lagrange's
y' derivative (3x3)' = 9x2
notation

y '' second derivative derivative of derivative (3x3)'' = 18x

y(n) nth derivative n times derivation (3x3)(3) = 18

derivative - Leibniz's
derivative d(3x3)/dx = 9x2
notation

second derivative derivative of derivative d2(3x3)/dx2 = 18x

nth derivative n times derivation

derivative by time -
time derivative
Newton's notation

time second
derivative of derivative
derivative

Dx y derivative derivative - Euler's notation

266
 Symbol Symbol Name Meaning / definition Example

Dx2y second derivative derivative of derivative

partial derivative ∂(x2+y2)/∂x = 2x

∫ integral opposite to derivation ∫ f(x)dx

integration of function of 2
∫∫ double integral ∫∫ f(x,y)dxdy
variables

integration of function of 3
∫∫∫ triple integral ∫∫∫ f(x,y,z)dxdydz
variables

closed contour /
∮ line integral

closed surface
∯ integral

closed volume
∰ integral

[a,b] closed interval [a,b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}

(a,b) open interval (a,b) = {x | a < x < b}

i imaginary unit i ≡ √-1 z = 3 + 2i

complex
z* conjugate
z = a+bi → z*=a-bi z* = 3 - 2i

complex
z conjugate
z = a+bi → z = a-bi z = 3 - 2i

gradient / divergence
∇ nabla / del ∇f (x,y,z)
operator

vector

unit vector

x*y convolution y(t) = x(t) * h(t)

Laplace
transform F(s) = {f (t)}

Fourier transform X(ω) = {f (t)}

δ delta function

∞ lemniscate infinity symbol

Numeral symbols
Name European Roman Hindu Arabic Hebrew

267
 Name European Roman Hindu Arabic Hebrew

zero 0 ٠

one 1 I ١ ‫א‬

two 2 II ٢ ‫ב‬

three 3 III ٣ ‫ג‬

four 4 IV ٤ ‫ד‬

five 5 V ٥ ‫ה‬

six 6 VI ٦ ‫ו‬

seven 7 VII ٧ ‫ז‬

eight 8 VIII ٨ ‫ח‬

nine 9 IX ٩ ‫ט‬

ten 10 X ١٠ ‫י‬

eleven 11 XI ١١ ‫יא‬

twelve 12 XII ١٢ ‫יב‬

thirteen 13 XIII ١٣ ‫יג‬

fourteen 14 XIV ١٤ ‫יד‬

fifteen 15 XV ١٥ ‫טו‬

sixteen 16 XVI ١٦ ‫טז‬

seventeen 17 XVII ١٧ ‫יז‬

eighteen 18 XVIII ١٨ ‫יח‬

nineteen 19 XIX ١٩ ‫יט‬

twenty 20 XX ٢٠ ‫כ‬

thirty 30 XXX ٣٠ ‫ל‬

forty 40 XL ٤٠ ‫מ‬

fifty 50 L ٥٠ ‫נ‬

sixty 60 LX ٦٠ ‫ס‬

seventy 70 LXX ٧٠ ‫ע‬

eighty 80 LXXX ٨٠ ‫פ‬

ninety 90 XC ٩٠ ‫צ‬

one hundred 100 C ١٠٠ ‫ק‬

268
Greek alphabet letters
Upper Case Lower Case Greek Letter English Letter Name
Letter Letter Name Equivalent Pronounce

Α α Alpha a al-fa

Β β Beta b be-ta

Γ γ Gamma g ga-ma

Δ δ Delta d del-ta

Ε ε Epsilon e ep-si-lon

Ζ ζ Zeta z ze-ta

Η η Eta h eh-ta

Θ θ Theta th te-ta

Ι ι Iota i io-ta

Κ κ Kappa k ka-pa

Λ λ Lambda l lam-da

Μ μ Mu m m-yoo

Ν ν Nu n noo

Ξ ξ Xi x x-ee

Ο ο Omicron o o-mee-c-ron

Π π Pi p pa-yee

Ρ ρ Rho r row

Σ σ Sigma s sig-ma

Τ τ Tau t ta-oo

Υ υ Upsilon u oo-psi-lon

Φ φ Phi ph f-ee

Χ χ Chi ch kh-ee

269
 Ψ ψ Psi ps p-see

Ω ω Omega o o-me-ga

Roman numerals
Number Roman numeral

0 not defined

1 I

2 II

3 III

4 IV

5 V

6 VI

7 VII

8 VIII

9 IX

10 X

11 XI

12 XII

13 XIII

14 XIV

15 XV

16 XVI

17 XVII

18 XVIII

19 XIX

20 XX

30 XXX

40 XL

50 L

60 LX

270
 Number Roman numeral

70 LXX

80 LXXX

90 XC

100 C

200 CC

300 CCC

400 CD

500 D

600 DC

700 DCC

800 DCCC

900 CM

1000 M

5000 V

10000 X

50000 L

100000 C

500000 D

1000000 M

SOME MATHEMATICAL TERMS

1. To clear up the situation.

სიტუაციის გასარკვევად.

2. demand

We insist
that 𝒒 should be an integer.
suggest
propose
271
 მოვითხოვთ

დაჟინებით მოვითხოვთ
ჩვენ რომ 𝒒 უნდა იყოს მთელი რიცხვი.
ვუშვებთ

გთავაზობთ

3. Our aim is to express this real relationship (to restrict, to show, to regard, to
prove, to extend).

ჩვენი მიზანია გამოვხატოთ ეს ურთიერთობა (შემოვსაზღვროთ, ვუჩვენოთ,

მივიჩნიოთ, დავამტკიცოთ, გავავრცოთ).

4. This set is neither finite nor bounded.

ეს სიმრავლე არც სასრულია, არც საზღვრული.

5. If the domain is the set of integers, the ordinate set can include two
numbers -1 and +1.

თუ დომენი (სფერო, არე) არის მთელი რიცხვების სიმრავლე, ორდინატის

სიმრავლე შეიძლება შეიცავდეს ორ რიცხვს -1 და +1

6. To prove the theorem (prove that the following properties are true: This
theorem has just been proved).

თეორემის დამტკიცება (დაამტკიცე, რომ მოცემული სიდიდეები სწორია; ეს

თეორემა ეს-ესაა დამტკიცდა).

7. To solve the problem.

პრობლემის გადაჭრა (ამოხსნა, გადაწყვეტა).

8. We are dealing with different objects.

ჩვენ საქმე გვაქვს განსხვავებულ საგნებთან.

9. We begin the analysis by defining this number (On (after) defining this
number we begin the analysis).

272
 ჩვენ ვიწყებთ ანალიზს იმ რიცხვების განსაზღვრით (ამ რიცხვისგან
საზღვრით ჩვენ ვიწყებთ ანალიზს).

10. Let us consider this problem (Let 𝑿, 𝒀 be two set).

მოდით განვიხილოთ (მხედველობაში მივიღოთ, ჩავთვალოთ) ეს პრობლემა.

11. We noted the special relations in this product (It should be noted - უნდა
აღინიშნოს).

ჩვენ აღვნიშნეთ (მივუთითეთ) განსაკუთრებული კავშირი ამ ნამრავლში

12. We must put this theory on an axiomatic basis (to put in - ჩართვა).

ამ თეორიას უნდა მივცეთ (დავუდოთ) აქსიომეტრიული საფუძველი.

13. This number can be thought of as a complex one.

ეს რიცხვი შეიძლება მოვიაზროთ როგორც კომპლექსური.

14. This fact can be given another interpretation.

ამ ფაქტს შეიძლება მიეცეს სხვა ინტეპრეტაცია.

15. We have shown that 𝑿 belongs to 𝜷(𝑿).

ჩვენ ვუჩვენეთ, რომ 𝑿 მიეკუთვნება 𝜷(𝑿)-ს

16. In this chapter there is an interesting statement.

ამ თავში არის საინტერესო მტკიცებულება (ფორმულირება).

17. Some symbols must be used to denote these objects.

ამ საგნების აღსანიშნავად რამოდენიმე სიმბოლო უნდა იყოს გამოყენებული.

18. I used to discuss (explain, repeat, solve, formulate).

მე განვიხილავდი (ვხსნიდი, ვიმეორებდი, ვწყვეტდი, ვაყალიბებდი).

19. It would be wrong, right.

273
 ეს არასწორი (სწორი) იქნება.

20. It might be regarded as a function of the subdivision.

ეს შეიძლება მიჩნეულ იქნას.

21. This definition is developed quite independently.

ეს განსაზღვრება გაუმჯობესდა (განვითარდა) სრულიად დამოუკიდებლად.

22. These definitions are convenient.

ეს განსაზღრებები არის მოხერხებული (შესაფერისი).

23. There is a subset belonging to this set.

მოცემული გვაქვს ქვესიმრავლე, რომელიც მიეკუთვნება ამ სიმრავლეს.

24. We consider these statements as axioms.

ჩვენ განვიხილავთ (მხედველობაში ვღებულობთ, ვთვლით, მივიჩნევთ) ამ

მტკიცებულებას როგორც აქსიომას.

25. We relate this point of view to this concept.

ჩვენ მივაკუთვნებთ ამ მოსაზრებას კონცეფციას.

26. We denote objects by symbols.

ჩვენ ავღნიშნავთ ამ საგნებს სიმბოლოებით.

27. We find this theory unknown to us.

ჩვენ მივიჩნევთ ამ თეორიას უცნობად.

28. We get the result with the help of this axiom.

ჩვენ ვღებულობთ ამ შედეგს ამ აქსიომის დახმარებით.

29. We call such set an empty set.

ჩვენ ვუწოდებთ ამ სიმრავლეს ცარიელ სიმრავლეს.

274
30. A set which contains no element is called an empty set.

სიმრავლე, რომელიც არც ერთ ელემენტს არ შეიცავს, ეწოდება ცარიელი

სიმრავლე.

31. The relation which is written as 𝒙 = 𝒚 means that 𝑿 and 𝒀 are the same.

ტოლობა, რომელიც იწერება როგორც 𝒙 = 𝒚 ნიშნავს რომ 𝑿 და 𝒀ერთი და

იგივეა.

32. This theory which is put on an axiomatic basis will be discussed next time.

ეს თეორია, რომელიც ეფუძნება (ემყარება) აქსიომატურ საფუძველს,

შეიძლება განვიხილოთ შემდგომში.

33. We needn’t put this theory on an axiomatic basis.

ჩვენ არ გვესაჭიროება ამ თეორიის განხილვა აქსიომატურ საფუძველზე.

34. We used to discuss all interesting problems at the lesson (to explain, to
repeat, to solve, to formulate).

ჩვენ განვიხილავთ (ვხსნით, ვიმეორებთ, ვწყვეტთ, ვაყალიბებთ) ყველა

საინტერესო პრობლემას გაკვეთილზე.

35. He was the first to formulate this theorem.

მან პირველმა განსაზღვრა (ჩამოაყალიბა) ეს თეორემა.

36. We propose that the value should be positive.

ჩვენ ვვარაუდობთ, რომ ეს სიდიდე იქნება დადებითი.

37. This situation makes it possible to establish a one-to-one correspondence

between the elements of the sets. დადგენა, დამტკიცება, ურთიერთცალსახა
ასახვა

ეს სიტუაცია ხდის შესაძლებელს, რომ დავამტკიცოთ ურთიერთცალსახა

275
 თანადობა სიმრავლის ელემენტებს შორის.

38. This distinction is clear.

ეს სხვაობა ნათელია.

