BTTM 6 All

SOC 312: Nepalese Society and Politics
Course Objectives
The main purpose of the course is to do an overview of the major perspectives and
arguments comprising the political sociology against tourism field, including
classical and contemporary readings. The issues studied in this field include the
nature of power the state, relations between state and society, social movements,
political organization, and civic participation, political culture, voting behavior,
and citizenship that related to tourism.
Course Description
The subject includes: Introduction, society, political society, political community,

political culture & ideology. In the socio-policy perspectives, it includes behavior
approach and political socialization. Emphasis is given to the social and political
approaches in Nepalese Tourism.
Course Details
Unit 1: Introduction: What is society and what is Political Sociology?
Definitions & Scope of Analysis: Society, Politics and Sociology; A Historical

Overview of the main Theoretical Approaches to Society and Political
Sociology.
1.1 Society: The term "society" came from the Latin word societas, which in turn was
derived from the noun socius ("comrade, friend, and ally"; adjectival form socialis) used
to describe a bond or interaction between parties that are friendly, or at least civil. Without
an article, the term can refer to the entirety of humanity (also: "society in general", "society
at large", etc.), although those who are unfriendly or uncivil to the remainder of society in
this sense may be deemed to be "antisocial". However, the Scottish economist, Adam
Smith taught instead that a society "may subsist among different men, as among different
merchants, from a sense of its utility without any mutual love or affection, if only they
refrain from doing injury to each other."
Used in the sense of an association, a society is a body of individuals outlined by the bounds
of functional interdependence, possibly comprising characteristics such as national
or cultural identity, social solidarity, language, or hierarchical structure.
1.1.1 Origin and usage of society
The term society emerged in the fifteenth century and is derived from the French societe.
The French word, in turn, had its origin in the Latin societas, a "friendly association with
others," from socius meaning "companion, associate, and comrade or business partner."
Essential in the meaning of society is that its members share some mutual concern or
interest, a common objective or common characteristics, often a common culture.
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Society and culture are similar concepts, but their scopes are different. A society is an
interdependent community, while culture is an attribute of a community: the complex web
of shifting patterns that link individuals together. For example, Clifford Geertz suggested
that "society" is the actual arrangement of social relations while "culture" consists
of beliefs and symbolic forms.
In the study of social sciences "society" has been used to mean a group of people that form
a semi-closed social system, in which most interactions are with other individuals
belonging to the group. According to sociologist Richard Jenkins, the term addresses a
number of important existential issues facing people:
1. How humans think and exchange information. The sensory world makes up
only a fraction of human experience, so in order to understand the world; we have
to conceive of human interaction in the abstract, namely society.
2. Many phenomena cannot be reduced to individual behavior. In order to

explain certain conditions, a view of something "greater than the sum of its parts"
is needed.
3. Collectives often endure beyond the lifespan of individual members.
4. The human condition has always meant going beyond the evidence of our
senses. In other words, every aspect of our lives is tied to the collective sense.
In political science, "society" is often used to mean the totality of human relationships,
generally in contrast to the State, the apparatus of rule or government within a territory:
1.1.2 Some of the important characteristics of society:
A comprehensive understanding of society requires a thorough analysis of its
characteristics. But the term society could be understood both from a narrower and broader
sense. In a narrower sense society refers to a group of people but in a broader sense it refers
to the whole human society. However, society has the following characteristics:
(1) Likeness: Likeness is the most important characteristic of society. Famous sociologist
Maclver opines that society means likeness. Without a sense of likeness, there could be no
mutual recognition of belonging together and therefore no society. This sense of likeness
was found in early society on kinship and in modern societies the conditions of social
likeness have broadened out into the principles of nationality.
(2) Differences: Along with likeness, differences are another important characteristic of
society. Because society involves differences and it depends on it as much as on likeness.
That is why Maclver opines that “primary likeness and secondary differences create the
greatest of all institutions-the division of labour”. If people will be alike in all respect
society could not be formed and there would be little reciprocity and relationship became
limited. Family as the first society based on biological differences and differences in
aptitude, interest and capacity. Though differences is necessary for society but differences
by itself does not create society. Hence a difference is sub-ordinate to likeness.
(3) Inter-dependence: Interdependence is another important characteristic of society. This
fact of interdependence is visible in every aspect of present day society. Famous Greek
Philosopher, Aristotle remarked that ‘Man is a social animal’. As a social animal he is
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dependent on others. The survival and well being of each member is very much depended
on this interdependence. No individual is self sufficient.
(4) Co-operation and Conflict: Both co-operation and conflict are two another important
characteristics of society. Because famous sociologist Maclver once remarked that
“Society is Cooperation crossed by conflict”. Co-operation is essentially essential for the
formation of society. Without co-operation there can be no society. People can’t maintain
a happy life without co-operation. Like co-operation conflict is also necessary for society.
In a healthy and well developed society both co-operation and conflict coexist.
(5) Society is a network or web of social relationship: Social relationships are the
foundation of society. That is why famous sociologist Maclver remarked that society is a
network of social relationship. Hence it is difficult to classify social relationships. But this
social relationship is based on mutual awareness or recognition to which Cooley call we-
feeling, Giddings call consciousness of kind and Thomas as common propensity. Without
these social relationships no society could be formed.

(6) Permanent Nature: Permanency is another important characteristic of society. It is not
a temporary organisation of individuals. Society continues to exist even after the death of
individual members. Society is a co-herent organisation.
(7) Society is Abstract: Society is an abstract concept. As Maclver opines society is a web
of social relationships. We can’t see this relationship but we can feel it. Hence it is an
abstract concept. Wright has rightly remarked that “society in essence means a state or
condition, a relationship and is, therefore, necessarily an abstraction”. Besides society
consists of customs, traditions, folkways, mores and culture which are also abstract. Hence
society is abstract in nature.
(8) Society is Dynamic : The very nature of society is dynamic and changeable. No society
is static. Every society changes and changes continuously. Old customs, traditions,
folkways, mores, values and institutions got changed and new customs and values takes
place. Society changes from its traditional nature to modern nature. Hence it is one of the
most important characteristic of society.
(10) Comprehensive Culture: Culture is another important characteristic of society. Each
and every society has it’s own culture which distinguishes it from others. Culture is the
way of life of the members of a society and includes their values, beliefs, art, morals etc.
Hence culture is comprehensive because it fulfills the necessities of social life and is
culturally self-sufficient. Besides each and every society transmits its cultural pattern to the
succeeding generations.
(11) Something more than mere collection of individuals: No doubt society consists of
individuals. But mere collection of individuals is not society. It is something more than that
and something beyond the individual. Durkheim is right when he remarked that society is
more than the sum of its parts i.e. individuals.
(12) Accommodation and Assimilation: This two associative social process is also
important for the smooth functioning and continuity of society. Hence it is also another
characteristic of society
1.2 Politics: Politics is a multifaceted word. It has a set of fairly specific meanings that are
descriptive and nonjudgmental (such as "the art or science of government" and "political
principles"), but often does carry a connotation of dishonest malpractice. The negative
connotation of politics, as seen in the phrase "play politics", for example, has been in use
since at least 1853, when abolitionist Wendell Phillips declared: "We do not play politics;
anti-slavery is no half-jest with us."
A variety of methods are deployed in politics, which include promoting one's own political
views among people, negotiation with other political subjects, making laws, and
exercising force, including warfare against adversaries. Politics is exercised on a wide
range of social levels, from clans and tribes of traditional societies, through modern local
governments, companies and institutions up to sovereign states, to the international level.
It is very often said that politics is about power. A political system is a framework which
defines acceptable political methods within a given society. History of political thought

