Lecture 2

PM Skills and Competencies, and PM Tools and

Techniques.
PM Principles
PM Principles are
foundational guidelines
for strategy, decision
making, and problem
solving.
General Project
Management Management
Professional standards Principles Principles
and methodologies are
based on principles,
which could serve as
laws or rules.

2
PM Performance Domains
A Project Performance
Domain is a group of
related activities that PM
are critical for the Principles
effective delivery of
project outcomes.

Performance Domains are

interactive,
interrelated, and
interdependent areas of Performance
focus working together to
achieve project outcomes. Domains

3
• Recall the definitions of project management
(PM). PM deals with the processes/methods,
knowledge and skills.

• PM tools and techniques (PMTTs) are used across

the PM knowledge areas and the project stages
(Initiating, Planning, Implementing,
Controlling, and Closing)

4
PM Competence
• The expected outcome obtained by applying
knowledge, personal attitude, and skills and
experience in a certain function (APM).

• The ability to perform activities within a project

environment to achieve the
expected/defined/accepted outcomes(PMI, 2007).

• Competent project managers consistently apply

their PM knowledge and personal behaviours to
increase the likelihood of delivering projects
that meet stakeholders’ requirements.

5
Dimensions of Competence
1. Knowledge/Technical - what the project manager
knows about the application of processes,
tools, and techniques for project activities
2. Personal/Behavioural - how the project manager
behaves when performing activities within the
project environment
3. Performance/Contextual - how the project
manager applies project management knowledge
to meet the project requirements.

6
7
 APM Competence Framework 1st edition (2008) to APM Competence Framework 2nd edition (V1.0, 2015)

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APM Competence

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3
TC01 Concept
TC02 Project success and benefits management
TC03 Stakeholder management
TC04 Requirements management
TC05 Project risk management
TC06 Estimating
TC07 Business case
TC08 Marketing and sales
TC09 Project reviews
TC10 Definition
TC11 Scope management
TC12 Modelling and testing
TC13 Methods and procedures
TC14 Project quality management
TC15 Scheduilng
TC16 Resource management
TC17 Information management and reporting
TC18 Project management plan
TC19 Configuration management
TC20 Change control
TC21 Implementation
TC22 Technology management
TC23 Budgeting and cost management
TC24 Procurement
TC25 Issue management
TC26 Development
TC27 Value management
TC28 Earned value management

TC29 Value engineering

TC30 Handover and close out

BC01 Communication
BC02 Teamwork
BC03 Leadership
BC04 Conflict management
BC05 Negotiation
BC06 Human resource management
BC07 Behavioural characteristics
BC08 Learning and development
BC09 Professionalism and ethics
CC01 Project sponsorship

CC02 Health, safety and environmental management

CC03 Project life cycles

CC04 Project finance and funding
CC05 Legal awareness
CC06 Organisational roles
CC07 Organisational structure
CC08 Governance of project management 8
APM Competence Framework 2nd edition v1.0 © APM 2015 – issued under licence
Competence and Competency
1. APM adopts ‘competence’ while PMI adopts
competency framework. Competence refers to the
functional areas while competency refers to the
behavioural areas.
2. Competence can be multi-dimensionally described
as a ‘meta-competence’
3. Meta-competence requires a skill, defined as a
personal quality that is productive, expandable,
and social. A skill is usually predefined and
operationalized while competence enhances the
display of a skill. Mathematically, Skill =
Knowledge + Experience

9
• Competency is an expected outcome or
performance standard expected of an
individual’s efforts [on activities] and the
manner in which such activities are carried out
(APM).
• Competency is less definable, measurable, and
performative. Hence, defined operationally
(Babatunde, 2020)1 as a higher-level form of
competence.
1. Babatunde, O.K. (2020), “Mapping the implications and competencies
for Industry 4.0 to hard and soft total quality management”, The TQM
Journal, https://doi.1108/TQM-07-2020-0158

10
Professionalism
Professionalism has shifted from being a
position of significant status and autonomy,
hard-earned and jealously guarded by
occupational groups to professions acting as
institutionalized form of control of occupations

There are five dimensions of professionalism for

career development.

11
1. Breadth: Body of Knowledge;
2. Depth: Competence Framework;
3. Achievement: Qualifications;
4. Commitment: Continuing Professional
Development; and
5. Accountability: Code of Professional Conduct

12
The Continuum: Profession, Professionalization,
Professionalism

The process of being Occupational value

Professionals (e.g. indoctrinated (e.g. and ideological
COP and BOK) education and interpretations (e.g.
certification) trust)

Adapted from Evetts, J. (2013), Professionalism: Value and ideology, Current Sociology Review, 61(5-6),778-796
13 33
An empirical study on the use
of project management tools
and techniques across project
life-cycle and their impact on
project success
Peerasit Patanakul
Stevens Institute of Technology, New Jersey, USA

Boonkiart Iewwongcharoen
King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok, Thailand

Dragan Milosevic
Portland State University, Oregon, USA

Even though project management tools and techniques (PMTT) have been commonly used by
project managers, research on PMTT still has not been adequately investigated as to whether its
use contributes to the success of a project. The lack of such knowledge leads to the use of PMTT
because of popularity rather than any known benefits. To respond to this issue, the authors
conducted a large-sample study based on a survey and statistical analyses to investigate the use
of PMTT. Evidence emerged that some PMTT should be used in a certain phase of a project and
such uses contribute to project success.

