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Inter 1

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GEMS FROM THE MATHEMATICS TEACHER (INTER LEVEL) Compiled and Edited by S.R. SANTHANAM THE ASSOCIATION OF MATHEMATICS TEACHERS OF INDIA B-19, Vijay Avenue, Old No. 37, New No. 85, Venkatarangam Street, Triplicane, Chennai - 600005. Phone: 2844 1523 E-Mail: [email protected] Between Us Dear Reader, It is matter of pleasure and satisfaction that the second of the promised books also has been ready for use now. The earlier titled GEMS from the Mathematics Teacher has been popular which contained selected,,questions and solutions of all levels from our journal up to 1995. There was a demand for a similar one beyond that year with specified group — Junior, Inter and the like. Accordingly we planned one GEMS-Junior and one GEMS-Inter and the latter is now ready. The problems were chosen, checked for the solutions and additional information as hints to plan solving such problems by Sri. S.R. Santhanam, who has a background of Mathematics teaching for the past 4 decades, besides associated with the INMO culture. He is also in demand from several institutions to guide their teachers and students for Olympiad culture. | take this opportunity to thank him on behalf of the AMTI for this book production, preparing the manuscripts, correcting proofs and editing the same. The prospective users will find the material useful for NMTC, Olympiads, IIT and the like besides spending leisure time in problem solving. We hope and trust that the well wishers of the AMTI will make use of this material also. Suggestions for improvement are always welcome as ultimately quality products will stand the tests of time. With kind regards / best wishes, Yours sincerely, ety (M.MAHADEVAN) ' CONTENTS BASIC CONCEPTS 1. Algebra 2. Geometry 3. Numbei Theory 4. Combinatorics QUESTIONS 1. Algebra 2. Geometry 3. Number Theory 4, Combinatorics SOLUTIONS 1. Algebra 2. Geometry 3. Number Theory 4. Combinatorics Page 14 18 21 30 36 42 50 128 166 BASIC CONCEPTS Algebra Inequalities Problems in inequalities often come in olympiad examinations. There are so many standard inequalities which can be used to solve problems of olympiad nature in inequalities. (1) For two reals a,b if we want to prove a > 6 then it is enough to prove a—b is positive ie., a—b > 0. Similarly to prove a 1,5>1 Prove that 2(ab+ 1) > (a+ 1)(b4+ 1): Let S = 2ab+1)-(@+1)(b+1) 2ab+2—fab+a+b+1) = 2ab+2-ab-a-b-1 = ab—-a-b+1 = a(b—1)-(b-1) ={a-1)6-1). Since it is given that a> 1,b>1. We have a—1>0, b-1>0. 2S >0=> 2ab+1) > (@+1)(6+1). (2) Suppose we want to prove an algebraic expression is non- negative. If we express it as a perfect square or as the sum of squares then we are through Example: (i) Prove that for all real values of . x? + 16y? — Bry +8 >0. Gems — Inter 2? + 16y’ — Bry + 8 (x? + 16y? — 8ay) +8 (e-4y)? +8 Let Now (2 — 4y)? is always positive (or zero when x = 4y) §>0. (ii) Prove that a?+b?4?—ab—be—ca is always positive when a,b,c are reals, not all equal. Let S = a?+b?4+c?—ab—be- ca = joa + 20 + 2¢? — 20b — Bho — 20a] fs ie = 8) + (b- 0)? + (c—)?] (Since at least one of a—b, b—c, ¢= a is non-zero) (3) AM-GM-HM inequality If a,b are two positive reals then the arithmetic mean 4 geometric mean G and harmoriic,mean H’ are defined as follows: b A="" Gava If a,b,c, are three positive reals thérg atbte 4 3 » Gz(abe)t,. Ha 3 eh ie} Tf a1,02,...aq are n positive reals then A = “hat n, tay qQ W (a1.a2...0h)*, az Ir Problems and Solutions 3 ‘These means are related as follows: A>G2H. Equality holds only when all the numbers are equal. Example: (i) If a,b,c are distinct positive reals prove (a +)(b+c)(c+a) > Babe. For a,b apply AM > GM a+b > 2vab b+e > 2Wbe cta > 2V%ca => (a +6)(b-+.c)(c-+a) > Babe. (ii) If a,b,¢ are unequal positive reals prove atb bte cta a a 7 > 6. Consider the 6 positive qualities. Apply AM > GM inequality. etetatatsts +b+h+erEts (2-2-2-2-¢.2)" 6 > c Fat b Gems = Inter (4) Cauchy-Schwartz inequality Let a1,a2,...,@n, and 6;,b2...b, be two sets of real numbers then (a1b, + agb2 +... + nbn)” < (aj +03 +... +02) (+0 +... +02). and the equality holds if and only if a, _ 2 _ Gn th be On Example: If x,y,z are positive reals prove (t+ytz)P <9 +¥ +28) Consider the reals x3, y8, 23, 2}, y}, 23. Apply CS inequality we get, (w2.c} + yBy? + 2824) (ie.,) (2?