39. Since 𝟏 is odd, we have 𝒇(𝟏) = 𝟏 + 𝟏 = 𝟐, and since 𝟐 is even 𝒇(𝟐) =

𝟐−𝟏= 𝟏

ვინაიდან 𝟏 არის კენტი, ჩვენ გვაქვს 𝒇(𝟏) = 𝟏 + 𝟏 = 𝟐,და

ვინაიდან 𝟐 არის ლუწი 𝒇(𝟐) = 𝟐 − 𝟏 = 𝟏

276
 Mathematical Terms and Definitions

1. rotation about an axis - ღერძის გარშემო ბრუნვა.

the theorem about the mean value - თეორემა საშუალო მნიშვნელობის

შესახებ.

2. absolute convergence - აბსოლუტური კრებადობა

absolute number - აბსოლუტური რიცხვი

absolute value - აბსოლუტური სიდიდე

3. abstract number - აბსტრაქტული რიცხვი

4. random access - ნებისმიერი ამორჩევა

5. on account of continuity - უწყვეტობის გამო

to take into account - მხედველობაში მიღება

6. additive set - ადიციური სიმრავლე

7. relative address - ფარდობითი მისამართი

zero address - ნულოვანი მისამართი

8. admissible estimate - დასაშვები შეფასება

9. fairly good agreement - სრული შესაბამისობა (დამთხვევა)

10. Boolean algebra - ბულის ალგებრა

linear algebra - წრფივი ალგებრა

algebra of sets - სიმრავლეთა ალგებრა

11. algebraic curve - ალგებრული მრუდი

277
 algebraic function - ალგებრული ფუნქცია

algebraic number - ალგებრული რიცხვი

12. approximate solution - მიახლოებითი ამოხსნა

13. we will attack the problem - ჩვენ ვიწყებთ ამოცანის ამოხსნას

14. axioms of congruence - კონგრუენტულობის აქსიომები

system of axioms - აქსიომათა სისტემა

15. coordinate axis - კოორდინატთა ღერძი

imaginary axis - წარმოსახვითი ღერძი

16. greatest lower bound - ზუსტი ქვედა საზღვარი

least upper bound - ზუსტი ზედა საზღვარი

17. bounded sequence - შემოსაზღვრული მიმდევრობა

18. denote by 𝒙 - აღვნიშნოთ 𝒙-ით

19. numerical calculation - რიცხვითი გამოთვლა

20. differential calculus - დიფერენციალური აღრიცხვა

integral calculus - ინტეგრალური აღრიცხვა

21. complete carry - სრული გადატანა

partial carry - ნაწილობრივი გადატანა

22. central limit theorem - ცენტრალური ზღვრითი თეორემა

23. under certain conditions - გარკვეულ პირობებში

278
24. change of variables - ცვლადთა გარდაქმნა

25. circular function - წრიული ტრიგონომეტრიული ფუნქცია

26. circularly symmetric function - წრიულად სიმეტრიული ფუნქცია

27. circumscribed polygon - შემოხაზული მრავალკუთხედი

28. under the circumstances - ამ პირობებში, ამ ვითარებაში

29. closed set - ჩაკეტილი სიმრავლე

30. cluster set - წარმოებული სიმრავლე

31. variable coefficient - ცვლადი კოეფიციენტი

32. it comes out that - მივიღებთ, რომ; გამოდის, რომ

33. common divisor - საერთო გამყოფი

common fraction - მარტივი წილადი

34. commutative algebra - კომუტატიური ალგებრა

commutative law - კომუტატიურობის კანონი

35. complex variable - კომპლექსური ცვლადი

algebraic complex - ალგებრული კომპლექსი

36. composite function - შედგენილი ფუნქცია

composite number - შედგენილი რიცხვი

37. to draw a conclusion, to arrive at a conclusion - დასკვნის გამოტანა

38. conditional probability - პირობითი ალბათობა

39. degree of confidence - ნდობის ხარისხი

40. linear congruence - წრფივი თავსებადობა

279
41. in this connection - ამასთან დაკავშირებით

42. under consideration - განსახილველი, შესასწავლი

43. constant coefficients - მუდმივი კოეფიციენტები

numerical constant - რიცხვითი კონსტანტა

44. point of contact - შეხების წერტილი

45. information content - ინფორმაციის მოცულობა

46. continued fraction - უწყვეტი წილადი

47. absolute continuity - აბსოლუტური უწყვეტობა

one-sided continuity - ცალმხრივი უწყვეტობა

uniform continuity - თანაბარი უწყვეტობა

equation of continuity - უწყვეტობის განტოლება

48. coordinate axis - კოორდინატთა ღერძი

coordinate vector - კოორდინატული ვექტორი

49. linear correspondence - წრფივი თანადობა (შესაბამისობა)

one-to-one correspondence - ურთიერთცალსახა თანადობა

50. curved bar - მრუდე ძელი

51. the paper deals with - სტატიაში განიხილება

52. decimal fraction - ათწილადი

decimal notation - თვლის ათობითი სისტემა

53. decomposition of a fraction - წილადის დაშლა

280
54. decreasing function - კლებადი, ანუ არაზრდადი ფუნქცია

55. defined value - განსაზღვრული მნიშვნელობა

56. definite integral - განსაზღვრული ინტეგრალი

57. degree of accuracy - სიზუსტის ხარისხი

degree of a differential equation- დიფერენციალური განტოლების რიგი

58. common denominator - საერთო მნიშვნელი

59. dense set - მკვრივი სიმრავლე

60. denumerable set - თვლადი სიმრავლე

61. normal derivative - ნორმალური წარმოებული

total derivative - სრული წარმოებული

derivative set - წარმოებული სიმრავლე

62. descriptive geometry - მხაზველობითი გეომეტრია

63. error detection - შეცდომების აღმოჩენა

64. diametrical plane - დიამეტრული სიბრტყე

65. diametrically opposite - დიამეტრულად საწინააღმდეგო

66. finite difference - სასრული სხვაობა

difference equation - სხვაობიანი განტოლება

difference of vectors - ვექტორთა სხვაობა

67. differential calculus - დიფერენციალური აღრიცხვა

differential equation - დიფერენციალური განტოლება

differential geometry - დიფერენციალური გეომეტრია

281
68. numerical differentiation - რიცხვითი გაწარმოება

partial differentiation - ნაწილობრივი გაწარმოება

total differentiation - სრული გაწარმოება

69. direct factor - პირდაპირი მამრავლი

direct proof - უშუალო დამტკიცება

70. contact discontinuity - სუსტი წყვეტა

finite discontinuity - სასრული წყვეტა

infinite discontinuity - უსასრულო წყვეტა

71. discrete variable - დისკრეტული ცვლადი

72. disjoint sets - არაგადამკვეთი სიმრავლეები

73. limiting distribution - ზღვრული განაწილება

distribution function - განაწილების ფუნქცია

74. greatest common divisor - უდიდესი საერთო გამყოფი

75. to do a sum (a problem) - არითმეტიკული ამოცანის ამოხსნა

76. domain of definition - განსაზღვრის არე

77. double carry - ორმაგი გადატანა

double integral - ორმაგი ინტეგრალი

double sum - ორმაგი ჯამი

78. without doubt - ეჭვგარეშე, უეჭველად

79. to lay down - ფორმულირება, ჩამოყალიბება

80. to draw a conclusion - დასკვნის გამოტანა

282
81. duality theorem - ორადობის თეორემა

82. the theorem is due to - თეორემა ეკუთვნის..., თეორემის ავტორია...

83. duplication formula - გაორკეცების ფორმულა

84. Duality number system - ორობითი რიცხვითი სისტემა

85. in effect - სინამდვილეში, არსებითად

to put into effect - განხორციელება

86. efficiency factor - მარგი ქმედების კოეფიციენტი

87. theory of elasticity - დრეკადობის თეორია

88. elimination rule - გამორიცხვის წესი

elimination theory - გამორიცხვის თეორია

89. it should be emphasized - განსაკუთრებით უნდა აღინიშნოს

90. binomial equation - ორწევრა განტოლება

differential equation - დიფერენციალური განტოლება

integral equation - ინტეგრალური განტოლება

91. equivalence relation - ეკვივალენტურობის ფარდობა

92. absolute error - აბსოლუტური ცდომილება

relative error - ფარდობითი ცდომილება

error of estimation - შეფასების ცდომილება

error of solution - ამოცანის ცდომილება

93. estimate for the number of zeros - ნულების რიცხვის შეფასება

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 estimation of error - ცდომილების შეფასება

94. even number - ლუწი რიცხვი

95. it is evident - ცხადია

96. exact sequence - ზუსტი მიმდევრობა

exact solution -ზუსტი ამოხსნა

97. existence proof - არსებობის დამტკიცება

98. expansion in a series - მწკრივად გაშლა

expansion in powers - ხარისხებად დაშლა

99. explicit function -ცხადი ფუნქცია

100. algebraic expression - ალგებრული გამოსახულება

numerical expression - რიცხვითი გამოსახულება

101. extreme value of a function - ფუნქციის ექსტრემალური მნიშვნელობა

102. the problem faces - ჩვენ ვდგავართ შემდეგი ამოცანის წინაშე

103. as a matter of fact, in point of fact - სინამდვილეში, ფაქტიურად, მართლაც

104. feedback factor - უკუკავშირის კოეფიციენტი

prime factor - მარტივი მამრავლი

factor of an integer - მთელი რიცხვის გამყოფი

105. method of false position - ცრუ დებულების მეთოდი

106. so far as - ვინაიდან, რადგანაც

107. functional field - ფუნქციონალური ველი

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 vector field - ვექტორული ველი

field function - ველის ფუნქცია

108. final element - ბოლო ელემენტი

final result - საბოლოო შედეგი

109. finite difference - სასრული სხვაობა

finite number - სასრული რიცხვი

finite set - სასრული სიმრავლე

finite value - სასრული მნიშვნელობა

110. first derivative - პირველი წარმოებული

in the first place - პირველ რიგში

111. it follows that - მივიღებთ, რომ..., გამოდის, რომ...

112. for simplicity - სიმარტივისთვის

113. bilinear form - ორმწკრივი ფორმა

negative definite form - უარყოფითად განსაზღვრული ფორმა

114. and so forth - და ასე შემდეგ

115. common fraction, simple~, vulga~ - მარტივი წილადი

complex fraction - რთული წილადი

decimal fraction - ათწილადი

improper fraction - არაწესიერი წილადი

proper fraction - წესიერი წილადი

fraction line - წილადის ხაზი

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 fractional derivative - წილადური წარმოებული

116. within the framework of this theory - ამ თეორიის ფარგლებში

117. complex function - კომპლექსური ფუნქცია

continuous function - უწყვეტი ფუნქცია

finite function - სასრული ფუნქცია

random function - შემთხვევითი ფუნქცია

real function - ნამდვილი ფუნქცია

function of a complex variable - კომპლექსური ცვლადის ფუნქცია;

function theory - ფუნქციათა თეორია

118. functional analysis - ფუნქციონალური ანალიზი

functional equation - ფუნქციონალური განტოლება

linear functional - წრფივი ფუნქციონალი

119. general term - ზოგადი წევრი

geometric average - საშუალო გეომეტრიული

geometrical progression - გეომეტრიული პროგრესია

120. analytic geometry - ანალიზური გეომეტრია

hyperbolic geometry - ჰიპერბოლური გეომეტრია

non-euclidean geometry - არაევკლიდური გეომეტრია

121. given quantity - მოცემული სიდიდე

122. it goes without saying - თავისთავად ცხადია, რა თქმა უნდა

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123. graph of an equation - განტოლების გრაფიკი

theory of graphs - გრაფთა თეორია

124. graphical example - თვალსაჩინო (გრაფიკული) მაგალითი

125. centre of gravity - სიმძიმის ცენტრი

126. on the ground of - რაიმეს საფუძველზე, მიზეზით

127. on the one hand - ერთი მხრივ

on the other hand - მეორე მხრივ

128. we have to consider the following lemma (theorem) - უნდა განვიხილოთ

შემდეგი ლემა (თეორემა)

129. the theorem holds - თეორემა სამართლიანია

130. homogeneous ordinates - ერთგვაროვანი კოორდინატები

131. admissible hypothesis - დასაშვები ჰიპოთეზა

132. identically equal - იგივურად ტოლი

133. Law of identify - იგივეობის კანონი

134. if ever - თუკი საერთოდ, თუკი ოდესმე; if so… - თუ ეს ასეა...