Introduction
14
Project management has been around for decades and has gained its reputa-
tion in recent years as a management practice that helps an organisation
achieve its business results. Project management helps an organisation reduce
product development time to market, utilise limited resources, handle
technological complexity, respond to stakeholder satisfaction and increase
 Peerasit Patanakul, Boonkiart Iewwongcharoen and Dragan Milosevic

PMTTs
Table 1: PMTT and project management knowledge areas
Knowledge areas PMTT

& KAs
Integration management Project selection, return on investment, payback period, project
charter
Scope management WBS, scope statement, quality function deployment, change
request, scope change control, product review, performance
measurement, lesson learned
Cost management Cost estimating techniques, earned value management, cost
change control system, performance measurement
Quality management Benefit/cost analysis, flowcharting, cause-and-eÄect diagram, cost
of quality, Pareto diagram, control charts, trend analysis, quality
audits, benchmarking, statistical sampling
Time management CPM, PERT, GERT, Gantt charts, simulation, Monte Carlo
analysis, buÄer management, schedule crashing, milestone charts,
variance analysis
Risk management Risk matrix, Monte Carlo analysis, decision tree analysis, check
list, SWOT analysis, and Delphi, project risk audit, earned value
management
Human resource Stakeholder analysis, responsibility matrix, team building
management activities, reward and recognition systems, organisation charts,
project team directory
Communications Stakeholder analysis, earned value management, information
management retrieval systems
Procurement Make-or-buy analysis, contract type selection, statement of work,
management contract change control system, source selection, bidder
conferences
15
(Might and Fischer, 1985; Cash and Fox, 1992; Hatfield, 1995; Thamhain,
1996; Milosevic, Inman et al., 2001). To determine the success or failure of a
project, many authors proposed diÄerent project success dimensions. Re-
cently, the literature on project success focuses on a multi-dimension and
multi-criteria approach, referred to as the stakeholder approach. Baccarini
 An empirical study on the use of project management tools and techniques

Table 3: PMTT and their ratings from the expert panel

39 PMTT included in the survey
T01 Analogous estimate (4.5) T14 Earned Value Management, EVM T27 Project change request (3.75)
(2.0)
T02 Bar chart (4.75) T15 Flowchart (3.25) T28 Project charter (3.5)
T03 Bottom-up estimate (4.5) T16 Focus group (3.0) T29 Responsibility matrix (3.75)
T04 Brainstorming (3.75) T17 Hierarchical schedule (3.75) T30 Risk response plan (2.75)
T05 Cause and eÄect diagram (2.75) T18 Lessons learned (4.25) T31 Schedule crashing (2.75)
T06 Chart of accounts (3.5) T19 Milestone analysis (3.5) T32 Scope statement (3.5)
T07 Checklist (4.25) T20 Milestone chart (4.25) T33 Skill inventory (3.0)
T08 Communication plan (2.75) T21 Milestone prediction chart (2.75) T34 Slip chart (2.75)
T09 Contingency plan (3.0) T22 Monte Carlo analysis (1.75) T35 Stakeholder analysis (3.25)
T10 Cost baseline (3.5) T23 Pareto Diagram (3.0) T36 Stakeholder matrix (2.75)
T11 Critical Path Method CPM (3.5) T24 Performance Measurement T37 Time-scaled Arrow Diagram,
Baseline, PMB (4.0) TAD (3.0)
T12 Customer roadmap (2.75) T25 Performance report (4.5) T38 Top-down estimate (3.75)
T13 Customer visits (3.5) T26 Project change log (4.0) T39 Work Breakdown Structure, WBS
(3.5)
17 PMTT not included in the survey
AÅnity diagram (2.5) Cost planning map (1.75) Parametric estimation (1.75)
Analytic hierarchy process (2.25) Critical chain scheduling (2.0) PERT (2.0)
Assumption analysis (2.25) Decision tree analysis (2.0) Project SWOT analysis (1.75)
Change co-ordination matrix (2.25) Jogging line (2.0) Quality function deployment (1.25)
Commitment scorecard (2.0) Life cycle costing (2.5) Sample selection (1.75)
Control charts (2.25) Line of balance (1.5)
16

generic phases are common to the mainstream project management literature

and practice (Adams and Barndt, 1983; PMI, 2000; Milosevic, 2003; PMI,
Organizations
Organizations are constantly restructured to meet
environmental demands. Restructuring can change the
roles of individuals.

The following are important in any organizational

structures
• Authority: the power granted to individuals (possibly by their
position) so that they can make final decisions.
• Responsibility: the obligation incurred by individuals in their
roles in the formal organization to effectively perform.
• Accountability: being answerable for the satisfactory
completion of a specific assignment (Accountability = Authority
+ Responsibility).