+y?+22) < @+yY+2)(c+y+2). < @+y5+25)(c+ytz). (1) Consider the reals x,y,z,1,1,1. Apply C'S inequality we get, (el+ylt+21)? < @+y4+2)(24+1+21). (ic) @¥yt+z)? < 30? +y?+2%) (etyt2)* < 9? +4742). (2) From (1) and (2) we get, + (etytz) < 9@+y¥+2)(24+y4+2) > (ztytz) < 9(23 +4342). Problems and Solutions 5 (5) Tchebychev’s inequality If aj,a2,...aq, and bi,b2,-..bn are two sets of real numbers such that then aibi +azbz+-+-tanbn) (artart stan n _ n byt betes thn 7 (Equality holds when a) = a2 =--+=@q and by = by = ++ = bp). Example: When ‘n’ is a natural number. Prove Vit V8 vis ny Consider the two sets of reals Vi, V2,...,vn; V1,V2,..., VX. Clearly VI < ¥2< V3<...< Vn. Apply Tchebychev’s inequality 14BsS4ertn (Stes) (Vitis) n(n+1) > 2 Iv : = MON), (V4 VO4- + Vi? 2 ~ n VitVit--4Va < aoa Gems — Inter (6) Weierstrass Inequality If ai,a2,..-an are positive real numbers less than unity and S, =a; +a2+---+a, then () 1-5) < (1=a1)(1—a9)...(1- an) (ii) 14S, <(1+a1)(1+a2)...(1+¢n)- (7) Power mean theorem If a,b are positive reals then am +o™ _ fatb\™ . 2 < (+) if Ol. This can be extended to a finite no of reals @1,@2,...dn- Example: If a,b,c are positive reals prove that at +04 +c > abce(a+b+0) Applying Power-mean theorem M+tet (444)' 3 7 3 . at+btict atbtc) (atb+c\® (ie,) SARE 5 (4) (44) () Using AM — GM inequality we get b orere s Hae 3 = (44) > abe. ' 3 ayo Stee > solar dtd sat+ittct > abc(a+bte). Problems and Solutions 7 Polynomials and Polynomial equations (1) (2) When’ n is a positive integer, and ap # 0 and a are real or complex, then d(z) = age” + 4,2") +++ + an. is called a polynomials of degree 'n’ in 2. @9,01,-++)@n are called coefficients of f . aor” + ay2"-! +--+ + aq = 0 is called a polynomial equation of degree 7. Division algorithm If f(e) and 9(z) be polynomials of degree nm and m(m 1 has atleast one root. (7) Every polynomial of degree n > 1 has exactly n zeros. Every polynomial equation of degree n > 1 has exactly n roots. (8) If the equation agz” + ayz"-) + --- +a, = 0 where 0,4) ..-0, are real numbers (a9 # 0) has a complex root p+iq(p,g are reals ), and q #0 then it has also a complex root p— ig. (9) If the equation apz" + ajz"-! + --- +a, = 0 where 9,01 ...d are rational (a9 # 0) has an irrational root P+/a(P,q tational, q is not a square of a rational number) then p— is also a root. (10) If the rational number p/q,a fraction in its lowest form (p,q are’prime to each other, ¢ # 0) is a root of the equation aj2”+a;2"-!+4---+a, =0 where ap,a)...dn Problems and Solutions 9 are integers and ay # 0, then p isa divisor of an and q is a divisor of a9. Example: Consider the equation 32? — 26 + 16 = 0. ‘The roots are 8 and 2/3. Here p= 2,q = 3 we find p divides 16 and q divides 3. ‘ (11) Every rational root of the cquation 2 a" + ayz"! + aga"? +--+ an = 0. where each aj (i = 1,2....n) is an integer, must be an integer. Moreover, every such root must be a divisor of the constant ay. (12) Let aox"+a)2"-!+. ..+a, =0 be a polynomial equation where ap #0. Let 1,02,-..Qn be the roots then ay “a0 a2 a0 a3, Veiga = = (=1)"an ag a102-..0, = (13) @ is a common zero of two polynomials f(z) and g(x) iff it is a zero of their HCF. (14) Let f(z) = aoz"+a12"-!+---+an = 0 be an equation, where ay £0. Let a1,02...0” be the roots. Then the 1 equation whose roots are 2, 2.--- 2 is f(2)=0. Example: The roots of f(x) = 2? — 5x +6 =0 are 3.2. f(2) =0 is 2 -£4+6=0 ic, 62?-5c+1=0. Its roots are 1/3 and 1/2. 10 Gems — Inter (15) Equations which remain unchanged when .t is replaced by 4 are called reciprocal equations. There are two types of reciprocal equations. (i) The coefficients of the terms, equidistant. rou. the beginning and the end, are equal aud of the same sign. (ii) The coefficients are equal but of opposite sigus. Example: (1) 24+ 7x3 + 9x? +7, +1=0 (First type) (2) 25 — 324 + 723 — 72? + 8 -1=0 (Second type). If a is a root of a reciprocal equation then 2 will also be a root. Example: (1) Solve — 102° + 262? — 10r+1=0 a4 +1-10(23 +x) +262? = 0. Since z= 0 is not a root. We can divide by 22. e+ ~10(2+2) 426-0. z Let c+} =t=¢?