135. imaginary number - წარმოსახვითი რიცხვი

imaginary root - წარმოსახვითი ფესვი

136. incompatible equations - არათავსებადი განტოლებები

137. inconsistent equations - უთავსებადი განტოლებები

287
 inconsistent axioms - არათავსებადი აქსიომები

138. increasing function - ზრდადი ფუნქცია

139. indefinite equation - განუსაზღვრელი განტოლება

indefinite integral - განუსაზღვრელი ინტეგრალი

140. indirect proof - არაპირდაპირი მტკიცება

141. conditional inequality - პირობითი უტოლობა

inequality sign - უტოლობის ნიშანი

142. infinite product - უსასრულო ნამდვილი

axiom of infinity - უსასრულობის აქსიომა

143. inherent error - აუცილებელი ცდომილება

144. initial condition - საწყისი პირობა

initial point - საწყისი წერტილი

initial value - საწყისი მნიშვნელობა

145. inscribed circle of a triangle - სამკუთხედში ჩახაზული წრეწირი

146. instead of this - ამის ნაცვლად

147. complex integral - კომპლექსური ინტეგრალი

definite integral - განსაზღვრული ინტეგრალი

singular integral equation - სინგულარული ინტეგრალური განტოლება

148. interior angle - შიგა კუთხე

interior point - შიგა წერტილი

149. intersection point - გადაკვეთის წერტილი

288
 intersection of sets - სიმრავლეთა გადაკვეთა

150. closed interval - ჩაკეტილი ინტერვალი

finite interval - სასრული ინტერვალი

151. to devide into equal parts - თანაბარ ნაწილებად დაყოფა

to expand the function into a series - ფუნქციის მწკვრივად გაშლა

a mapping of 𝒙 into 𝒚 -𝒙-ის𝒚-შიგად ასახვა

152. invariant estimate - ინვარიანტული შეფასება

invariant theory - ინვარიანტთა თეორია

153. inverse function - შებრუნებული ფუნქცია

154. irregular singular point - ირეგულარული განსაკუთრებული წერტილი

155. it comes out - მივიღებთ

it is obvious - აშკარაა, ცხადია

156. double iteration - ორმაგი იტერაცია

linear iteration - წრფივი იტერაცია

157. by itself, in itself - თავისთავად

158. jump function - ნახტომის ფუნქცია, ნახტომისებრი ფუნქცია

159. just the same - ერთი და იგივე, ზუსტად ისეთივე, როგორც...

160. to keep in mind - გათვალისწინება, მხედველობაში მიღება, დახსომება

161. error of the first kind - პირველი გვარის შეცდომა

289
162. integral equation of the first kind - პირველი გვარის ინტეგრალური
განტოლება

163. kinematics of a rigid body - მყარის ხეულის კინემატიკა

164. theory of knots - კვანძთა თეორია

165. to our knowledge - რამდენადაც ჩვენ ვიცით, რამდენადაც ჩვენთვის

ცნობილია

166. known quantity - ცნობილი სიდიდე

167. for lack of - რაიმეს უქონლობის, ნაკლებობის გამო

168. algorithmic language - ალგორითმული ენა

programming language - დაპროგრამების ენა

169. in the latter case - ამ უკანასკნელის შემთხვევაში

170. associative law - ასოციაციურობის კანონი

commutative law - კომუტატიურობის კანონი

law of identity - იგივეობის კანონი

law of large numbers - დიდ რიცხვთა კანონი

171. this will lead to - ამას მივყავართ..., ეს გვაძლევს...

172. least common multiple - უმცირესი საერთო ჯერადი

not in the least - სრულიადაც არა, არც ერთ შემთხვევაში

173. none the less - მიუხედავად იმისა, მაინც

174. les 𝒙 be equal to 𝒙𝟎 - ვთქვათ, 𝒙 ტოლია 𝒙𝟎 -ის

290
 let us consider - განვიხილოთ

175. letter for letter - სიტყვასიტყვით, სიტყვასიტყვითი

176. the point lies in the circle - წერტილი მდებარეობს წრეში

177. to bring to light - ახსნა; გაშუქება

178. and the like - და სხვა, და მისთანანი

179. limit inferior - ქვედა ზღვარი

superior limit - ზედა ზღვარი

limit cycle - ზღვრული ციკლი

180. parallel lines - პარალელური წირები

181. linear equation - წრფივი განტოლება

linear dependence - წრფივი დამოკიდებულება

182. literal notation - ასოითი აღნიშვნა, სიტყვა სიტყვითი, პირდაპირი

183. logarithm integral - ლოგარითმული ინტეგრალი

table of logarithms - ლოგარითმების ცხრილი

logarithmic derivative - ლოგარითმული წარმოებული

logarithmic equation - ლოგარითმული განტოლება

184. loss function - დაკარგვის ფუნქცია, ზარალის ფუნქცია

185. greatest lower bound - ზუსტი ქვედა საზღვარი

186. lowest common multiply - უმცირესი საერთო ჯერადი

187. main principle - ძირითადი პრინციპი

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 in the main - ძირითადად, უმთავრესად

188. two and three make five - ორს მივუმატოთ სამი უდრის ხუთს

189. analytic manifold - ანალიზური მრავალსახეობა

linear manifold - წრფივი მრავალსახეობა

real manifold -ნამდვილი მრავალსახეობა

regular manifold - რეგულარული მრავალსახეობა

190. in this manner - ამგვარად, ამ გზით

191. twice as many as - ორჯერ მეტი

192. many – valued function - მრავალსახა ფუნქცია

193. analytic mapping - ანალიზური ასახვა

linear mapping -წრფივი ასახვა

open mapping - ღია ასახვა

mapping of sets - სიმრავლეთა ასახვა

194. mathematical logic - მათემატიკური ლოგიკა

195. abstract mathematics, pure~ - წმინდა მათემატიკური

applied mathematics - გამოყენებითი მათემატიკა

higher mathematics - უმაღლესი მათემატიკა

196. functional matrix - ფუნქციონალური მატრიცა

non-singular matrix - არაგანსაკუთრებული მატრიცა

positive matrix - დადებითი მატრიცა

primitive matrix - პრიმიტიული მატრიცა

292
 singular matrix - განსაკუთრებული მატრიცა

matrix - function - მატრიცული ფუნქცია

matrix - valued - მატრიცული მნიშვნელობიანი

197. as a matter of fact - ფაქტიურად, სინამდვილეში

it does not matter - ამას არა აქვს მნიშვნელობა

198. absolute maximum - ასბოლუტური მაქსიმუმი

relative maximum - ფარდობითი მაქსიმუმი

maximum condition - მაქსიმუმის პირობა

maximum value - მაქსიმალური მნიშვნელობა

199. arithmetic mean - საშუალო არითმეტიკული

geometric mean - საშუალო გეომეტრიული

mean absolute error - საშუალო აბსოლუტური ცდომილება

mean value theorem - საშუალო მნიშვნელობის თეორემა

by means of - მეშვეობით, საშუალებით

by all means - ყველასაშუალებით, მეოხებით

by any means - ნებისმიერი გზით

by no means - არავითარ შემთხვევაში

by 𝒙 we mean an arbitrary real number - ვგულისხმობთ, რომ 𝒙 ნებისმიერი

ნამდვილი რიცხვია.

200. angular measure - კუთხის ზომა

metric measure - მეტრული ზომა

293
 square measure - კვადრატული ზომა

measure algebra - ზომიანი ალგებრა

set of measure zero - ნულ ზომის სიმრავლე

201. left member - მარცხენა ნაწილი

right member - მარჯვენა ნაწილი

202. it should be mentioned - უნდა აღინიშნოს, რომ...

not to mention - რომ არაფერი გეთქვათ, უკვე ...

203. method of choice - ამორჩევის მეთოდი

method of comparison - შედარების მეთოდი

method of elimination - გამორიცხვის მეთოდი

method of least squares - უმცირეს კვადრატთა მეთოდი

numerical methods - რიცხვითი მეთოდები

204. middle term - საშუალო წევრი

205. to bear (keep) in mind - ხსომება, მხედველობაში ქონა, გათვალისწინება

206. minimal value - მინიმალური მნიშვნელობა

207. absolute minimum - აბსოლუტური მინიმუმი

relative minimum - ფარდობითი მინიმუმი

minimum number - მინიმალური რიცხვი

208. mixed fraction - შერეული წილადი

mixed group - შერეული ჯგუფი

209. the more… the more… - რაცუფრო... მითუფრო...

294
 once more - ერთხელკიდევ

what is more - რაც უფრო მნიშვნელოვანია, ამას გარდა

moreover - გარდა ამისა, უფრო მეტიც

210. for the most part - უმეტეს წილად

at the most - არაუმეტეს

211. multigrade equation - მრავახარისხოვანი განტოლება

212. multiplace number - მრავალნიშნა რიცხვი

213. multiple root - ჯერადი ფესვი

least common multiple - უმცირესი საერთო ჯერადი

214. complex multiplication - კომპლექსური გამრავლება

table of multiplication - გამრავლების ტაბულა

215. one must solve this problem - ეს ამოცანა უნდა ამოიხსნას

216. natural boundary - ბუნებრივი საზღვარი

natural number - ნატურალური რიცხვი

217. necessary condition - აუცილებელი პირობა

double negation - ორმაგი უარყოფა

218. negative sign - უარყოფითი ნიშანი, მინუსი

negative value - უარყოფითი სიდიდე

219. next to the last - ბოლოდან მეორე

220. non-decreasing function - არაკლებადი ფუნქცია

295
 non-discrete - არადისკრეტული

non-homogeneous differential equation - არაერთგვაროვანი

დიფერენციალური განტოლება

non-limiting ordinal - შემოუსაზღვრელი ჩვეულებრივი

non-trivial solution - არატრივიალური ამოხსნა, არაუნულოვანი ამოხსნა

non-associative algebra - არაასოციაციური ალგებრა

non-decreasing function - არაკლებადი ფუნქცია

221. normal derivative - ნორმალური წარმოებული

222. decimal notation - თვლის ათობითი სისტემა

it should be noted - უნდა აღინიშნოს...