can be traced back to early antiquity, with seminal works such as Plato's Republic,
Aristotle's Politics and the works of Confucius.
The terms politics comes from the same Greek word from which the title
of Aristotle's book Politics (Polis) also derives; polis means "affairs of the cities".
The book title was rendered in Early Modern English in the mid-15th century as
"Polettiques"; it became "politics" in Modern English. The singular politic first
attested in English 1430 and comes from Middle French politique, in turn
from Latin politicus, which is the Latinization of the Greek (politikos), meaning
amongst others "of, for, or relating to citizens", "civil", "civic", "belonging to the
state",in turn from (polites), "citizen" and that from (polis), "city".
1.2.1 Classifications of Politics

a. Formal politics: Formal politics refers to the operation of a constitutional system of
government and publicly defined institutions and procedures. Political parties, public
policy or discussions about war and foreign affairs would fall under the category of Formal
Politics. Many people view formal politics as something outside of themselves, but that
can still affect their daily lives.
b. Semi-formal politics: Semi-formal politics is politics in government associations, such
as neighborhood associations, or student governments where student government political
party politics is often practiced. Student Union & Activities promotes student success by
offering a variety of programs, activities, services, and facilities that, when taken together,
represent a well-considered plan for the development of a school environment.
c. Informal politics: Informal politics is understood as forming alliances, exercising
power and protecting and advancing particular ideas or goals. Generally, this includes
anything affecting one's daily life, such as the way an office or household is managed, or
how one person or group exercises influence over another. Informal Politics is typically
understood as everyday politics, hence the idea that "politics is everywhere".
1.3 Sociology: Sociology is the scientific study of society, including patterns of social
relationships, social interaction, and culture. It is a social science that uses various methods
of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social
order, acceptance, and change. Many sociologists aim to conduct research that may be
applied directly to social policy and welfare, while others focus primarily on refining the
theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject matter ranges from the micro-
sociology level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and
the social structure.
Etymological meaning of sociology is socius ("companion") & logos ("knowledge"
or "word"). Those two words made the word sociology. So, sociology regards the
study of people and society, specifically the behaviors of population groups.
1.3.1 Origins of Sociology: Sociologists believe that our social surroundings influence
thought and action. For example, the rise of the social sciences developed in response to
social changes. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Europeans were exploring the
world and voyagers returned from Asia, the Americas, Africa, and the South Seas with

amazing stories of other societies and civilizations. Widely different social practices
challenged the view that European life reflected the natural order of God.
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Western Europe was rocked by technical,
economic, and social changes that forever changed the social order. Science and
technology were developing rapidly. James Watt invented the steam engine in 1769, and
in 1865 Joseph Lister discovered that an antiseptic barrier could be placed between a
wound and germs in the atmosphere to inhibit infection. These and other scientific
developments spurred social changes and offered hope that scientific methods might help
explain the social as well as the natural world. This trend was part of a more general
growth in rationalism.
The industrial revolution began in Britain in the late eighteenth century. By the late
nineteenth century, the old order was collapsing “under the twin blows of industrialism and
revolutionary democracy”. Mechanical industry was growing, and thousants of people
were migrating to cities to work in the new factories. People once rooted in the land and
social communities where they farmed found themselves crowded into cities. The
traditional authority of the church, the village, and the family were being undermined by
impersonal factory and city life.
Capitalism also grew in Western Europe in the nineteenth century. This meant that
relatively few people owned the means of production such as factories while many others
had to sell their labor to those owners. At the same time, relatively impersonal financial
markets began to expand. The modern epoch was also marked by the development of
administrative state power, which involved increasing concentrations of information and
armed power.
Finally, there was enormous population growth worldwide in this period, due to longer life
expectancy and major decreases in child death rates. These massive social changes lent
new urgency to the deveopment of the social sciences, as early sociological thinkers
struggled with the vast implications of economic, social and political revolutions. All the
major figures in the early years of sociology thought about the “great transformation” from
simple, preliterate societies to massive, complex, industrial societies.
1.3.2 Development of sociology in Nepal.
Sociology doesn't have a long history in Nepal. Since, 1981 the study of sociology
and anthropology was introduced in master degree on the central campus,
Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur. Before this, some research works on the ethnic
group of Nepal, social structure of Nepalese society and cultural studies were
made by foreign scholars. During the British colonization in India, some British
scholars entered Nepal and describe the vast and diverse Nepali culture and
society. Daniel Wright, Col. Kirk Patrick, Brian Hodgson, F.B. Hamilton, Oldfield
and others are noteworthy scholars who wrote about diversified Nepali culture
and society for the first time and introduced Nepal in Europe in early 19 th century.
During the Rana Period, Nepal was none of the foreign visitors and scholars was
to allow visiting and writing about Nepal. Before it, during the British colonization
in India, some British scholars and historians entered Nepal and studied the

diversified Nepali society and culture and wrote their findings. They depicted
some important features of Nepalese society and culture such as:
● Watched Shah Dynasty capturing the Kathmandu Valley
● Observed Anglo- Nepal war
● Observed Nepali people, culture and society which are diversified racially,
religiously, culturally, ethnically etc.
● Felt jealous of Nepali culture and wrote in an insulting manner but have
become useful written documents to study Nepali society and culture.
The formal development of the sociology and anthropology began in Nepal after
the fall of Rana regime. It was fertile time for development of sociological and
anthropological studies and researches. The institutional development of
sociology and anthropology began after 1951 AD on the process of development
of sociology and anthropology. Village development training center was
established in 1953. Along with significant political change in 1951, many people
were provided traning and mobilized in the rural development programme
forwarded by the government. During this phase various institutions were
estsblished so has to develop sociology and anthropology in Nepal. Some of them
were:
● Institute of Nepal and Asian studies was established under TU.
● Department of sociology and anthropology was established under TU.
● Panchayat training centre was founded by government of Nepal later changed

into village development training center.
● Centre of economic development and administration was established in TU.
● Sociology and anthropology association in Nepal was founded under TU.
1.3.3 Scope of studying sociology
● To study diversified society and culture in Nepal.
● To conduct the ethnographic study and research of various ethnic groups

residing in Nepal.
● To recognized Nepali religion and cultural diversity.
● To involve in formulation of plan and policies on development sectors.
● To study and analyzed the social, political and economic issues.

● To play the role of helping hand for boosting activities of different GOs, NGOs,
INGOs etc.
● To study the impact of globalization, modernizations as well as liberalization

in Nepal in the field socio-cultural structure, change and development.
● To understand the theoretical and practical differences between ancient society,

feudalism, capitalism and socialism.
● To develop the concept of social inclusion and harmony among peoples.
● To understand ourselves, community and nation as well as the world then and
now.
● To promote the issues of minorities disadvantaged groups, rural women, Dalit

etc.
● To help socio cultural reconstruction.
● To lead social engineering, data collection, record keeping, participatory

research, monitoring and evaluation of all development activities.
1.3.4 Father of sociology:

Sociology is defined as the study of human social behaviours its origins, development,
power and social structure and institutions, Though it is a socialscience, it uses empirical
method where possible and necessary; however the oftenerratic nature of human behaviour
means that it is also highly theoretical, Although countless individuals have contributed to
sociology's development into a social science, several individuals deserve special mention.
Auguste Comte: The French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857) often called the
“father of sociology” first used the term “sociology” in 1838 to refer to the scientific study
of society. He believed that all societies develop and progress through the following stages:
religious (theological stage), metaphysical, and scientific (Positivity). Comte argued that
society needs scientific knowledge based on facts and evidence to solve its problems not
speculation and superstition, which characterize the religious and metaphysical stages of
social development. Comte viewed the science of sociology as consisting of two
branches: dynamics, or the study of the processes by which societies change; and statics,
or the study of the processes by which societies endure. He also envisioned sociologists as
eventually developing a base of scientific social knowledge that would guide society into
positive directions.
i. The Theological (religious) stage: The Theological stage refers to explanation by
personified deities. During the earlier stages, people believe that all the phenomena of
nature are the creation of the divine or supernatural. Men and children failed to discover
the natural causes of various phenomena and hence attributed them to a supernatural or
divine power. Comte broke this stage into 3 sub-stages:
a. Fetishism: Fetishism was the primary stage of the theological stage of thinking.
Throughout this stage, primitive people believe that inanimate objects have living