17
Authority and Power
• Authority and responsibility can be delegated to lower
levels in the organization, whereas accountability
usually rests with the individual.

• The best way to document the project manager’s

authority is through the project charter. Project
managers have a lot of delegated authority but little
formal power.

• Project managers must, therefore, get jobs done through

the use of interpersonal influences (next slide):

18
Types of Power
• Legitimate power: the project manager is
officially empowered to issue orders.
• Reward power: the project manager dispenses
valued organizational rewards.
• Penalty power: the project manager dispenses
penalties to be avoided.
• Expert power: the project manager possesses
special knowledge or expertise.
• Referent power: the project personnel are
attracted to the manager or the project.

19
Organizational Theory
Organizational Theory provides information regarding the
way in which people, teams, and organizational units
behave; hence, Organizational Behaviour.

Different organizational structures (refer to the next

slide) have different individual response, individual
performance, and personal relationship characteristics.

Also, applicable organizational theories may recommend

exercising a flexible leadership/management style that
adapts to the changes in a team’s maturity level
throughout the project life cycle.

20
Traditional management structure Pure product or projectized structure
21
Typical matrix structure Modifications of the matrix structure:
director of project management
22
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory
Y Management Styles
S/No Theory X Theory Y
1 Emphasis on focus and decision making Emphasis on decentralization and
autonomy
2 Emphasis on control of resources Emphasis on measuring results
3 Leadership by managers The employee-oriented and supportive
role by administrators
4 The use of external incentives The use of internal incentives
5 Expects short-term results Expects long-term results
6 Using the mechanisms of control by Use of internal control mechanisms
others
7 Insists on using only the features and Efforts to develop resources and
capabilities available increase production capacity and
service
8 Stresses the need to resolve conflicts Stresses the possibility of unity and
of interest between people cooperation among staff
23
Culture and Types
Culture is:
1. A pattern of shared basic assumptions,
2. invented, discovered, or developed by a given group,
3. as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation
and internal integration,
4. that has worked well enough to be considered valid, and,
therefore,
5. is to be taught to new members of the group as the
6. correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those
problems.

Consequently, there are national cultures and organizational

cultures. In-between, there are industry cultures, professional
cultures and corporate cultures.

24
National Culture
“The collective programming of the mind distinguishing
the members of one group or category of people from
others”. Prof. Geert Hofstede

The six dimensions of national culture are:

1. Power Distance Index (PDI)
2. Individualism Versus Collectivism (IDV)
3. Masculinity Versus Femininity (MAS)
4. Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)
5. Long Term Orientation Versus Short Term Normative Orientation
(LTO)
6. Indulgence Versus Restraint (IVR)

25
The Six Dimensions for BRICS
Dimensions Brazil Russia India China South
Africa
PDI 69 93 77 80 49
IDV 38 39 48 20 65
MAS 49 36 56 66 63
UAI 76 95 40 30 49
LTO 44 81 51 87 34
IVR 59 20 26 24 63

To compare different countries, https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-

comparison/

26
Organizational Culture
“Organizational culture refers to shared basic assumptions,
values, and beliefs that characterize a setting and are
taught to newcomers as the proper way to think and feel …”

“Organizational climate refers to the shared perceptions of

and the meaning attached to the policies, practices, and
procedures employees experience and the behaviours they
observe getting rewarded …”

The Competing Values Framework (CVF)is an influential and

extensively used model in the study of organizational
culture. CVF’s two dimensions describe four types of
organizational culture(next slide)

Schneider, B., Ehrhart, M.G. and Macey, W.H., 2013. Organizational climate and culture. Annual review of
psychology, 64, pp.361-388. 27
 of organizational effectiveness [28]. CVF is based on two dimensions of: (i) flexibility
and discretion versus stability and control, and (ii) external focus and differentiation
versus internal focus and integration [29]. The two dimensions describe four models of
CVF including: (i) human relations model, (ii) open system model, (iii) rational goal
model, and (iv) internal process model [29]. These four CVF models morphed into the
four organizational culture types including: (i) Clan, (ii) Adhocracy, (iii) Market, and
(iv) Hierarchy [30] as shown in Fig. 1 and discussed subsequently.
Organizational Culture Types

Fig. 1. The four culture-archetypes of CVF, Source [31]

28

Clan culture stresses flexibility plus discretion/change and concentrates on the

Conflicts
Conflicts are a way of life in a project structure and
can occur at any level in the organization, due to
incompatible objectives.

Conflicts occur because people on the project team may

have different values, interests, feelings, and goals.

Some conflicts can be resolved quickly while other

conflicts may take much longer to resolve.

29
Conflict Resolution Modes
1. Confronting (or Collaborating) – the conflicting parties meet
face to face and try to work through their disagreements.
2. Compromising – bargaining or searching for solutions that leave
both parties with some degree of satisfaction.
3. Smoothing (or Accommodating) – reducing the emotions that exist
in a conflict by emphasizing areas of agreement.
4. Forcing (or Competing) – when one party tries to impose the
solution on being uncooperative.
5. Avoiding (or Withdrawing) – a temporary solution that results in
recurrence of the problem and resulting conflict.

30