223. next to nothing - თითქმის არაფერი

224. to make notice of - მხედველობაში მიღება, დაკვირვება

225. abstract notion - აბსტრაქტული ცნება

logical notion - ლოგიკური ცნება

226. up to now, till now - აქამდე, ამდრომდე

now and then - დროდადრო, ზოგჯერ

227. complex number - კომპლექსური რიცხვი

imaginary number - წარმოსახვითი რიცხვი

natural number - ნატურალური რიცხვი

negative number - უარყოფითი რიცხვი

positive number - დადებითი რიცხვი

296
 real number - ნამდვილი რიცხვი

number theory, theory of numbers - რიცხვთა თეორია

numerical data - რიცხვითი მონაცემები

numerical value - რიცხვითი მნიშვნელობა

228. oblique angle- ირიბი კუთხე

oblique derivative - ირიბი წარმოებული

229. the results obtained - მიღებული შედეგები

230. it is obvious - ცხადია, ნათელია, გასაგებია

231. function of a real variable - ნამდვილი ცვლადის ფუნქცია

232. on the boundary - საზღვარზე

on the coordinate axis - კოორდინატთა ღერძზე

233. once again, once more - ერთხელ კიდევ

one thing is certain - ერთი რამ ცხადია

one must remember - უნდა გვახსოვდეს

one another - ერთი-მეორეს

on one hand - ერთი მხრივ

one sided derivative - ცალმხრივი წარმოებული

on-valued function - ცალსახა ფუნქცია

one-way communication - ცალმხრივი კავშირი

234. if and only if - მაშინ და მხოლოდ მაშინ

297
235. to map a set onto another set - ერთი სიმრავლის მეორეზე გადასახვა

236. open set - ღია სიმრავლე

237. operations of arithmetics - არითმეტიკული ოპერაციები

operations analysis - ოპერაციათა გამოკვლევა

operational data - სამუშაო მონაცემები

238. well-ordered set - სავსებით დალაგებული სიმრავლე

239. ordinary differential equation - ჩვეულებრივი დიფერენციალური

განტოლება

240. on the other hand -მეორე მხრივ; somehow or other - ასე თუ ისე

241. unless otherwise stated - თუ განსაკუთრებით არ არის აღნიშნული

242. one ought to know - საჭიროა ვიცოდეთ

243. to draw a parallel - პარალელის გავლება

244. for the greater part, for the most part - უმეტესწილად, უმთავრესად

to take part - მონაწილეობის მიღება

245. partial derivative - კერძო წარმოებული

partial fraction - ელემენტარული წილადი

partial sum - ნაწილობრივი ჯამი

246. particular solution - კერძო ამონახსნი

particular value - კერძო მნიშვნელობა

in particular - კერძოდ, სახელდობრ, განსაკუთრებით

298
247. the straight line which passes through two given points - სწორი ხაზი,
რომელიც ორ მოცემულ წერტილზე გადის

248. to pay attention to - ყურადღების მიქცევა

249. perfect number - სრულყოფილი რიცხვი

perfect set - სრულყოფილი სიმრავლე

250. periodic fraction - პერიოდული წილადი

periodic function - პერიოდული ფუნქცია

251. permissible values of a variable - ცვლადის დასაშვები მნიშვნელობები

252. circular permutation - წრიული გადანაცვლება

253. decimal place - ათწილადის თანრიგი

254. complex plane - კომპლექსური სიბრტყე

principle plane - მთავარი სიბრტყე

plane geometry - პლანიმეტრია

plane motion - ბრტყელი მოძრაობა

255. critical point - კრიტიკული წერტილი

free point - თავისუფალი წერტილი

inner point -შიგა წერტილი

proper point - საკუთრივი წერტილი

point of discontinuity - წყვეტის წერტილი

at this point - ამ ეტაპზე

at all points - ყველა მხრივ

299
 point of view - თვალსაზრისი

the point is - საქმე ის არის, რომ ...

256. polynomial equation - პოლინომური განტოლება

257. positive value - დადებითი სიდიდე

definite positive - დადებითად განსაზღვრული

258. potential energy - პოტენციური ენერგია

259. power function - ხარისხოვანი ფუნქცია

to raise to a power - ხარისხში აყვანა

260. most powerful test - უმძლავრესი კრიტერიუმი

261. in practice - პრაქტიკაში, სინამდვილეში

262. partial predicate - ნაწილობრივი პრედიკატი

predicate variable - პრედიკატული ცვლადი

263. in the presence of - რაიმეს შემთხვევაში, დროს

264. Law of preservation - მუდმივობის კანონი

265. double prime - ორმაგი შტრიხი

266. primitive period - ძირითადი პერიოდი

primitive root -პრიმიტიული (პირველადი) ფესვი

267. principle axis - მთავარი ღერძი

principle components - ძირითადი კომპონენტები

principle direction - მთავარი მიმართულება

principle value - მთავარი მნიშვნელობა

300
268. principle of duality - ორადობის პრინციპი

269. unconditional probability - უპირობო ალბათობა

conditional probability - პირობითი ალბათობა

error probability - ცდომილების ალბათობა

probability function - ალბათური ფუნქცია

probability theory - ალბათობის თეორია

270. to produce a line- წირის გაგრძელება

271. free product - თავისუფალი ნამრავლი

infinite product - უსასრულო ნამრავლი

vector product - ვექტორული ნამრავლი

272. arithmetic progression - არითმეტიკული პროგრესია

geometric progression - გეომეტრიული პროგრესია

273. direct proof - პირდაპირი დამტკიცება

indirect proof - არაპირდაპირი დამტკიცება

274. proper ideal - საკუთრივი იდეალი

proper line - საკუთრივი წრფე

proper value -საკუთრივი მნიშვნელობა

proper fraction - წესიერი წილადი

proper solution - სწორი ამოხსნა

275. arithmetic proportion - არითმეტიკული პროპორცია

geometric proportion - გეომეტრიული პროპორცია

301
 in proportion to - შესაბამისად, პროპორციულად

directly proportional - პირდაპირპროპორციული

inversely proportional - უკუპროპორციული

mean proportional - საშუალო პროპორციული

factor of proportionality - პროპორციულობის კოეფიციენტი

276. in immediate proximity - უშუალო მახლობლობაში

277. pulse of a force - ძალის იმპულსი

sum pulse - ჯამის იმპულსი

278. pure imaginary number - წმინდა წარმოსახვითი რიცხვი

pure value - წმინდა მნიშვნელობა

pure variety - წმინდა მრავალსახეობა

purely random process -წმინდა შემთხვევითი პროცესი

279. for this purpose -ამ მიზნით

280. quadratic equation - კვადრატული განტოლება

quadratic mean - საშუალო კვადრატული

281. vector quantity - ვექტორული სიდიდე

282. beyond question, out of question -ეჭვგარეშე, უეჭველად

283. quotient field - ფარდობათა ველი

quotient function - განაყოფის ფუნქცია

302
284. random error - შემთხვევითი ცდომილება

random function - შემთხვევითი ფუნქცია

random variable - შემთხვევითი ცვლადი

285. at any rate - ყოველ შემთხვევაში

286. rational function - რაციონალური ფუნქცია

rational number - რაციონალური რიცხვი

rational value - რაციონალური მნიშვნელობა

287. real axis - ნამდვილი ღერძი

real number - ნამდვილი რიცხვი

real value - ნამდვილი სიდიდე

real variable - ნამდვილი ცვლადი

288. for this reason - ამის გამო, ამ მიზეზით

289. recurrent continued fraction - პერიოდული უწყვეტი წილადი

recurrent sequence -განმეორებადი მიმდევრობა

290. to reduce to a common denominator -საერთო მნიშვნელობამდე დაყვანა

reduced form -დაყვანილი ფორმა

reduced length -დაყვანილი სიგრძე

reducible equation -დაყვანილი განტოლება

291. frame of reference - კოორდინატთა სისტემა

292. in (with) regard to - მიმართ

without regard for -გაუთვალისწინებელი

303
293. connected region - ბმული არე

294. algebraic relation - ალგებრული შესაბამისობა

binary relation -ბინარული მიმართება

295. relative error - ფარდობითი ცდომილება

relative frequency - ფარდობითი სიხშირე

relativity theory - ფარდობითობის თეორია

296. operations research - ოპერაციათა გამოკვლევა

297. integral residue - ინტეგრალური ნაშთი

residue of an analytic function - ანალიზური ფუნქციის ნაშთი

298. with respect to - მიმართ, მხრივ

with respect to 𝒙- დიფერენცირება 𝒙-ის მიმართ

in this respect - ამ მხრივ, ამ მიმართულებით

299. axis of revolution - ბრუნვის ღერძი

300. primitive root - პირველადი ფესვი

square root - კვადრატული ფესვი

root of an equation - განტოლების ფესვი

to extend a root - ამოფესვა

301. axis of rotation - ბრუნვის ღერძი

302. rough approximation - უხეში მიახლოება

303. it is safe to say - დაბეჯითებით შეიძლება ითქვას

304
 for the safe of simplicity - სიმარტივისთვის

304. all the same - მიუხედავად ამისა, სულერთია, მაინც

at the same time - ამავე დროს

much the same - თითქმის ერთი და იგივე

one and the same - იგივე, ერთნაირი, მსგავსი

305. random sample - შემთხვევითი შერჩევა

sample values - შერჩევითი მნიშვნელობანი

simple sampling - მარტივი შერჩევა

306. that is to say - ესეიგი, ამგვარად

so to say - ასე ვთქვათ

to say nothing of - რომ არაფერი ვთქვათ

that goes without saying - თავისთავად ცხადია, რა თქმა უნდა

307. axiom scheme - აქსიომათა სქემა

proof scheme - დამტკიცების სქემა

308. in search of - ძიებაში

to be in search of - მოძებნა, მონახვა

309. second derivative - მეორე წარმოებული

second order difference - მეორე რიგის სხვაობა

310. it is easily see - ადვილი სანახავია

it seems -ჩანს, ეტყობა

311. in a sense - გარკვეული აზრით

305
312. convergent sequence - კრებადი მიმდევრობა

number sequence - რიცხვითი მიმდევრობა

zero sequence - ნულოვანი მიმდევრობა

limit of a sequence - მიმდევრობის ზღვარი

313. double series - ორმაგი მწკრივი

multiple series - ჯერადი მწკრივი

power series - ხარისხოვანი მწკრივი

314. let us set - დავუშვათ

to set a problem - ამოცანის დასმა

bounded set - შემოსაზღვრული სიმრავლე

closed set - ჩაკეტილი სიმრავლე

countable set -თვლადი სიმრავლე

open set - ღია სიმრავლე

315. function of several complex variables - მრავალი კომპლექსური ცვლადის

ფუნქცია

316. we shall consider the following problem - განვიხილავთ შემდეგ ამოცანას

317. circular shell - წრიული გარსი

convex shell - ამოზნექილი გარსი

spherical shell - სფერული გარსი

318. it should be taken into account - უნდა გავითვალისწინოთ....