spirit in them, also known as animism. People worship inanimate objects like trees,
stones, a piece of wood, volcanic eruptions, etc. Through this practice, people
believe that all things root from a supernatural source.
b. Polytheism: At one point, Fetishism began to bring about doubt in the minds of
its believers. As a result, people turned towards polytheism: the explanation of
things through the use of many Gods. Primitive people believe that all natural
forces are controlled by different Gods; a few examples would be God of water,
God of rain, God of fire, God of air, God of earth, etc.
c. Monotheism: Monotheism means believing in one God or God in one;

attributing all to a single, supreme deity. Primitive people believe a single theistic
entity is responsible for the existence of the universe.
ii. The Metaphysical (mind and matter) stage: The Metaphysical stage is the extension
of the theological stage. Metaphysical stage refers to explanation by impersonal abstract
concepts. People often tried to believe that God is an abstract being. They believe that an
abstract power or force guides and determines events in the world. Metaphysical thinking
discards belief in a concrete God. The nature of inquiry was legal and rational in nature.
For example: In Classical Hindu society the principle of the transmigration of the soul, the
conception of rebirth, notions of pursuant were largely governed by metaphysical uphill.
iii. The Positivity (scientific) stage: Finally in 1800 the world entered the positivistic
stage. The positive stage represents the scientific way of thinking. Positive thought ushers
in an industrial age. The positive or scientific knowledge is based upon facts and these facts
are gathered by observation and experience. All phenomena are seen as subject to natural
laws that can be investigated by observations and experimentation.
1.4 Political sociology: Political sociology is concerned with the sociological analysis of
political phenomena ranging from the State, to civil society, to the family, investigating
topics such as citizenship, social movements, and the sources of social power. The lineage
of this discipline is typically traced from such thinkers as Montesquieu, Smith and
Ferguson through the "founding fathers" of sociology Marx, Durkheim and Max Weber to
such contemporary theorists as Gellner, Giddens, Habermas and Mann. Where a typical
research question in political sociology might have been "Why do so few American or
European citizens choose to vote?" or even "What difference does it make if women get
elected?", political sociologists also now ask: "How is the body a site of power?", "How
are emotions relevant to global poverty?", or "What difference does knowledge make
to democracy?"
It is concerned with the sociological analysis of political phenomena ranging from the
State, to civil society, to the family, investigating topics such as citizenship, social
movements, and the sources of social power. Traditionally there were four main areas of
research:
a) The socio-political formation of the modern state;
b) "Who rules?" How social inequality between groups (class, race, gender, etc.)
influences politics.

c) How public opinion, ideologies, personalities, social movements, and trends
outside of the formal institutions of political power affect formal politics.
d) Power relationships within and between social groups (e.g. families,

workplaces, bureaucracy, media, etc.).
Four Different Views of “Political Sociology”
Without any hesitation Political Sociology can be described as a sub-discipline of

Politics which seeks to analyse politics in the social context. It studies power and
domination in social relations as well as the sociological roots of political
relations, structures and functions. It involves a study of state-society
relationship. However, there have been present several different views about the
meaning of Political Sociology.
(i) Political Sociology as Science of State: One view considers Political

Sociology as the science of the state. Here the state is taken to mean either a
nation-state or a government. A nation-state is defined as a politically organized
national society. A government-state is held to be a body of rulers and leaders of
the national society. In this sense Political Sociology is defined as a study of state
which is designated as national society.
(ii) Political Sociology Studies interactions between Society and Politics:

Several political sociologists, however, regard this view as narrow and limited.
They are of the view that Political Sociology is refers to the process of interaction
between society and politics.
Political science starts with the state and examines how it effects society while
Political Sociology starts with society and examines how it affects the state.
(iii) Political Sociology Studies Social Roots of Politics: A third popular notion
of Political Sociology defines it in terms of the integration of Sociology with
Political Science. “Political Sociology studies sociological roots of politics. It uses
sociological approach to politics”.
(iv) Political Sociology Studies Power in Society: A fourth view advocates that
Political Sociology studies the exercise of power in society. Political Sociology
studies power and the exercise of power in society. It is the science of authority
and command. It studies power and domination in the social context
This view of Political Sociology as the science of power, authority, command,

legitimacy and governance in all societies has been accepted by a large number
of contemporary political sociologists. In simple words, we can define Political

Sociology as the study of the relations between state and society (Kate Nash). The
discipline draws on comparative history to analyze socio-political trends
1.4.1 Relation between Politics and Sociology:

Sociology is the mother of all social sciences. It is closely related to other social sciences.
Sociology is the science of society i.e. social relations. It deals with the origin, evolution,
organisation, purpose, ends and nature of the society. Because society is the oldest
organisation of human beings, Sociology is also the oldest social science. In the words of
Ward, “Sociology is the science of society or of social phenomena.” Political Science, on
the other hand, deals with the study of human political behaviour in society. Since political
and social behaviour of man cannot be separated, there is a close relation between Political
Science and Sociology. So “Political Science and Sociology are inseparable and in fact
these are two sides of the same coin.”
1.5 Historical overview/development of society: Societies are social groups that
differ according to subsistence strategies, the ways that humans use technology to
provide needs for them. Although humans have established many types of
societies throughout history, anthropologists tend to classify different societies
according to the degree to which different groups within a society have unequal
access to advantages such as resources, prestige, or power. Virtually all societies
have developed some degree of inequality among their people through the process
of social stratification, the division of members of a society into levels with unequal
wealth, prestige, or power. Sociologists place societies in three broad
categories: pre-industrial, industrial, and postindustrial.
1. Pre-industrial: In a pre-industrial society, food production, which is carried out through

the use of human and animal labor, is the main economic activity. These societies can be
subdivided according to their level of technology and their method of producing food.
These subdivisions are hunting and gathering, pastoral, horticultural, agricultural, and
feudal.
a. Hunting and gathering: The main form of food production in such societies is the daily
collection of wild plants and the hunting of wild animals. Hunter- gatherers move around
constantly in search of food. As a result, they do not build permanent villages or create a
wide variety of artifacts, and usually only form small groups such as bands and tribes.
However, some hunting and gathering societies in areas with abundant resources (such as
people of tlingit) lived in larger groups and formed complex hierarchical social structures
such as chiefdom. The need for mobility also limits the size of these societies. They
generally consist of fewer than 60 people and rarely exceed 100. Statuses within the tribe
are relatively equal, and decisions are reached through general agreement. The ties that
bind the tribe are more complex than those of the bands. Leadership is personal charismatic
and used for special purposes only in tribal society. There are no political offices containing
real power, and a chief is merely a person of influence, a sort of adviser; therefore, tribal
consolidations for collective action are not governmental. The family forms the main social