-10t+24=0 (ie) t=6,4. => 2=342v2,2=24 V3, Example: (2) Solve 62° — 2525 + 3124 — 312? + 252-6 =0 6(a° — 1) — 252(x4 — 1) +312%(2? - 1) =0 6((29 —1)(* +2? +1) —262(2? -1)(0?+1) +312%(22 1) =0 (2? ~ 1){6(a4 + 2? + 1) - 252(0? + 1) +31x?} =a? -1=0or 624 + 6 — 25(03 + 2) +372? =0 or 6(2? + by) — 25(0 + 1)+37=0. 0 Problems and Solutions i (16) a7) (18) Let c+ => 6?-25t+25=0 t=5/3,5/2 5tivil 6 e=— 21, Let f(x) = apz" +a,2"-1+---+a, =0 be an equation whose roots are @1,a2.'.a. The equation whose roots are —a1,—03,...,-an is f(—2) =0. Example: The roots of f(z) = 22 -5r+6 = 0 are 2,3. The equation whose roots are —2,—3 is 2? 2(-5)+ (-2)(—3) =0. ie, 2? +5¢+6=0 ie, f(-2) =0. Let f(x) = ag2"+a,2""14---+an = 0 be a polynomial equation whose root are ay,a2...dm. The equation whose roots ate may,maz,...mar whose m is a real number is f(2) = 0. Example: f(x) = 2?—52+6=0 has roots 2,3. The equation whose roots are 4 and 6 (i.e.,) we multiply the roots by 2 is a?—2(44+6)+4x6=0 ie, 2?-10r+24=0. zt) 2? be ()=F-yt8=0 = 2? —10r+24=0. Let f(x) = aoz"+a,2"-! +--++a, =0 be an equation whose roots are a1,a2...dn. The equation whose roots are ay + hy a+ Ay...n +h is f(z—h) =0. (whose h is a constant). ‘The equation whose roots are ay — h,a2—hy...dm —h is f(w@+h) =0. Example: f(z) = 2? —52+6=0. The roots are 2,3. Consider the equation whose roots are 1,2. The roots 12 Gems — Inter are diminished by 1. «a? —2(1+2)+1x2 = gw’ -324+2 = F(@+1) = (e+)? -5(e +1) +6 (ie,) 27 4+20+1-50-54+6 S2?-32+2 = eosoceo (19) Descarte’s of Signs (1) An equation f(c) = 0 cannot have more positive roots than the number of changes of signs from positive to negative or from negative to positive in terms of its first number. (2) An equation f(z) = 0 cannot have more negative roots than the number of changes of signs in f(-2) =0. Example: (1) Consider the equation 24 + 122? + 7-11 =0. It cannot have more than one positive root because there is only one change in sign. f(-2) = 24+ 1227-72-11 =0 There is only one change of sign. ‘It cannot have more than one negative root, Thus the equation has at least two imaginary roots. (2) Consider the equation F( ‘There are 4 changes of signs. It cannot have more than 4 Positive roots, ratte a4 129, A(-a) = 2 — 493924129, Problems and Solutions 13 (20) ‘There are two changes of signs. It cannot have more than 2 negative roots. => It has atmost 6 real roots — It has atleast 6 imaginary roots. Certain equations demand numerical methods to solve. In some problems of physics and other disciplines we need not find the exact root but we need to know an upper and lower bound within which the roots lie. If the roots of an equation lie between m and M where m AC.BD. 4 ‘The equally holds when the quadrilateral is cyclic which is Ptolemy’s theorem (7) If A,B,C,D, and A’,B',C’,D’,... are two sets of points on two parallel straight lines such that AB : A'B' = BC: BIC’ =CD:C'D'=.. AA', BB',CC', DD! ete are concurrent. © . then the lines yy » a ol Gems — Inter (8) Ceva’s (Pronounced as KA-VA) Theorem If the straight lines joining the vertices A,B,C ofa tnengle ABC to any point O meet the opposite sides in L,M,N respectively then Conversely if on the sides BC,CA,AB or these sides produced, points L,M,N be taken such that then AL,BM,CN are concurrent. (9) Menelaus theorem Ifa transversal cuts the sides BC,CA, AB of a triangle ABC in L,M.N respectively, then BGM ANA, iG MA NB Conversely, if’ M,N are points on the sides BC,CA.AB or these sides produced such that BL OM AN LC MA NB~ then L,M.N are collinear. (10) The distance of any vertex of a triangle from the double the distance of the opposite side frou: the circumeentre. orthocentr (11) In AABC, let Ryr,ri,r2.73 be the circumradius, in radius, and the exradii opposite to A,B,C respectively and 3 is the circumcentre. I,J), Jo, J3 are the incentre, and the entres opposite to A,B,C respectively, then SP = R?