these two notions should not be confused - ეს ორი ცნება ერთმანეთში არ

უნდა ავურიოთ

306
319. by the side - რაიმეს გვერდით, მახლობლად

320. at first sight - პირველი შეხედვით

321. integral sign - ინტეგრალის ნიშანი

sign of equality - ტოლობის ნიშანი

322. in a similar way - ანალოგიურად, მსგავსად

323. simple fraction - მარტივი წილადი

simple root - მარტივი ფესვი

324. simplified fraction - უკვეცი წილადი

325. ever since - იმ დროიდან დაწყებული; იმიტომ, რომ; ვინაიდან, რადგანაც

326. law of sines - სინუსების თეორემა

327. single error - ერთეული შეცდომა

single-valued function -ცალსახა ფუნქცია

328. singular solution - განსაკუთრებული ამოხსნა

329. so to say - ასევ თქვათ

and so on and so forth - და ასე შემდეგ

the more so - განსაკუთრებით, მითუმეტეს

330. solid body - მყარი სხეული

331. general solution - ზოგადი ამოხსნა

partial solution - კერძო ამოხსნა

zero solution - ნულოვანი ამონახსნი

332. solvable equation - ამოხსნადი განტოლება

307
333. in some way - გარკვეულად, რამდენადმე

334. somehow or other - ასე თუ ისე

335. sought for function - საძიებელი ფუნქცია

336. sound argument - დამაჯერებელი არგუმენტი

337. complex space - კომპლექსური სივრცე

discrete space - დისკრეტული სივრცე

linear space - წრფივი სივრცე

stable space - მდგრადი სივრცე

338. special case - კერძო შემთხვევა

specific weight - ხვედრითი წონა

339. spectral function - სპექტრული ფუნქცია

spectral sequence - სპექტრული მიმდევრობა

continuous spectrum - უწყვეტი სპექტრი

340. critical speed - კრიტიკული სიჩქარე

341. spherical coordinates - სფერული კოორდინატები

spherical space -სფერული სივრცე

342. square brackets - კვადრატული ფრჩხილები

square root - კვადრატული ფესვი

343. stability dynamic - დინამიკური მდგომარეობა

frequency stability - სიხშირეთა მდგომარეობა

344. stable axis - მდგრადი ღერძი

308
 stable point - მდგრადი წერტილი

345. standard equation - ნორმალური განტოლება

346. starting point -ამოსავალი წერტილი

347. steady state - მყარი მდგომარეობა

348. strictly decreasing - მკაცრად კლებადი

strictly increasing - მკაცრად ზრდადი

349. on the subject - თემაზე

350. free substitution - თავისუფალი ჩასმა

linear substitution - წრფივი ჩასმა

trigonometric substitution - ტრიგონომეტრიული ჩასმა

substitutional rule - ჩასმის ხერხი

351. successive approximation - მიმდევრობითი მიახლოება

352. it suffices to say (to show) - საკმარისია ითქვას (ვაჩვენოთ)

necessary and sufficient condition -აუცილებელი დ საკმარისი პირობა

353. to make a suggestion - აზრის გამოთქმა, წინადადების მიცემა

354. direct sum - პირდაპირი ჯამი

partial sum of an infinite series -უსასრულო მწკრივის ჯამი

vector sum - ვექტორული ჯამი

to sum up - შეჯამება, დასკვნის გაკეთება

double summation - ორმაგი შეჯამება

finite summation - სასრული შეჯამება

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 infinite summation - უსასრულო შეჯამება

summation sign - შეჯამების ნიშანი

355. superior limit - ზედა ზღვარი

356. support function - საყრდენი ფუნქცია

357. algebraic surface - ალგებრული ზედაპირი

free surface - თავისუფალი ზედაპირი

surface area - ზედაპირის ფართობი

358. algebraic symbols - ალგებრული სიმბოლოები

359. symmetric function - სიმეტრიული ფუნქცია

symmetric group - სიმეტრიული ჯგუფი

360. algebraic system -ალგებრული სისტემა

system of axioms -აქსიომათა სისტემა

361. table of logarithms - ლოგარითმების ცხრილი

multifunctional table - გამრავლების ტაბულა

362. to tend to infinity - უსასრულოებისაკენ სწრაფვა

to tend to the limit -ზღვარისკენ სწრაფვა

363. absolute term - თავისუფალი წევრი

in terms of -აზრით, თვალსაზრისით, მნიშვნელობით, საფუძველზე

364. sign test - ნიშნების კრიტერიუმი

significance test - მნიშვნელობის კრიტერიუმი

310
 under test - გამოსაცდელი

365. it is clear that - ცხადია, რომ...

for all that - მიუხედავადამისა, მაინც

in order that - იმიტომ, რომ; იმისთვის, რომ

that is - ესეიგი

366. axiomatic theory - აქსიომატური თეორია

function theory - ფუნქციათა თეორია

number theory - რიცხვითი თეორია

theory of probability - ალბათობის თეორია

367. the thing is - საქმე ისაა, რომ...

for one thing - ჯერ ერთი...

368. to think over - გარჩევა, განხილვა

369. like this - ასე, ამგვარად

this time - ამჯერად

370. a straight line passing through the point -წერტილზე გამავალი წრფე

to look through - გადათვალიერება

371. till now - აქამდე

372. time and again - დროდადრო, არაერთხელ, არაერთგზის

373. it is necessary - აუცილებელია ვიცოდეთ

374. radius of torsion - გრეხის რადიუსი

375. total error - სრული ცდომილება

311
 total sum -საერთო ჯამი

totally bounded - სავსებით შემოსაზღვრული

376. birational transformation - ბირაციონალური გარდაქმნა

linear transformation - წრფივი გარდაქმნა

non-linear transformation - არაწრფივი გარდაქმნა

transformational function - გარდაქმნის ფუნქცია

transformational group - გარდაქმნის ჯგუფი

377. current trend - თანამედროვე ტენდენცია

378. trigonometric equation - ტრიგონომეტრიული განტოლება

trigonometric function - ტრიგონომეტრიული ფუნქცია

plane trigonometry - ტრიგონომეტრია სიბრტყეზე

spherical trigonometry - სფერული ტრიგონომეტრია

379. triple integral - სამმაგი ინტეგრალი

380. trivial solution - ნულოვანი ამონახსნი

381. true value - ნამდვილი მნიშვნელობა

in truth - სინამდვილეში, ნამდვილად, ჭეშმარიტად

382. it turns out - მივიღებთ, რომ; გამოდის, რომ

383. twice as much - ორჯერ მეტი, ვიდრე

384. unbounded function - შემოუსაზღვრელი ფუნქცია

385. unconditional probability - უპირობო ალბათობა

312
386. undefined notion - განუსაზღვრელი ცნება

387. under consideration - განსახილველი, შესასწავლი

388. uniform continuity - თანაბარი უწყვეტობა

uniform distribution - თანაბარი განაწილება

uniformly bounded - თანაბრად შემოსაზღვრული

389. union of sets - სიმრავლეთა გაერთიანება

390. uniquely defined function - ცალსახად განსაზღვრული ფუნქცია

uniqueness theorem - ერთადერთობის თეორემა

391. imaginary unit -წარმოსახვითი ერთეული

memory unit - მეხსიერების ბლოკი

unit of length - სიგრძის ერთეული

unit interval - ერთეული ინტერვალი

unit point - ერთეული წერტილი

392. universal constant - უნივერსალური მუდმივი

universal function - უნივერსალური ფუნქცია

393. unless otherwise stated - თუ განსაკუთრებით აღნიშნული არ არის...

394. unsteady motion - დაუმყარებელი მოძრაობა

395. until then - იმდრომდე, მანამდე

396. up to now - აქამდე, ჯერჯერობით

397. to depend upon - რაიმეზე დაყრდნობა

upper limit -ზედა ზღვარი

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 least upper bound -ზუსტი ზედა ზღვარი

398. to make use of - გამოყენება

399. absolute value - აბსოლუტური მნიშვნელობა

complex value - კომპლექსური მნიშვნელობა

maximal value - მაქსიმალური მნიშვნელობა

positive value - დადებითი მნიშვნელობა

principle value - მთავარი მნიშვნელობა

400. complex variable - კომპლექსური ცვლადი

dependent variable - დამოკიდებული ცვლადი

free variable - თავისუფალი ცვლადი

independent variable - დამოუკიდებელი ცვლადი

real variable - ნამდვილი ცვლადი

separation of variables - ცვლადთა განცალება

401. calculus of variations - ვარიაციათა აღრიცხვა

bounded variation - შემოსაზღვრული ვარიაცია

free variation - თავისუფალი ვარიაცია

mixed variation -შერეული ვარიაცია

402. linear variety - წრფივი მრავალსახეობა

for a variety of reason - მთელ რიგ მიზეზთა გამო

403. axial vector - ღერძული ვექტორი

314
 free vector - თავისუფალი ვექტორი

unit vector - ერთეული ვექტორი

velocity vector - სიჩქარის ვექტორი

vector analysis - ვექტორული ანალიზი

vector field - ვექტორული ველი

vector function - ვექტორული ფუნქცია

vector sum - ვექტორული ჯამი

404. relative velocity - ფარდობითი სიჩქარე

405. in the vicinity of - დაახლოებით

in view of - გამო, მიზეზით

point of view - თვალსაზრისით

from this point of view - ამ თვალსაზრისით

view point - თვალსაზრისი

406. element of volume - მოცულობის ელემენტი

407. vulgar fraction - მარტივი წილადი

408. for want of - უკმარისობის გამო

409. wave equation - ტალღური განტოლება

410. the other way - სხვანაირად

way out - გამოსავალი

by the way - სხვათაშორის

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411. well-ordered set - სავსებით დალაგებული სიმრავლე

412. up to where - იქამდე, სადაც

413. in which case - ამ შემთხვევაშიაც

414. after a while - მალე, ცოტახნის შემდეგ

for a while - დროებით, ცოტახნით

415. on the whole - მთლიანად, მთლიანობაში

416. this is why - აი ამიტომ

417. it will be shown below -ქვემოთ ნაჩვენები იქნება

418. within the interval - მოცემულ ინტერვალში

419. without a question - უდავოდ

420. to work out - დამუშავება, ამოხსნა

421. as yet -ჯერ კიდევ

not yet - ჯერ კიდევ არ

422. zero solution - ნულოვანი ამოხსნა

zero state - ნულოვანი მდგომარეობა

316
 VOCABULARY
FOR MATHEMATICS

-A-
abacus – საანგარიშო დაფა, აბაკი.

abbreviate – შემცირება, შეკვეცა.

abbreviation – შემოკლება, შეკვეცა.
above – ზევით, ზემოთ.
abstract – განყენებული, აბსტრაქტული.
add – მიმატება, დამატება.
addend – შესაკრები.
addition – დამატება, იმატება, შეკრება, შეჯამება.
additional – დამატებითი.
additive – ადიტიური.
adopt – მიღება (იღებს) (ცნებისა, კონცეფციისა).
advantage – უპირატესობა, სარგებლობა.
aggregate – აგრეგატი, ერთობლიობა, სიმრავლე.
algebra – ალგებრა.

algebraic –ალგებრული.
alternative – ალტერნატივა, არჩევანი, ვარიანტი.
ambiguity – საეჭვოობა, გაურკვევლობა.
ambiguous – ორაზროვანი, ბუნდოვანი.
amendment – გასწორება, შესწორება, გაუმჯობესება.

among – შორის, შუა.

amount – რაოდენობა.

317
analogous – ანალოგიური, მსგავსი.
analogy – ანალოგია, თანაგვარობა.
analysis – ანალიზი.
analytical – ანალიზური.
analytically – ანალიზურად.
anticipate (values) – მოსალოდნელი სიდიდეები – დაშვება, გათვალის-

წინება.
applicable – გამოყენებადი.
application – გამოყენება.
applied – გამოყენებითი.
apply – გამოყენება, ხმარება.
approximate – მიახლოება, დაახლოება, უახლოვდება.
approximately – დაახლოებით, მიახლოებით, თითქმის.
approximation – მიახლოება, აპროქსიმაცია.
arbitrarily – ნებისმიერად, რაგინდ.
arbitrary – ნებისმიერი.
area – ფართობი.
argue – დასაბუთება.
argument – დასაბუთება, მსჯელობა, არგუმენტი.

arithmetic – არითმეტიკა.
arithmetical – არითმეტიკული.
arrange – მოწესრიგება, დალაგება.
arrangement – განლაგება, წყობა, დალაგება, რიგი.
array – გარკვეული წესით განლაგება, ცხრილი, ტაბულა.
assert – მტკიცება.