unit, with most members being related by birth or marriage. This type of organization
requires the family to carry out most social functions, including production and education.
b. Pastoral: Pastoralism is a slightly more efficient form of subsistence. Rather than
searching for food on a daily basis, members of a pastoral society rely on domesticated
herd animals to meet their food needs. Pastoralists live a nomadic life, moving their herds
from one pasture to another. Because their food supply is far more reliable, pastoral
societies can support larger populations. Since there are food surpluses, fewer people are
needed to produce food. As a result, the division of labor (the specialization by individuals
or groups in the performance of specific economic activities) becomes more complex. For
example, some people become craftworkers, producing tools, weapons, and jewelry. The
production of goods encourages trade. This trade helps to create inequality, as some
families acquire more goods than others do. These families often gain power through their
increased wealth. The passing on of property from one generation to another helps to
centralize wealth and power. Over time emerge hereditary chieftainships, the typical form
of government in pastoral societies.
c. Horticultural: Fruits and vegetables grown in garden plots that have been cleared from
the jungle or forest provide the main source of food in a horticultural society. These
societies have a level of technology and complexity similar to pastoral societies. Some
horticultural groups use the slash-and-burn method to raise crops. The wild vegetation is
cut and burned, and ashes are used as fertilizers. Horticulturists use human labor and simple
tools to cultivate the land for one or more seasons. When the land becomes barren,
horticulturists clear a new plot and leave the old plot to revert to its natural state. They may
return to the original land several years later and begin the process again. By rotating their
garden plots, horticulturists can stay in one area for a fairly long period of time. This allows
them to build semipermanent or permanent villages. The size of a village's population
depends on the amount of land available for farming; thus villages can range from as few
as 30 people to as many as 2000.
d. Agrarian/Agriculture: Agrarian societies use agricultural technological advances to
cultivate crops over a large area. Sociologists use the phrase agricultural revolution to refer
to the technological changes that occurred as long as 8,500 years ago that led to cultivating
crops and raising farm animals. Increases in food supplies then led to larger populations
than in earlier communities. This meant a greater surplus, which resulted in towns that
became centers of trade supporting various rulers, educators, craftspeople, merchants, and
religious leaders who did not have to worry about locating nourishment.
Greater degrees of social stratification appeared in agrarian societies. For example, women
previously had higher social status because they shared labor more equally with men. In
hunting and gathering societies, women even gathered more food than men. However, as
food stores improved and women took on lesser roles in providing food for the family, they
increasingly became subordinate to men. As villages and towns expanded into neighboring
areas, conflicts with other communities inevitably occurred. Farmers provided warriors
with food in exchange for protection against invasion by enemies. A system of rulers with
high social status also appeared. This nobility organized warriors to protect the society
from invasion. In this way, the nobility managed to extract goods from “lesser” members
of society.

e. Feudal society: The term feudalism refers to an economic, political, and social
system of society based on ownership of land. Unlike today's farmers, vassals
under feudalism were bound to cultivating their lord's land. In exchange for
military protection, the lords exploited the peasants into providing food, crops,
crafts, homage, and other services to the landowner. Feudal societies are the stages
of an underdeveloped society with commodity production and exchange of
capital. First is barter exchange. Second is the exchange for goods with a certain
substance that has an equal value of currency (cattle, copper, iron, gold and silver).
Barter exchange and the exchange of gold or silver, including notes and drafts on
behalf of gold and silver, and so on, are exchanges of surplus products based on
self-sufficiency. At this time, there were family workshops with commodity
production, which had entered the stage of commodity production and exchange
of capital, which is mainly represented after the mid-term feudal society. But the
overall economic form of society was still the self-sufficient form, so it is called
underdeveloped society with commodity production and exchange of capital.
During the long historical stages of the slave society and feudal society, because
productivity was very backward, living consumption and food consumption were the
primary needs for survival. Therefore, a family must first guarantee their own consumption
with the consumption materials they themselves created. The economic form is the major
social economic form.
2. Industrial: Between the 15th and 16th centuries, a new economic system emerged that
began to replace feudalism. Capitalism is marked by open competition in a free market, in
which the means of production are privately owned. Europe's exploration of the Americas
served as one impetus for the development of capitalism. The introduction of foreign
metals, silks, and spices stimulated great commercial activity in European societies.
Industrial societies rely heavily on machines powered by fuels for the production of goods.
This produced further dramatic increases in efficiency. The increased efficiency of
production of the industrial revolution produced an even greater surplus than before. Now
the surplus was not just agricultural goods, but also manufactured goods. This larger
surplus caused all of the changes discussed earlier in the domestication revolution to
become even more pronounced.
Once again, the population boomed. Increased productivity made more goods available to
everyone. However, inequality became even greater than before. The breakup of
agricultural-based feudal societies caused many people to leave the land and seek
employment in cities. This created a great surplus of labor and gave capitalists plenty of
laborers who could be hired for extremely low wages.
3. Post-industrial: Post-industrial societies are societies dominated by information,
services, and high technology more than the production of goods. Advanced industrial
societies are now seeing a shift toward an increase in service sectors over manufacturing
and production. The United States is the first country to have over half of its work force
employed in service industries. Service industries include government, research, education,
health, sales, law, and banking.

Postindustrial society, society marked by a transition from a manufacturing-
based economy to a service-based economy, a transition that is also connected
with subsequent societal restructuring. Postindustrialization is the next
evolutionary step from an industrialized society and is most evident in
countries and regions that were among the first to experience the Industrial
Revolution, such as the United States, western Europe, and Japan.
American sociologist Daniel Bell first coined the term postindustrial in 1973 in
his book The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social
Forecasting, which describes several features of a postindustrial society.
Postindustrial societies are characterized by:
1. A transition from the production of goods to the production of services, with

very few firms directly manufacturing any goods.
2. The replacement of blue-collar manual labourers with technical and

professional workers such as computer engineers, doctors, and bankers as the
direct production of goods is moved elsewhere.
3. The replacement of practical knowledge with theoretical knowledge.
4. Greater attention being paid to the theoretical and ethical implications of new
technologies, which helps society avoid some of the negative features of
introducing new technologies, such as environmental accidents and massive
widespread power outages.
5. The development of newer scientific disciplines such as those that involve

new forms of information technology, cybernetics, or artificial intelligence to
assess the theoretical and ethical implications of new technologies.
6. A stronger emphasis on the university and polytechnic institutes, which

produce graduates who create and guide the new technologies crucial to a
postindustrial society.
1.6 Major Theoretical Approaches of society and Political Sociology:

In the theory proposed above, the astute reader will notice that the theory includes two
components: The data, in this case the findings that civic engagement has declined and TV
watching has increased, and the proposed relationship that the increase in television
viewing has contributed to the decline in civic engagement. Data alone are not particularly
informative. If Putnam had not proposed a relationship between the two elements of social
life, we may not have realized that television viewing does, in fact, reduce people's desire
to and time for participating in civic life. In order to understand the social world around us,
it is necessary to employ theory to draw the connections between seemingly disparate
concepts.

1. Conflict Theory: Conflict theory states that society is in a continuous state of conflict
over the competition for resources that are scarce. It also states that conformity is upheld
through domination and power rather than consensus. Conflict Theory, developed by Karl
Marx, purports that due to society’s never-ending competition for finite resources; it will
always be in a state of conflict. The implication of this theory is that those in possession
of wealth and resources will protect and hoard those resources, while those without will do
whatever they can to obtain them. This dynamic means there is a constant struggle between
the rich and the poor.
The relation between the three abstract terms of the triad, also known as the dialectical
method, is summarized in the following way in the Encyclopedia of Sciences and
Religions.
(a) Thesis: "The world has a beginning in time, and is limited with regard to
space."
(b) Antithesis: "The world has no beginning and no limits in space, but is
infinite, in respect to both time and space."
(c) Synthesis: "The possible without a preceding antithesis. As little as antithesis

without synthesis, or synthesis without antithesis, is possible; just as little
possible are both without thesis.
Karl Marx is the father of the social conflict theory, which is a component of the four major
paradigms of sociology. Certain conflict theories set out to highlight the ideological aspects
inherent in traditional thought. While many of these perspectives hold parallels, conflict
theory does not refer to a unified school of thought, and should not be confused with, for
instance, peace and conflict studies, or any other specific theory of social conflict.
● Conflict theory focuses on competition between groups within society over
limited resources.
● Conflict theory views social and economic institutions as tools of struggle

between groups or classes, used to maintain inequality and the dominance of the
ruling class.
● Marxist conflict theory sees society as divided along lines of economic class
between the proletarian working class and the bourgeois ruling class.
● Later versions of conflict theory look at other dimensions of conflict among

capitalist factions and between various social, religious, and other types of groups.
Major Assumption of conflict theory