-2Rr SH} = R?42Rro =F +2Rr, SI? = R?42Rr; Problems and Solutions 17 (12) (13) (14) Nine-point circle theorem A unique circle passes through the mid-points of the sides of a triangle, the feet of the altitudes , the midpoints of the lines joining the orthocentre to the vertices of the triangle. The centre of the circle is at the mid point of the straight line joining the circumcentre and orthocentre and its radius is equal to half the circumradius. This circle is called nine point circle of the triangle. Apollonius Theorem If the side BC of a AABC is divided at D such that on m-BD=n- DC then mAB? +n AC? = (m+ n)AD? +mBD? +nDC?. Stewart’s Theorem The following result is called Stewart’s Theorem. Stewart was a student of Simson. The surprising fact is that Stewart theorem was not found by Stewart and Simson line theorem was not found by Simson. . a(p? + mn) = Pm +a?n 18 Gems ~ Inter Number Theory Divisibility A positive integer NV is divisible by (a) 2 if and only if the units digit is even. (b) 3 if and only if the sum of all digits is divisible by 3. (c) 4 if and only if the number formed by the last two digits is divisible by 4. (d) 5 if and onlly if the last digit is 0 or 5. (c) 6 if and only if it is divisible by 3 and 2. (£) 8 ifand only if the number formed by the last three digits are divisible by 8. (8) 9 if and only if the sum of the digits is divisible by 9. (h) 11 if and only if the difference of the sum of its digits at odd places and the sum of the digits at even places is either zero or a number divisible by 11. (i) 12 if and only if N is divisible by 4 and 3. Euclidean Algorithm For any two integers a,b(# 0) there exist unique integers q and r such that a=qgb+r,0 0, is an integer, 0< C; <9, On #0, g is called the base of a. Prime factorisation Every positive integer greater than 1 can be expressed as a product of primes, uniquely upto the order of the factors. (i.¢.,) any positive integer a can be expressed a8 a = pip2---Pr, all Bi are primes, not necessarily different. Concept of congruence and its elementary properties Let ‘m’ be a positive integer. Two integers a and b are such that they leave the same remainder when divided by m then we write a = b(mod m). In otherwords, (a — b) is divisible by m. For example, 8= 1 (mod 7), 28= 1 (mod 9) and 7= 3 (mod 5). (1) If a1 = by (mod m), az = bz (mod m) then (i) (a1 £42) = (b1 + ba) (mod m) (ii) az = bibz (mod m) (iii) cay = ab (mod m) where c is any integer. (2) If ca = ch(mod m), and (cm) = 1, then a= b(mod m). (3) If ca = ch(mod m), and (cm) = d then a= b(mod 9). (4) If (a,p) = 1,p is a prime, then a?! = Nmod p). - [Fermat’s little theorem]. This theorem has an extension due to Euler. . 20 Gems ~ Inter (5) Euler denoted by (m) (called the Euler function) the number of positive integers not exceeding m which are relatively prime to m. The reader can convince himself by taking into the table below. m |1]/2|3/4/5/6/7/8|9]10 om) }1}1}2{/2]4]}2]}6}4]}6] 4 (6) Let m be a positive integer. If it is a prime then $(m) =m —1, if it is composite, then ¢(m) |Ancl=7. Problems and Solutions 27 Permutations and Combinations (a) (Addition Principle) If one operation can be performed in ‘m’ different ways and another independent operation can bé performed in ‘n’ different ways then the number of different ways of performing either of the two operations is (m+n). (b) (Multiplication Principle) If one operation can be performed in m different ways and another independent operation in ‘n’ different ways then the two operations in succession can be performed in (mxn) different ways. ( S (Permutations) The word permutation means arrangement. The number of permutations (arrangements) of 7 different things taken r(< n) at a time is given by n! @=n! where a! = 1.2.3.4...n, with 0!=1 nP, = P(n,r) = (d) If there are ‘n’ objects ‘m’ are of one kind and the remaining (n — m) are of another kind, the number of permutations of these n objects taken all at a time is This result can be extended to a finite number of groups. Let there be x objects of which m1 are of one kind, nz are of second kind ng are of third kind ...np are of some kind, where nam tngt tl. ‘Then the number of permutations of the objects taken all at a time is nt ming! Tl

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