318
assertion – მტკიცება, გამონათქვამი, განცხადება.
associate – დაკავშირება, შეერთება.
associated – თანმხლები, დაკავშირებული.
association – გაერთიანება, კავშირი.
associative –ასოციაციური, დაჯგუფებადი.
assume – დაშვება, მიღება, ვარაუდი.

assumed that – თუ ვივარაუდებთ, რომ.

assumption – დაშვება, ვარაუდი.
asterisk – ვარსკვლავი, (აღნიშვნისას) a* - a ვარსკვლავიანი
attain – მიღწევა.
auxiliary – დამხმარე, მეშველი.
axial – ღერძისა, ღერძული, აქსიალური.
axiom – აქსიომა.
axiomatical – აქსიომატური, აქსიომური.

-B-

base – საფუძველი, ფუნდამენტი, ფუძე, ბაზა, ბაზისი.

basic – ძირითადი, მთავარი.
basis – ბაზისი, საფუძველი.
behavior – behaviour – ყოფაქცევა, რეჟიმი.
belong – კუთვნება (ეკუთვნის, მიეკუთვნება).

bijective – ბიექტიური ასახვა, ბიექტიური ფუნქცია.

binary – ბინარული, ორობითი.

319
binomial – ბინომიური, ორწევრული.
bisect – შუაზე გაყოფა.
bound – ზღვარი, საზღვარი.
boundary – საზღვარი, ზღვარი.
bracket – ფრჩხილი.

-C-

calculate – გამოანგარიშება.
calculating – გამოთვლითი, საანგარიშო.
calculation – გამოანგარიშება, გამოთვლა, აღრიცხვა.
calculator – გამომთვლელი მანქანა, მრიცხველი, მთვლელი.
calculus – აღრიცხვა.
categorical – უეჭველი მტკიცებულება, უსათუო მტკიცება.
category – კატეგორია, კლასი.
cause – მიზეზი, საბაბი.

certain – განსაზღვრული, გარკვეული, ზოგიერთი.

change – შემთხვევა.
characterize – დახასიათება.
check – შემოწმება, კონტროლი.

choice – არჩევა, შერჩევა, ამორჩევა, არჩევანი.

choose (chose, chosen) – ამორჩევა, შერჩევა.
classic – კლასიკური.
classification – კლასიფიკაცია.

classify – კლასიფიცირება.

320
close – ახლო, დაწვრილებითი, ზუსტი.
closed – ჩაკეტილი, შეკრული.
closeness – სიახლოვე, მჭიდროობა.
closure – ჩაკეტვა, დახურვა.
cluster – გროვა, კონა.
coefficient – კოეფიციენტი.

coincide – დამთხვევა.
coincidence – დამთხვევა, შეთავსება.
coincident – თანამთხვევადი.
column–სვეტი.
combination – შეერთება, კომბინაცია.
combine – კომბინირება, შეერთება, დაჯგუფება.
common – საერთო, ჩვეულებრივი, მარტივი.
commutative – კომუტატიური, გადანაცვლებადი.
compare – შედარება.
complement – დამატება.
complementary – დამატებითი.
complete – სრული, მთლიანი.
completely – სრულად, სავსებით, აბსოლუტურად.

compose – შედგენა, დალაგება.

composite – შედგენილი, რთული.
composition – კომპოზიცია, შედგენა, შეკრება.
computable – გამოთვლითი.
computation – გამოთვლა, გამოანგარიშება.
compute – გაანგარიშება, გამოთვლა.

321
computer – გამომთვლელი (ადამიანი, მანქანა).
computer – კომპიუტერი, მრიცხველი, გამოანგარიშება.
complicate – რთული, შედგენილი, გართულება.
complicated – გართულებული.
complication – გართულება.
concept – იდეა, აზრი, ცნება.

concern – შეხება, კავშირის ქონა.

conclude – დასკვნა, დასრულება.
conclusion – დასკვნა, შედეგი.
condition – პირობა.
confusion – დაბნეულობა, უწესრიგობა, გაურკვევლობა.
connect – შეერთება, დაკავშირება.
connected – დაკავშირებული, მიერთებული, ბმული.
connecting – დამაკავშირებელი.
connection – შეერთება, კავშირი, ბმულობა.
conjectured – ივარაუდა, ნავარაუდევი.
consider – განხილვა, მხედველობაში მიღება.
consideration – გარჩევა, განხილვა.
consist –შედგება, შეიცავს.

consistency– თავსებადობა, შეთანხმებულობა.

consistency – თანმიმდევრულობა
consistent – არაწინააღმდეგობრივი, თანმიმდევრული.
constancy – მუდმივობა, სიმტკიცე, შეუცველობა.
constant – მუდმივი.
construct – აგება, შექმნა.

322
constructive – კონსტრუქციული.
contain – მოცვა, შეიცავს, დატევა.
containing – შეიცავს.
continuation – გაგრძელება.
continue – გაგრძელება, განგრძობა.
continued – განგრძობითი, უწყვეტი.

continuity – უწყვეტობა, მთლიანობა.

continuous – უწყვეტი, ხანგრძლივი.
contradict – წინააღმდეგობა, უარყოფა.
contradiction – წინააღმდეგობა, უარყოფა.
contradictory – წინააღმდეგობრივი.
contrary – საწინააღმდეგო, შებრუნებული.
contribute – ხელშეწყობა, დახმარება, წვლილის შეტანა.
convenient – ხელსაყრელი, შესაბამისი.
convention – პირობითობა.
converge – კრებადობა, მოისწრაფვის.
convert – გარდაქმნა, გადაქცევა.
convergence – კრებადობა.
correspond – შესაბამისობა, შესატყვისობა.

correspondence – შესატყვისობა, შესაბამისობა, თანადობა.

corresponding – შესაბამისი, სათანადო.
corruption – დაშლა, გაფუჭება, კორუფცია.
cover – დაფარვა.
covering – დამფარავი.
curve – წირი, მრუდი.

323
curved – მრუდე, გამრუდებული.

-D-
decimal – ათობითი.
decrease – შემცირება, კლება.
decreasing – კლებადი, არაზრდადი.
deduce – გამოყვანა, გამოტანა (დასკვნის) დასკვნა.
deduct – გამოკლება, შემცირება.
deduction – გამოკლება, გამოქვითვა, დასკვნა, დედუქცია.

deductive – დედუქციური (მეთოდი).

definable – განსაზღვრადი.
define – განსაზღვრა.
defined – განსაზღვრული.

defining – საზღვრავს, განსაზღვრა.

definite – განსაზღვრული, დეფინიტური.
definition – განსაზღვრა.
degree – ხარისხი, რიგი, გრადუსი.

denote – აღნიშვნა.
denumerable – თვლადი (თვლადი სიმრავლე).
depend – დამოკიდებულებაში ყოფნა, დამოკიდებულება.
dependence – დამოკიდებულება.
dependent – დამოკიდებული.

derivate – წარმოებული რიცხვი, წარმოებული.

derivation – გაწარმოება, დიფერენცირება, გადახდა, დერივაცია.
derivative – წარმოებული, წარმოებული რიცხვი.
324
derive – წარმოშობა, მიღება.
derived – წარმოებული, მიღებული, მეორადი.
describe – აღწერა, ასახვა.
designate – აღნიშვნა, განსაზღვრა, მითითება.
detail – წვრილმანი, დეტალი.
detailed – დაწვრილებითი, დეტალური.

determinant – დეტერმინანტი, განსაზღვრელი

determine – განსაზღვრა, დადგენა, გადაწყვეტა, გადაჭრა.
diagonal – დიაგონალი.
diagram – დიაგრამა, სქემა, გრაფიკი, ეპიური.
differ – განსხვავება, გარჩევა.
difference – განსხვავება, სხვაობა, ნამატი, ნაზრდი.
different – სხვადასხვაგვარი, განსხვავებული, სხვადასხვა.
differentiable–წარმოებადი, დიფერენცირებული.
differential – დიფერენციალური.
differentiate – გაწარმოება (აწარმოებს) წარმოებულის პოვნა.
differentiation – დიფერენცირება, წარმოებულის პოვნა.
digress – გადახვევა (საქმის არსიდან).
direct – პირდაპირი, უშუალო.

directed – მიმართული, ორიენტირებული.

direction – მიმართულება, გეზი.
discover – აღმოჩენა, გამოვლენა.
discriminate – განსხვავება, გარჩევა.
distance – მანძილი, დისტანცია.
distinct – განსხვავებული, სხვაგვარი, განსაკუთრებული, განსაზღვრუ-

325
ლი.
distinction – განსხვავება, სხვაობა.
distinctive – განმასხვავებელი, დამახასიათებელი.
distinguish – განსხვავება, გარჩევა, გამორჩევა.
distinguished – განსაკუთრებული, განსხვავებული.
distribute – განაწილება, დანაწილება.

distribution – განაწილება.
distributive – დისტრიბუციული, განრიგებადობის.
divide – გაყოფა, დაყოფა.
divided – გაყოფილი, დაყოფილი.
division – გაყოფა, განცალკევება.
divisor – გამყოფი, დივიზორი.
domain – არე, სფერო.
double – ორმაგი, ორჯერადი, გაორებული, გაორკეცებული, წყვილი.

-E-
effect – ეფექტი, ზემოქმედება.

effective – ეფექტური, ეფექტიანი.

effectively – ეფექტურად.
eigen – საკუთარი.
eigenfunction – საკუთრივი ფუნქცია, მახასიათებელი რიცხვი.
eigenvector – საკუთრივი ვექტორი.

element – ელემენტი, შემადგენელი ნაწილი.

elementary – ელემენტარული, მარტივი, პირველადი.
eliminate – გამორიცხვა, მოცილება.
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elimination – გამორიცხვა (უცნობი წევრისა), ელიმინაცია.
embed – ჩასმა (სვამს), ჩადგმა, ჩადება, ჩართვა.
embedded – ჩადგმული, ჩასმული.
embedding – ჩადგმა, ჩადება, ჩართვა.
embrace – მოხვევა, გარშემორტყმული.
empty – ცარიელი, (set) ცარიელი სიმრავლე.

enable – შესაძლებლობის მიცემა, ხელის შეწყობა, გაადვილება.

encounter – მოულოდნელად ხვდება, ეჯახება, წინამთხვევა.
entity – არსებობა, ყოფნა, საგანი, ობიექტი, გაერთიანება.
enumerate – ჩამოთვლა (ჩამოთვლის).
enumeration – ჩამოთვლა, ნუმერამაცია.
equal – თანაბარი, თანასწორი, ტოლი.
equality – ტოლობა.
equation – განტოლება.
equipotent – ტოლძალოვანი.
equivalence–ეკვივალენტურობა, ტოლფასობა.
equivalent – ეკვივალენტური, ტოლფასი.
error – შეცდომა, ცდომილება.
essence – არსი, არსება, დედაარსი.

essential – არსებითი, ძირითადი.

essentially – არსებითად.
establish – დადგენა, დამტკიცება.
estimate – შეფასება, მიახლოებით გამოანგარიშება.
evaluate – შეფასება, გამოთვლა.
even – ლუწი.