● Human society is the history of class struggle.
● Social hierarchy occurs in every dimension of society in regard with cast, class, religion,
ethnicity, race, gender, political power and other types of human relationship.
● The exploitative relationship between Masters vs. Slaves, Land lord vs. Serfs,
Industrialist vs. Workers, Bourgeoisie vs. Proletariat and Oppressor vs. Oppressedis
creating conflict.
● It assumes that material base determines our consciousness.
● Conflict is universal and dynamic in form.
● Conflict is embedded is social structure and system which is exploitative in character.
● Unequal distribution of resources and power is the root cause for creating conflict.
● Imbalance between resources and population is creating conflict.
● Provision of private property is main cause of conflict that forces him to increase his
economic status is obtaining the social dignity and prosperity even by exploiting working
class people.
● Accumulation of extra surplus by land lords and industrialists is creating scarcity that
has fostered conflict.
● The economic gap between rich and poor creating conflict.
● Change is institutionalize through thesis, anti-thesis and synthesis
2. Symbolic interaction theory: The symbolic interaction perspective, also called
symbolic interactionism, is a major framework of the sociological theory. This perspective
relies on the symbolic meaning that people develop and build upon in the process of social
interaction. Although symbolic interactionism traces its origins to Max Weber's assertion
that individuals act according to their interpretation of the meaning of their world, the
American philosopher George Herbert Mead introduced this perspective to American
sociology in the 1920s.
Major Assumption of Symbolic interaction theory
● Symbols are related to ascertain context, events and situation.
● Cultural role and management of act can be identified through symbols.
● Cultural analysis is interpretative in character since the people are put in the centre of
culture producer.
● It assumes that society is understood by understanding their symbols, gestures,
cognized behavior and interactions.
● It assumes culture as an independent system of meaning mediated through ritual and
cultural practices.
There are five central ideas to symbolic interactionism according to Joel M. Charon, author
of Symbolic Interactionism an Introduction, An Interpretation, An Integration:
a) "The human being must be understood as a social person:
b) The human being must be understood as a thinking being:
c) Humans do not sense their environment directly; instead, humans define the
situation they are in:
d) The cause of human action is the result of what is occurring in our present
situation:
e) Human beings are described as active beings in relation to their environment:
3. Role Theory: Role theory is a perspective in sociology and in social

psychology that considers most of everyday activity to be the acting out of socially
defined categories (e.g., mother, manager, and teacher). Each role is a set of rights,
duties, expectations, norms and behaviors that a person has to face and fulfill. The
model is based on the observation that people behave in a predictable way, and
that an individual’s behavior is context specific, based on social position and other
factors. The theatre is a metaphor often used to describe role theory.
Although the word role (or roll) has existed in European languages for centuries, as a
sociological concept, the term has only been around since the 1920s and 1930s. It became
more prominent in sociological discourse through the theoretical works of George Herbert
Mead, Jacob L. Moreno, Talcott Parsons, and Ralph Linton. Two of Mead’s concepts the
mind and the self are the precursors to role theory.
Depending on the general perspective of the theoretical tradition, there are many ‘‘types’’
of role theory. The theory posits the following propositions about social behaviour:
a. The division of labor in society takes the form of the interaction among
heterogeneous specialized positions that we call roles;
b. Social roles included "appropriate" and "permitted" forms of behavior, guided

by social norms, which are commonly known and hence determine expectations;
c. Roles are occupied by individuals, who are called "actors";
d. When individuals approve of a social role (i.e., they consider the role
"legitimate" and "constructive"), they will incur costs to conform to role norms,
and will also incur costs to punish those who violate role norms;
e. Changed conditions can render a social role outdated or illegitimate, in which

case social pressures are likely to lead to role change;
f. The anticipation of rewards and punishments, as well as the satisfaction of

behaving in a prosocial way, account for why agents conform to role requirements.
In terms of differences among role theory, on one side there is a more functional
perspective, which can be contrasted with the more micro level approach of the symbolic
interactionist tradition. This type of role theory dictates how closely related individuals’
actions are to the society, as well as how empirically testable a particular role theory
perspective may be.
4. Social constructionism: It is a school of thought introduced into sociology
by Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann with their 1966 book. The Social
Construction of Reality drawing, on Symbolic Interactionist insights about the
ongoing production and affirmation of meaning, social constructionism aims to
discover the ways that individuals and groups create their perceived reality. Social
constructionism focuses on the description of institutions and actions and not on
analyzing cause and effect. Socially constructed reality is seen as an on-going
dynamic process; reality is re-produced by people acting on their interpretations
of what they perceive to be the world external to them. Berger and Luckmann
argue that social construction describes both subjective and objective reality that
is no reality exists outside what is produced and reproduced in social interactions.
Major Assumption of Social Constructionism
● The theory of social constructionism states that meaning and knowledge are
socially created.
● Social constructionists believe that things that are generally viewed as natural
or normal in society, such as understandings of gender, race, class, and disability,
are socially constructed, and consequently aren’t an accurate reflection of reality.
● Social constructs are often created within specific institutions and cultures
and come to prominence in certain historical periods. Social constructs’
dependence of historical, political and economic conditions can lead them to
evolve and change.
5. Feminist Theory: Although women were primarily ignored, barred, and/or

disenfranchised within most scientific communities prior to the women's rights movement
of the 1960's and 1970's (for a notable exception in Sociology, see Dorothy Swaine
Thomas), women have contributed to scientific disciplines, methods, and theories since at
least the 1830's. Feminist theorists thus argue that understanding the social or natural world
also requires interrogating our own conscious or unconscious bias, perspective, beliefs, and
values, and our own positions within systems of racial, class, gender, sexual, political, and
scientific social systems.
Major Assumption of feminist theory:

a. The use of feminist analysis when applied to scientific ideas and practices.
b. Intersections between race, class, gender, science, and technology.
c. The implications of situated knowledges.
d. Politics of gender on how to understand agency, body, rationality, and the

boundaries between nature and culture
6. Integration Theory: Recently, some sociologists have been taking a different approach
to sociological theory by employing an integrationist approach combining micro and macro
level theories to provide a comprehensive understanding of human social behavior (while
these studies rarely cite Symbolic Interaction Theory, most of their models are based
heavily upon Herbert Blumer's initial elaboration of Symbolic Interaction in relation to

social institutions. Numerous models could be presented in this vein. George
Ritzer's Integration Model is a good example.
Ritzer proposes four highly interdependent elements in his sociological model: a macro-
objective component (e.g., society, law, bureaucracy), a micro-objective component (e.g.,
patterns of behavior and human
interaction), a macro-subjective
component (e.g., culture, norms
and values), and a micro-
subjective component (e.g.,
perceptions, beliefs). This
model is of particular use in
understanding society because it
uses two axes: one ranging from
objective (society) to subjective
(culture and cultural
interpretation); the other ranging
from the macro-level (norms) to the micro-level (individual level beliefs).
The integration approach is particularly useful for explaining social phenomenon

because it shows how the different components of social life work together to
influence society and behavior.
Unit 2: Power, State and Political Systems: The Concepts of Power, State and
Society; Theories of State Formation; Power and the Classics of Political
Sociology; Approaches to Political Sociology in Nepal.
2.1 Power (social and political)
In social science and politics, power is the ability to influence or outright control
the behavior of people. The term "authority" is often used for power perceived as
legitimate by the social structure. Power can be seen as evil or unjust, but the
exercise of power is accepted as endemic to humans as social beings. In business,
power is often expressed as being "upward" or "downward". With downward
power, a company's superior influences subordinate. When a company exerts
upward power, it is the subordinates who influence the decisions of their leader
or leaders.
The use of power need not involve force or the threat of force (coercion). At one
extreme, it closely resembles what an English-speaking person might term
"influence", although some authors distinguish "influence" as a means by which
power is used. One such example is soft power, as compared to hard power. Much
of the recent sociological debate about power revolves around the issue of its