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exact – ზუსტი, სწორი.
examine – გამოცდა, გამოკვლევა, გასინჯვა, განხილვა.
exclude – გამორიცხვა.
exist – არსებობა (არსებობს), ყოფნა.
existence – არსებობა.
expand – გაფართოება, გაშლა, გავრცობა, გადიდება.

expansion – გაშლა, გავრცობა, დაშლა.

explicit – ცხადი, ნათელი, დაწვრილებითი.
exponent – ექსპონენტი, მაჩვენებელი.
exponential – ექსპონენტური, მაჩვენებლიანი.
express – გამოსახვა, გამოხატვა.
expression – გამოსახვა, გამოსახულება.
extend – გავრცელება, განზოგადება.
extended – გავრცელებული, განზოგადებული.
extension – გაფართოება, გავრცობა.
extent – მოცულობა, ზომა, ხარისხი.
extra – უმაღლესი ხარისხი, დამატებითი, სპეციალური.
extract – (ფესვის) ამოღება, ამოფესვა.
extreme – უკიდურესი, ექსტრემალური.

-F-
fact – ფაქტი, სინამდვილე, მოვლენა.
factor – მამრავლი, კოეფიციენტი, ფაქტორი.

false – მცდარი, ყალბი, არასწორი.

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familiar – ნაცნობი.
family – ოჯახი, სიმრავლე, ერთობლიობა.
feature – თვისება, ნიშანი.
field – ველი, სხეული, არე.
figure – ციფრი, ფიგურა, ნაკვთი.
final – ბოლო, უკანასკნელი, საბოლოო, დასკვნითი, ფინალური.

find – (found, found) – გაგება, შეტყობა.

finite – სასრული, შემოსაზღვრული, ფინიტური.
finitely – სასრულად.
fix – დამაგრება, ფიქსირება.
fixed – დამაგრებული, ჩამაგრებული, ფიქსირებული, უძრავი.
form – ფორმა, სახე.
formula – ფორმულა.
formulate – ფორმულირება.
frequency – სიხშირე.
frequent – ხშირი.
function – ფუნქცია.
functional – ფუნქციონალური, ფუნქციური.
fundamental – ძირითადი, მთავარი, ფუნდამენტალური.

-G-
general – ზოგადი, საერთო, გენერალური.

generality – ზოგადობა.
generalization – განზოგადება.
generalize – განზოგადება (განაზოგადებს).
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generate – წარმოშობა, გაჩენა, გამოწვევა.
generating – წარმომშობი, მსახველი.
graph – დიაგრამა, გრაფიკი.
graphical – გრაფიკული, მხაზველობითი.
graphically – გრაფიკულად, თვალსაჩინოდ.
great – დიდი, მნიშვნელოვანი.

greatest – უდიდესი, ყველაზე მნიშვნელოვანი.

-H-
half – ნახევარი.
halved – შუაზე გაყოფა, განახევრება.
height – სიმაღლე.
hence – მაშასადამე, აქედან, ამიტომ.
high – მაღალი.
homogeneous – ერთგვაროვანი, ჰომოგენური.
however – რამენაირად.

hypergeometric – ჰიპერგეომეტრიული.
hypotenuse – ჰიპოთენუზა.

-I-
ideal – იდეალური.
identical – იდენტური, იგივური, ერთნაირი, ისეთივე.
identically – იგივურად.

identify – გაიგივება, გამოცნობა.

identity – იგივეობა, იდენტურობა.

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illustrate – (მაგალითის საშუალებით) ახსნა, ილუსტრირება.
image – სახე, გამოსახულება, ანასახი.
imaginary – წარმოსახვითი.
imagine – წარმოსახვა, წარმოდგენა.
immediate – უშუალო, დაუყოვნებელი.
immediately – დაუყოვნებლივ, უშუალოდ.

implicit – არაცხადი, არააშკარა, ნაგულისხმევი.

implicitly – არაცხადად.
imply – გულისხმობს, ნიშნავს, იწვევს.
importance – მნიშვნელობა.
important – მნიშვნელოვანი, არსებითი, საყურადღებო.
impose – დადება, დადგენა, დაწესება.
imposed – დაფიქსირებული, შემოღებული.
impossible – შეუძლებელი.
include – მოცვა, მოთავსება, ჩართვა, შეტანა.
inclusion – ჩადება, ჩართვა, ჩადგმა.
inclusive – შემცველი.
increase – ზრდა (იზრდება).
increasing – ზრდადი, არაკლებადი.

indefinite – განუსაზღვრელი.
independence – დამოუკიდებლობა.
independent – დამოუკიდებელი.
index – ინდექსი, მაჩვენებელი.
indicate – აღნიშვნა, მითითება, ჩვენება.
induce – იძულება, გამოწვევა, ინდუცირება.

331
induction – ინდუქცია.
inductive – ინდუქციური.
inequality – უტოლობა.
inessential – არაარსებითი.
infer – დასკვნის გამოტანა, გულისხმობს.
infimum – ზუსტი, ქვედა ზღვარი, ინფიმუმი.

infinite – უსასრულო, უსასრულოდ დიდი.

infinitely – უსასრულოდ, უსაზღვროდ.
infinity – უსასრულობა.
inherent – დამახასიათებელი, აუცილებელი.
initial – საწყისი, პირველადი, დაწყებითი.
initiating – ინიცირებს, ინიციატივას იღებს.
injection – ინექცია, ურთიერთცალსახა ასახვა.
injective – ინექციური.
inner – შიგა, შინაგანი.
insertion – შეტანა (მონაცემთა), მოთავსება, ჩართვა.
instance – მაგალითი, ცალკეული შემთხვევა.
integer – მთელი რიცხვი.
integrable – ინტეგრებადი, შემაჯამებადი.

integral – ინტეგრალი.
integrate – ინტეგრირება.
integration – ინტეგრაცია, ინტეგრება.
intersecting – ჭრის, აჯვარედინებს, აჯვარებს, გადამკვეთი.
intersection – გადაკვეთა, გადაკვეთის ადგილი, თანამკვეთი,
ურთიერთქმედება.

332
interval – ინტერვალი, შუალედი.
introduction – შესავალი, წინასიტყვაობა.
intrude – ჩარევა, დარღვევა, შეჭრა.
intuition – ინტუიცია.
inverse – შებრუნებული, შექცეული.
involve – მოიცავს, შეიცავს, მდგომარეობს.

irrational – ირაციონალური.
irrelevant – უადგილო, შეუფერებელი.

-L-
law – კანონი, წესი, პრინციპი, ფორმულა, თეორემა.
lead (led, led) – წაყვანა, გაძღოლა, მართვა.
leap – მკვეთრიცვლილება, ნახტომი.
least- უმცირესი.
limit – ზღვარი, საზღვარი.
line – ხაზი, წირი.

linear – წრფივი, წრფოვანი.

linearity – წრფივობა.
linearly – წრფივად.
locusლათ. [‘lousai] – წერტილთა გეომეტრიული ადგილი,
ადგილმდებარეობა.

lose (lost, lost) – დაკარგვა (კარგავს).

low – დაბალი, დაბლა.

333
lower – ქვედა, ქვემო.
lucid – ნათელი, გასაგები.

-M-
main – მთავარი, ძირითადი.
magnitude – სიდიდე, ზომები, მნიშვნელობა.
majorant – მაჟორანტი, მჭარბი.
majority – უმრავლესობა, უმეტესობა.
majorize – მაჟორირება, ზემოდანშეფასება.
majorized – მაჟორირებადი.
majorising – მაჟორანტული.
many – ბევრი, მრავალი.
many-valued –მრავალნიშნა, მრავალსახა.
map – ასახვა.
mapped – ასახული.
mapping – ასახვა (გადასახვა), ანასახი.

mathematical – მათემატიკური.
mathematician – მათემატიკოსი.
mathematics – მათემატიკა.
maximal – მაქსიმალური, უდიდესი.
maximum – მაქსიმუმი, უდიდესი მნიშვნელობა.

mean – საშუალო, საშუალო მნიშვნელობა, საშუალო სიდიდე.

measure – ზომა.

334
method – მეთოდი, წესი, ხერხი.
metric – მეტრიკული, მეტრული.
minimal – მინიმალური, უმცირესი.
minimum –მინიმუმი.
minor – მინორი, მცირე, უმნიშვნელო, მეორეხარისხოვანი.
minorant – მინორანტი.

minority – უმცირესობა, უმცირესი.

multiply – გამრავლება, მრავლება, გადიდება.

-N-
natural – ბუნებრივი, ნატურალური.
nature – ბუნება, არსი, ხასიათი.
necessary – აუცილებელი.

necessity – აუცილებლობა, საჭიროება.

need – საჭიროება, მოთხოვნილება.
negation – უარყოფა.
neighbour – მეზობელი, მახლობელი.

heighbourhood – მიდამო, მახლობლობა.

next – მომდევნო, შემდეგი, უახლოესი.
non-empty – არაცარიელი.
nonlinear – არახაზოვანი.
notation – აღნიშვნა, აღნიშვნათასისტემა, თვლისსისტემა.

number – რიცხვი, რაოდენობა, ნომერი.

numerable–თვლადი.
numeration – თვლა, აღრიცხვა, ნუმერაცია.
335
numerical – რიცხვითი, რიცხვთა, ციფრული.
numerator – მრიცხველი.
nutation – ნუტაცია.

-O-
object – საგანი, ობიექტი.
objective – საგნობრივი.
observe – დაკვირვება, შენიშვნა, აღნიშვნა.
obtain – მიღება, მიღწევა.

obtained – მიღებული (შედეგი).

obvious – აშკარა, ნათელი, ცხადი.
obviously – აშკარად, ცხადად, როგორც ჩანს, ეტყობა.
occur – მოხდომა, ადგილის ქონა.

odd – კენტი.
one-one – ურთიერთმნიშვნელოვანი.
one-to-one – ურთიერთცალსახა.
on-valued – ცალსახა.

open – გაღება, გახსნა, გაშლა.

operate – მოქმედება, მუშაობა, მართვა, ექსპლუატაცია.
operation – მოქმედება, ოპერაცია.
operator – ოპერატორი.
opposite – საწინააღმდეგო, მოპირდაპირე.

order –რიგი, თანმიმდევრობა, დალაგება.

ordered – დალაგებული.
ordinary – ჩვეულებრივი.
336
ordinate – ორდინატი.
origin – წარმოშობა, საწყისი, სათავე, დასაბამი.
original – პირველდაწყებითი, საწყისი, თავდაპირველი.
oscillate – რხევა, ვიბრირება.
oscillating – რხევითი, ნიშანცვლადი.
oscillation – რხევა, ოსცილაცია, რხევადობა.

otherwise – სხვანაირად, წინააღმდეგშემთხვევაში.

outer – გარე, გარეგანი.
over – ზე, ზემოთ.
overall – სრული, ყოვლისმომცველი, საერთო.
overlap – დაფარვა, თანამთხვევა,ნაწილობრივდამთხვევა.
own – საკუთარი, თავისი.

-P-
pair – წყვილი.
paired – დაწყვილებული, შეუღლებული.

parallel – პარალელური.
parameter – პარამეტრი.
partial – ნაწილობრივი, ნაწილობითი, კერძო.
parenthesis – მრგვალი, მცირე, უბრალოფრჩხილი.
particular – კერძო (ამონახსნი).
period – პერიოდი.
periodic – პერიოდული.
phase – ფრაზა, წინადადება, გამონათქვამი.

pivot – საყრდენი წერტილი, ბრუნვის წერტილი.

pivotal – ცენტრალური, მნიშვნელოვანი.
337
point – წერტილი.
pole – პოლუსი (ლოგარითმული).
polynomial – პოლინომი, მრავალწევრი.
positive – დადებითი, პოზიტიური.
power –ძალა, ენერგია, სიმძლავრე, ხარისხი, ხარისხისმაჩვენებელი.
precise – ზუსტი, განსაზღვრული.

precisely – ზუსტად.
precision –სიზუსტე.
preclude – აღმოფხვრა, გადაკვეთა, გამორიცხვა, გაუქმება.
pre-image –წინასახე, ორიგინალი.
previous – წინა, წინასწარი, წინანდელი.
primitive – პრიმიტიული, საწყისი, პირველყოფილი.
problem – ამოცანა, პრობლემა, საკითხი.
produce –წარმოება (აწარმოებს), გამოშვება, შექმნა, გაგრძელება.
product –ნამრავლი.
proof – დამტკიცება, მტკიცება.
proper – საკუთარი, საკუთრივი, დამახასიათებელი, ნიშანდობლივი.
properly – საკუთრივ, სათანადოდ, მართებულად, სწორად, ჯეროვნად.
property – თვისება.

propose – წინადადების შემოტანა.

proposition –წინადადება, თეორემა.
prove – დამტკიცება, დადასტურება.
provide – უზრუნველყოფა, მიცემა, მიწოდება, გათვალისწინება.
provided – იმ პირობით, რომ, რომ, თუკი.
pure – წმინდა, სუფთა (წარმოსახვითი რიცხვი).

338
purely – წმინდად, სავსებით, სრულიად.
purport –შინაარსი, აზრი, მიზანი, გულისხმობს, ნიშნავს.
purpose – მიზანი, დანიშნულება.
puzzle – გამოცანა, თავსატეხი, პაზლი.

-Q-
q.e.d. = quodetardemonstrandum – რისი დამტკიცებაც გვინდოდა.

quadratic – კვადრატული.
qualify – განსაზღვრა, კვალიფიცირება.
qualitative – თვისებრივი, ხარისხობრივი.
qualitative – რაოდენობითი, ოდენობითი.
quantifier – კვანტორი.
quantitative – რაოდენობითი, ოდენობითი.
quantitatively – რაოდენობითად.
quantity – რაოდენობა, ოდენობა, სიდიდე.
quotient – განაყოფი, ფარდობა.

-R-
radius – რადიუსი.
range – არე, სფერო, დიაპაზონი, ინტერვალი, ამპლიტუდა.
rate – სისწრაფე, სიჩქარე, ტემპი, ნორმა, ხარისხი, კოეფიციენტი.

rather – უფრო, უფროსწორად, უკეთ, რამდენადმე, საკმაოდ.

ratio –ფარდობა, შეფარდება, პროპორცია, კოეფიციენტი.
rational – რაციონალური, გონივრული.
rationalization – რაციონალიზაცია.

real – ნამდვილი, რეალური, ფაქტიური.

339
realize – განხორციელება, რეალიზება, გაგება, მიხვედრა.
reason – გონება, მიზეზი, საფუძველი, მოსაზრება.
reasonable – გონივრული, მისაღები.
rectangle – მართკუთხედი, სწორკუთხედი.
rectangular – მართკუთხა, სწორკუთხედი.
reduce – შემცირება, დაყვანა.

reduction – დაყვანა, რედუქცია, შემცირება.

reference –მითითება, დამოწმება, მოხსენიება, კავშირი.
regard – მიჩნევა, ჩათვლა, განხილვა, ანგარიშის გაწევა, მხედველობაში
მიღება.
relate – შეხება, დაკავშირება, ურთიერთობის დამყარება.
relation – თანადგომა, შეაბამისობა, მიმართება.
relevant – შესაფერისი, სათანადო, მართებული.
represent – წარმოდგენა, ასახვა, გამოხატვა.
representation – წარმოდგენა, ასახვა, გამოსახულება.
require – მოთხოვნა, საჭიროება.
required – საჭირო, აუცილებელი, საძებნი.
requirement – მოთხოვნა, პირობა.
respect –კავშირი, დამოკიდებულება, მიმართება.

respectively – შესაბამისად.
respecting – მიმართ, შესახებ.
restrict – შეზღუდვა, შემოსაზღვრა.
restricted – შეზღუდული, შემოსაზღვრა.
restriction – შეზღუდვა, დავიწროება.
ring – რგოლი.

340
root – ფესვი, ძირი.
resolve – გადაწყვეტა, ამოხსნა, გადაჭრა.
respect – კავშირი, დამოკიდებულება, მიმართება.
restrict – შეზღუდვა, შემოსაზღვრა.
result – შედეგი, რეზულტატი.
revise – შესწორება.

rule – წესი, კანონი.

- S-
satisfy – დაკმაყოფილება, შესრულება.
section – კვეთი, ჭრილი, პროფილი.
select – არჩევა, შერჩევა, ამორჩევა.
separate – განცალკევება, გამოყოფა, დაცილება.
sequence – მიმდევრობა, რიგი.
set (set, set) – დასმა, დადგმა, დადება, მოთავსება, დაშვება.

sign – ნიშანი, სიმბოლო.

similar – მსგავსი, ანალოგიური, ერთგვაროვანი.
similarity – მსგავსება, ანალოგი.
similarly – ანალოგიურად, მსგავსად.

simple – მარტივი, ელემენტარული.

simplify – გამარტივება.
simply – მარტივად, უბრალოდ.
simultaneous – ერთდროული, თანადროული.

simultaneously – ერთდროულად.

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single – ერთი, ერთადერთი, ერთეული, ცალკეული.
single-valued – ცალსახა (ფუნქცია).
singular – განსაკუთრებული, სინგულარული.
singularity –განსაკუთრებულობა, თავისებურება.
slope – დახრილობა, დაქანება.
solution – ამოხსნა, ამონახსნი, გადაწყვეტა, გადაჭრა.

solve – ამოხსნა, გადაწყვეტა, გადაჭრა.

source – წყარო, პირველმიზეზი, სათავე.
square – კვადრატი, მეორეხარიხსი.
stationary – სტაციონარული, უმოძრაო, ჩამდგარი.
step – ნაბიჯი, საფეხური, სტადია.
stipulate – განპირობება, უზრუნველყოფა.
strip – ზოლი.
subdivision –ქვედაყოფა, ქვედანაყოფი.
subsequence – ქვემიმდევრობა.
subset – ქვესიმრავლე.
substitution – შეცვლა, ჩასმა, შენაცვლება.
subtle – ფაქიზი, ნატიფი, დახვეწილი.
succession – მიმდევრობა.

successive – მიმდევრობითი, მომდევნო.

sufficient–საკმაო, საკმარისი.
suggest – რჩევა, წინადადებისმიცემა, აზრისგამოთქმა, დაშვება.
suggestion – წინადადება, აზრი, დაშვება.
sum – ჯამი.
summation – შეჯამება, დაჯამება.

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supply – მომარაგება, მიწოდება, კვება.
suppose – ვარუდი, დაშვება.
supposition – ვარუდი, დაშვება.
supremum – ზედასაზღვარი.
subjection – დაქვემდებარებარამეზე.
subjective – სუბიექტური.

symbol – სიმბოლო, ნიშანი, აღნიშვნა.

symbolic – სიმბოლური.
symbolism – სიმბოლიზმი.
system – სისტემა.

-T-
tamper – გაყალბება, მანიპულირება.
technique – ტექნიკა, მეთოდი, ხერხი, მეთოდიკა.
tend – მისწრაფება, სწრაფვა.

term – წევრი.
test – გამოცდა.
testing – გამოცდა, შემოწმება.
theorem – თეორემა, დებულება.

theory – თეორია.
transcendence – ტრანსცენდენტულობა.
transcendental – ტრანსცენდენტული.
true – ნამდვილი, ჭეშმარიტი, სწორი, ზუსტი, სამართლიანი.

turn – ტრიალი, ბრუნვა, ბრუნება.

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type – ტიპი, კლასი.
typical – ტიპობრივი, ტიპური, დამახასიათებელი.

-U-
unambiguous – არაორაზროვანი.
unbounded – შემოუსაზღვრელი.
undefined – განუსაზღვრელი.
uniform – თანაბარი, ერთგვაროვანი.
uniformly – თანაბრად, ერთგვაროვნად.

union – გაერიანება, კავშირი, ერთიანობა.

unique – ერთადერთი, ცალსახა.
uniqueness – ერთადერთობა, ცალსახობა.
unit – ერთეული, ელემენტი, ბლოკი.

unity – ერთიანობა, მთლიანობა.

universe – სამყარო, მსოფლიო.
upper – ზედა, უმაღლესი.

-V-
valid – სწორი, სამართლიანი, ძალაშიმყოფი, მართებული.
validity – სამართლიანობა, მართებულობა.
value – მნიშვნელობა, სიდიდე.
variable – ცვალებადი, ცვლადი.
various – განსხვავებული, სხვადასხვაგვარი.

vary – ცვლილება, ცვალებადი, შეცვლა.

verify – დადასტურება, დამტკიცება, შემოწმება, გამოცდა.

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vertical – ვერტიკალური, შვეული.
viceversa – პირიქით.
volume – მოცულობა, მასა.
vulgar – მარტივი (წილადი).

-W-
way – გზა, აშუალება, წესი, ხერხი, მეთოდი.
weak – სუსტი.
well-ordered –სავსებითდალაგებული(set–სიმრავლე).
whatever – რაცკი, როგორცკი, ნებისმიერი.
whence – საიდან, საიდანაც.
whenever – ყოველთვის, როცა, როდესაცკი.
whereas – მაშინ, როდესაც, რამდენადაც, ვინაიდან.
whether – თუ.
whichever – რომელიცარ, ნებისმიერი.

while – იმდროს, როცა, მაშინ, როდესაც.

whole – მთელი.
wide – განიერი, ფართო, ვრცელი.
width – სიგანე.

within – ში, შიგნით.

without – გარეშე.
worth – ფასი, ღირებულება.
wrong – მცდარი, არასწორი, უმართებულო.

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 -Y-
yew – სვლა (angle – სვლის კუთხე).

yet – ჯერ, ჯერ კიდევ, აქამდე.

yield – წარმოება, მიცემა, მიღება.

- Z-
zero – ნული.
zero – dimensional – ნულზომისა(set – ნულზომის).
zeta – ძეტა (function – ძეტა ფუნქცია).
zone – ზონა, ზოლი, სარტყელი.

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 List of Sourses

1. http://en.wikipedia.org
2. http://www.rapidtables.com/math
3. www.Chestofbooks.com
4. http://history.mcs.standac.uk/history
5. www.rmi.tsu.ge
6. http://genling.ru/books/item/f00/s00/z0000007/st002.shtml
7. http://mathopenref.com
8. https://www.britannica.com/
9. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics
10. http://www.thefamouspeople.com
11. Tsiala Maisuradze-Vakhania, Mathematics and Mahematicians. Tbilisi.
2016, publishing house “Mtsiknobari”, pp.207
12. V.A. Khodurskaya, English for students of Mathematics,
Moscow,“Visshaya shkola” Edu., pp.175.

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 „Mathematics is man’s supreme intellectual
achievement and the most original creation of the human
spirit: music may rouse or pacify the soul, painting may
delight the eye, poetry may stir the emotions, philosophy
may satisfy the mind and engineering may improve the
material life of man. But mathematics offer all these
values”- Morris Kline.

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