means to enable in other words, powe as a means to make social actions possible
as much as it may constrain or prevent them. The philosopher Michel
Foucault saw power as a structural expression of "a complex strategic situation in
a given social setting" that requires both constraint and enablement.
2.2 State (polity): In terms of a political entity, a state is any politically organized
community living under a single system of government. States may or may not
be sovereign. For instance, federated states are members of a federal union, and may have
only partial sovereignty, but are, nonetheless, states. Some states are subject to external
sovereignty or hegemony, in which ultimate sovereignty lies in another state. States that
are sovereign are known as sovereign states.
The term "state" can also refer to the secular branches of government within a state, often
as a manner of contrasting them with churches and civilian institutions.
Speakers of American English often use the terms state and government as synonyms,
with both words referring to an organized political group that exercises authority over a
particular territory.
Many human societies have been governed by states for millennia, but many have
been stateless societies. Over time a variety of different forms developed, employing a
variety of justifications of legitimacy for their existence (such as the divine right of kings,
the theory of social contract, etc.). In the 21st century, the modern nation-state is the
predominant form of state to which people are subjected.
2.3 Political system: Political system is the set of formal legal institutions that constitute a
“government” or a “state.” This is the definition adopted by many studies of the legal or
constitutional arrangements of advanced political orders. More broadly defined, however,
the term comprehends actual as well as prescribed forms of political behaviour, not only
the legal organization of the state but also the reality of how the state functions. Still more
broadly defined, the political system is seen as a set of “processes of interaction” or as a
subsystem of the social system interacting with other nonpolitical subsystems, such as
the economic system. This points to the importance of informal sociopolitical processes
and emphasizes the study of political development.
2.3.1 Common Political Systems Around the World
When we speak of political systems, it’s difficult to determine what the most common
types are. After all, many political systems are similar, or have similar roots. Many
countries actually have republics of some kind variants of democracy. As you study
political science, it can be helpful to understand some of the most common types of
political systems from around the world. Some of the five more common political
systems around the world include:
1. Democracy: We often hear the United States referred to as a democracy.
Indeed, many refer to the U.S. as a representative democracy. A democracy in a
more traditional sense is a political system that allows for each individual to
participate. There are two rather popular types of democracy:
o Direct Democracy: Many scholars point to Athens as an example of direct
democracy. Technically, every citizen has an equal say in the workings of
government. (The qualifications for being considered a citizen are completely
different.) Citizens could show up at a meeting, and then directly participate in
the governing process, and the process of making laws.
o Representative Democracy: In a representative democracy set-up, citizens
elect representatives who actually make the law. The United States operates
similarly to this principle. Citizens elect legislators who, in turn, make laws. In
the U.S., even the president isn’t elected directly; representatives called electors
make the decision (although designated electors usually vote according to the
wishes of the citizens in their states).
Other types of democracy include versions known as deliberative democracy, in

which citizens approach decision making by considering different viewpoints
and options, as well as democratic socialism, in which citizens help make
decisions or vote for policies that are socialistic in nature. There are other types of
democracy as well. The defining characteristic is some level of citizen
participation in the political system
2. Republic: In theory, a republic is a political system in which the government remains

mostly subject to those governed. Some scholars define any political system in which the
citizens legitimize the government. As such, some (including Montesquieu) consider the
U.S. a republic. Indeed, there are those that believe that any form of government that is
not based on heritage or authoritarian governance. In some cases, a representative
democracy (or any form of democracy) might be considered a republic. Some of the
types of republics that you might see include:
o Crowned (a constitutional monarchy might be considered a crowned
republic)
o Single Party
o Capitalist
o Federal (the United States is often referred to as a federal republic)
o Parliamentary
The main characteristic of a republic is that the government is subject to the

people, and leaders can be recalled. Some even make the argument that
an oligarchy, which is rule by a few citizens, or a group of citizens, is a form of
republic, since the government is subject to some of the wishes of some of the
governed.
3. Monarchy: When most of us think of a monarchy, we think of the political systems

of medieval European countries. In a monarchy, a ruler is not usually chosen by the voice
of the people or their representatives. Often a monarch is the head of state until he or she
abdicates or until death. In many cases a monarch is the final word in government. There
may be functionaries to make decisions and run the political system, but the monarch has
discretion with the laws, and how they are enforced. There are different types of
monarchies. The type that many of us think of as common is the absolute monarchy, in
which the monarch truly has the ultimate say in matters of government. However, most
monarchies in political systems today do not follow this method. Many of them,
especially in the developed world, have limits. Constitutional monarchies fall into this
category (and are sometimes considered republics as well). In this type of monarchy, the
ruler is the head of state, but a constitution limits the power, and others make laws. The
U.K., Denmark, Kuwait, Spain, Sweden, Tuvalu, and many more are examples of
constitutional monarchies.
Other types of monarchies include duchies, grand duchies, elective
monarchy (where the monarch is actually elected), and non-sovereign
monarchy.
4. Communism: In most cases, a communist state is based on the ideology of

communism as taught by Marx and/or Lenin. However, some argue that these political
systems are not true to the ideals espoused by these revolutionary thinkers. Communist
states are often dominated by a single party, or a group of people. A planned economy is
often part of the governing class, and in many cases resources are taken and then
redistributed to others, at the top of the system. Sometimes communists call themselves
“workers’ states” or “socialist,” but there are very real differences in their operation. In a
lot of cases, citizens are required to do certain jobs, or have some of their life decisions
especially concerning where they can live and what jobs they can do. Communism is
often considered an authoritarian political system.
5. Dictatorship: Another authoritarian form of government is the dictatorship. Normally,
a dictator is the main individual ruling the country. While there are lackeys and others
who work for the dictator, he or she makes most of the decisions, and usually has
enforcers. In some cases, the political system is run by a small group of people. Dictators
are not restricted by constitutions or parliaments. The governed are usually not consented
in any way. Elections held are usually affairs in which the dictator is the only candidate.
One of the more common types of dictatorship is the military dictatorship, in which a
military organization governs, running the political system. Sometimes, the military just
exerts a great deal of pressure on the government, running the country de facto. In many
cases, very few benefit from the decisions made in a dictatorship.
While authoritarian political systems have the advantage of quick decisions
being made, many citizens prefer other forms of government those that allow
them greater participation in the political process.
2.4 State and Society

▪ Society is defined as “a collection of individuals held together by certain enduring
relationship in Pursuit of common ends.” The State, on the other hand, is defined as “a
particular portion of society politically organized for the protection and promotion of its
common interests”. Thus, the state is a part of society. The State is necessarily a political
organization but society is not.

▪ The society regulates all forms of social conduct the State regulates only the external
relationship of men in society. While the State derives its strength mainly from laws,
societies derive its strength from traditions, customs and conversions.
▪ The State possesses the power of coercion. Disobedience to its law is followed by
punishment. Society, on other hand does not enjoy the power of coercion Disobedience to
its rules may not be followed by any physical punishment. Thus, the only basis of the
authority of society is social customs, convention and morality. Society secures the co-
operation of its members by persuasion and not by coercion. The State alone possesses
sovereignty.
▪ The State is a territorial organization. It has well defined territory of its own. But society
is not limited to any geographical area. The Jews, for example, constitute a society as they
are spread all over the world. So is the case with the Hindu society or the Christian society.
It has thus no territorial jurisdiction as the State always has. Its scope may over the entire
world crossing the boundaries of various nations. Within a State, the people may be
organized into different societies having different social traditions. Thus, society may be
narrower or broader than the State.
▪ The State is a compulsory organization where as society is a voluntary organization.
In spite of above differences, the State and Society have some common features as well.
Hence, the State and Society go hand in hand. They help each other. Progress of society
depends upon the progress of the state and the working of the state is in influence by social
customs and traditions. Barker has summed up the distinction between the State and
Society in the following words. “The Slate and society overlap, they blend, they borrow
from one another. But roughly we may say that the area of the one is voluntary co-
operation, its energy that of good will, its method that of elasticity, while the area of the
other is that of mechanical action, its energy, forces, its method, rigidity.
2.5 Theories of state formation: Most political theories of the state can roughly be
classified into two categories. The first are known as "liberal" or "conservative" theories,
which treat capitalism as a given, and then concentrate on the function of states in capitalist
society. These theories tend to see the state as a neutral entity separated from society and
the economy. Marxist theories on the other hand, see politics as intimately tied in with
economic relations, and emphasize the relation between economic power and political
power. They see the state as a partisan instrument that primarily serves the interests of the
upper class.
A state is a political system with a centralized government, a military force, a civil service,
an arranged society, and literacy. Though, there is no clear agreement on the defining
characteristics of a state and the definition can vary significantly, based upon the focus of
the particular definition. The state is considered to be territoriality bound and is distinct
from tribes or units without centralized institutions.
According to Painter & Jeffrey, there are 5 distinctive features of the modern state:
a) They are ordered by precise boundaries with administrative control across the whole;
b) They occupy large territories with control given to organized institutions;
c) They have a capital city and are endowed with symbols that embody state power;
d) The government within said state creates organizations to monitor, govern and control
its population through surveillance and record keeping;
e) They increase monitoring over time.
2.5.1 Theories about early state development: There are a number of different theories
and hypotheses regarding early state formation that seek generalizations to explain why the
state developed in some places but not others. Other scholars believe that generalizations
are unhelpful and that each case of early state formation should be treated on its own.
a) Voluntary theories: Voluntary theories contend that diverse groups of people came
together to form states as a result of some shared rational interest. The theories largely
focus on the development of agriculture, and the population and organizational pressure
that followed and resulted in state formation. The argument is that such pressures result in
integrative pressure for rational people to unify and create a state. Much of the social
contract philosophical traditional proposed a voluntary theory for state formation.
b) Conflict theories: Conflict theories of state formation regard conflict and dominance
of some population over another population as key to the formation of states. In contrast
with voluntary theories, these arguments believe that people do not voluntarily agree to
create a state to maximize benefits, but that states form due to some form of oppression by
one group over others. A number of different theories rely on conflict, dominance, or
oppression as a causal process or as a necessary mechanism within certain conditions and
they may borrow from other approaches. In general the theories highlight: economic
stratification, conquest of other peoples, conflict in circumscribed areas, and the
neoevolutionary growth of bureaucracy.
c) Economic stratification: Friedrich Engels articulated one of the earliest theories of the
state based on anthropological evidence in The Origin of the Family, Private Property and
the State (1884) The theory of Engels developed from study of Ancient Society (1877)
by Lewis H. Morgan and from the sketches of this work by Karl Marx on the Asiatic mode
of production.Engels argues that the state developed as a result of the need to protect private
property. The theory contended that surplus production as a result of the development of
agriculture created a division and specialization of labor: leading to classes who worked
the land and to those who could devote time to other tasks. Class antagonism and the need
to secure the private property of those living on the surplus production produced by
agriculturalists resulted in the creation of the state. The anthropologist Morton
Fried (1923-1986) further developed this approach, positing social stratification as the
primary dynamic underlying the development of the state.
d) Conquest theories: Similar to the economic stratification theories, the conquest theory
contends that a single city establishes a state in order to control other tribes or settlements
it has conquered. The theory has its roots in the work of Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) and
of Jean Bodin (1530–1596), but it was first organized around anthropological evidence
by Franz Oppenheimer (1864-1943). Oppenheimer argues that the state was created to
cement inequality between peoples that resulted from conquest.
e) Carneiro's circumscription theory: Robert Carneiro developed a theory (1970)
aiming to provide a more nuanced understanding of state formation by accounting for the
fact that many factors (surplus agriculture, warfare, irrigation, conquest, etc.) did not
produce states in all situations. He concluded that while population pressure and warfare
were mechanisms of state formation, they only created states in geographic regions
circumscribed, or walled off from the surrounding area.Geographic barriers (or in some
cases barriers created by nomadic raiders or by rival societies) create limitations on the
ability of the people to deal with production shortfalls, and the result is that warfare results

in state creation.In situations of unlimited agricultural land (like the Amazon or the Eastern
United States), Carneiro believes that the pressures did not exist and so warfare allowed
people to move elsewhere and thus did not spur creation of a state.
f) Neoevolutionary theories: A number of different theories, sometimes connected with
some of the processes above, explain state formation in terms of the evolution of leadership
systems. This argument sees human society as evolving from tribes or chiefdoms into
states through a gradual process of transformation that lets a small group hierarchically
structure society and maintain order through appropriation of symbols of power. Groups
that gained power in tribal society gradually worked towards building the hierarchy and
segmentation that created the state.
g) Discredited theories: Some theories proposed in the 19th century and early 20th
century has since been largely discredited by anthropologists. These include theories that
early state formation resulted from racial superiority, historical accident, or from a shared
consciousness of the people.Similarly, social Darwinist perspectives prominent in the work
of Walter Bagehot maintained that the state form developed as a result of the best leaders
and organized societies gradually gaining power until the state formed. These are not
considered sufficient causes in recent scholarship.
h) Other theories: Other aspects are highlighted in different theories as of contributing
importance. It is sometimes claimed that technological development, religious
development, or socialization of members are crucial to state development. However, most
of these factors are found to be secondary in anthropological analysis.In addition to
conquest, some theories contend that the need for defense from military conquest or the
military organization to conquer other peoples is the key aspect leading to state formation.
2.5.3 Modern state formation:
In the medieval period (500-1400) in Europe, there were a variety of authority
forms throughout the region. These included feudal lords, empires, religious
authorities, free cities, and other authorities. Often dated to the 1648 Peace of
Westphalia, there began to be the development in Europe of modern states with
large-scale capacity for taxation, coercive control of their populations, and
advanced bureaucracies. The state became prominent in Europe over the next few
centuries before the particular form of the state spread to the rest of the world via
the colonial and international pressures of the 19th century and 20th
century. Other modern states developed in Africa and Asia prior to colonialism,
but were largely displaced by colonial rule.
Based on the model of European states, it has been commonly assumed that
development is the natural path that states will eventually walk through.
However, Herbst holds that in the case African states, as well as in developing
countries of other regions, development need not be the natural step. States that
struggle their consolidation could remain permanently weak.
a) Warfare theories: Two related theories are based on military development and
warfare, and the role that these forces played in state formation. Charles
Tilly developed an argument that the state developed largely as a result of "state-
makers" who sought to increase the taxes they could gain from the people under
their control so they could continue fighting wars. According to Tilly, the state
makes war and war makes states. In the constant warfare of the centuries in
Europe, coupled with expanded costs of war with mass armies and gunpowder,
warlords had to find ways to finance war and control territory more effectively.
The modern state presented the opportunity for them to develop taxation
structures, the coercive structure to implement that taxation, and finally the
guarantee of protection from other states that could get much of the population to
agree. Taxes and revenue rising have been repeatedly pointed out as a key aspect
of state formation and the development of state capacity. Economist Nicholas
Kaldor emphasized on the importance of revenue raising and warned about the
dangers of the dependence on foreign aid.Tilly argues, state making is similar to
organized crime because it is a "quintessential protection racket with the
advantage of legitimacy."
b) Commerce theories: Modern territorial state developed in places that were

peripheral to the commercial "city belt" ("a central regional band extending,
roughly, in an arc from the Low Countries, through the Rhineland and into
Northern Italy") that ran through Central Europe. The existence of prosperous
urban centers that relied on commerce in Central Europe prevented rulers from
consolidating their rule over others. The elites in those urban centers could rely on
their wealth and on collective security institutions (like the Hanseatic or Sabina
league) with other urban centers to sustain their independence. A lower density
of urban centers in England and France made it easier for rulers to establish rule
over expansive territories.
c) Feudal crisis theories: Another argument contends that the state developed out
of economic and social crises that were prominent in late-medieval Europe.
Religious wars between Catholics and Protestants, and the involvement of leaders
in the domains of other leaders under religious reasons was the primary problem
dealt with in the Peace of Westphalia.In addition, Marxist theory contends that the
economic crisis of feudalism forced the aristocracy to adapt various centralized
forms of organization so they could retain economic power, and this resulted in
the formation of the modern state.
d) Cultural theories: Some scholarship, linked to wider debates in Anthropology,

has increasingly emphasized the state as a primarily cultural artifact, and focuses
on how symbolism plays a primary role in state formation. Most explicitly, some
studies emphasize how the creation of national identification and citizenship were
crucial to state formation. The state then is not simply a military or economic
authority, but also includes cultural components creating consent by people by
giving those rights and shared belonging.
2.6 Power and Classes of political sociology
Power: The meaning, nature and distribution of power are central issues for political
sociologists. There is a major disagreement in sociology between perspectives which
define power as getting someone else to do what you want them to do, that is, as an exercise
of power-over, against those which define it as an ability or a capacity to act, that is, as a
power-to do something.
Max Weber gave a general definition of power as ‘the chance of a man or a number of men
to realize their own will in a command action even against the resistance of others who are
participating in the action’ (Gerth and Mills 1958). To Weber, power is about getting your
own way, even against the opposition of others. Most forms of power are not based solely
on force, but are legitimated by some form of authority. Max Weber’s discussion of power
focused on distinguishing between different categories- or ‘ideal types’ of authority. For
Weber, there were three sources of authority: traditional, charismatic and rational legal. In
the modern world, Weber argued, rational-legal authority was increasingly replacing
traditional authority. This is power that is legitimated through legally enacted rules and
regulations. It is found in modern organizations and bureaucracies and in government,
which Weber described as the formal organizations that direct the political life of a society.
Class: The study of inequalities in society is one of the most important areas for Sociology.
Class is a concept in Sociology which is used to denote one of the major axis of social
stratification in society, one based mainly on the position one occupies in the economic
structure.
Within Sociology, class became very important with the coming of Marxism. Marx and
Engels (1998) claimed that ‘The history of all hitherto existing society was the history of
class struggles’. For Marx, a social class is a group of people who stand in a common
relationship to the means of production the means by which they gain a livelihood. In
modern society, the two main classes consist of those who own the means of production
(like factories and capital) industrialists or capitalists, and those who earn their living by
selling their labour to them the working class or the proletariat. According to Marx, the
relationship between classes is an exploitative one. In feudal societies exploitation often
took the form of the direct transfer of produce from the peasantry to the aristocracy, Serfs
were compelled to give a certain proportion of their production to their aristocratic master,
or had to work for a number of days each month in his fields to produce crops to be
consumed by him and his retinue. In modern capitalist societies, the source of exploitation
is less obvious. In the course of the working day, Marx reasoned, workers produce more
than is actually needed by employers to repay the cost of hiring those (1967). This surplus
value is the source of profit, which capitalists are able to put to their own use.
2.7 Approaches to political sociology
A suitable place to begin exploring grand theory in the social sciences is the
paradigm that has been provided by the sociologists. Sociological explanations
posit that underlying social structures and patterns of social change have directed
the course of human history. They highlight the saliency of interaction,
stratification, conflict, and consensus in behavioral phenomena, thus filling in the
gaps that Rostowian economic development, Marxian class conflict, or cultural
anthropology has left behind.
This approach derives from a group of nineteenth- century European thinkers,
Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber. Each of these thinkers
descended from the rationalist and humanist philosophical traditions of the
Enlightenment Era. Concurrently, their intellectual development was profoundly
shaped by the experience of an industrial revolution that was ushering Europe out
of the feudal era and into entirely new forms of social and economic organization.
Their grand theories, therefore, were born out of their own experiences of great
social change.
(i) The traditional approaches: The traditional approaches to Political Science

were broadly predominant till the occurrence of the Second World War. These
approaches were mainly associated with the traditional outlook of politics which
underlined the study of the state and government. Consequently, traditional
approaches are principally concerned with the study of the organization and
activities of the state and principles and the ideas which motivate political
organizations and activities.
Characteristics of Traditional approaches:
1. Traditional approaches are mostly normative and stresses on the values of

politics.
2. Prominence is on the study of different political structures.
3. Traditional approaches made very little attempt to relate theory and research.
4. These approaches consider that since facts and values are closely interlinked,
studies in Political Science can never be scientific.
There are many types of traditional approaches.
1. Philosophical approach:
Philosophical approach is conventional approach to study politics. Customarily, the study
of politics was subjugated by philosophical reflections on universal political values that
were regarded as essential to the just state and the good state. The oldest approach to the
study of politics is philosophical. Philosophy "is the study or science of truths or principles
underlying all knowledge and being." It entails that philosophy or philosophical approach
tries to explore the truth of political incidents or events. It discovers the objective of
political writings or the purpose of political writer.
2. Historical approach:
This approach states that political theory can be only understood when the historical factors
are taken into consideration. It highlights on the study of history of every political reality
to analyse any situation. Political theorists like Machiavelli, Sabine and Dunning believed
that politics and history are strongly inter-related, and therefore, the study of politics always
should have a historical viewpoint. Sabine considered that Political Science should include
all those subjects which have been discussed in the writings of different political thinkers
since Plato. History defines about the past as well as links it with the present events.
Without studying the past political events, institutions and political environment, the
analysis of the present would remain largely imperfect.
3. Institutional approach:
There is a strong belief that philosophy, history and law have bestowed to the study of
politics and it is in the field of institutional approaches. Institutional approaches are ancient
and important approach to the study of Political Science. These approaches mainly deal
with the formal aspects of government and politics. Institutional approach is concerned
with the study of the formal political structures like legislature, executive, and judiciary. It
focused on the rules of the political system, the powers of the various institutions, the
legislative bodies, and how the constitution worked. Main drawback of this approach was
its narrow focus on formal structures and arrangements.
4. Legal approach:
In the realm of traditional approaches, there is a legal or juridical approach. This approach
considers the state as the central organization for the creation and enforcement of laws.
Therefore, this approach is associated with the legal process, legal bodies or institutions,
and judiciary. In this approach, the study of politics is mixed with legal processes and
institutions. Theme of law and justice are treated as not mere affairs of jurisprudence rather
politics scientists look at state as the maintainer of an effective and equitable system of law
and order.
(ii) Modern approaches:
The political philosophers later on realized the need to study politics from a new viewpoint.
Thus, to overcome the paucities of the traditional approaches, various new approaches have
been promoted by the new political intellectuals. These new approaches are considered as
the "modern approaches" to the study of Political Science. Many theorists regard these
approaches as a reaction against the traditional approaches. These approaches are mainly
concerned with scientific study of politics. The first innovation in this regard comes with
the advent of the behavioural revolution in Political Science.
Characteristics of Modern Approaches:
1. These approaches draw conclusion from empirical data.
2. These approaches go beyond the study of political structures and its historical
analysis.
3. Modern Approaches believe in inter-disciplinary study.
They stress scientific methods of study and attempt to draw scientific conclusions in
Political Science.
1. Sociological approach:
Political science and sociology both are social sciences and in several places they overlay.
The fields of sociological studies are human behaviour including the political behaviour,

group behaviour and attitude of group, culture, society. All these fall within the study area
of political science. Sociological approach of politics is very popular. Most famous thinkers
are Maclver, Easton. Almond recognized the important fact in this approach that ample
date is available in the field of sociology so as to lay down certain empirical rules of
political behaviour. Another term that belongs to this approach is culture. "Culture refers
to the totality of what is learned by individuals as members of society, it is a way of life a
mode of thinking, acting and feeling." Culture in various ways influences the political
behaviour of individuals which is the arena of investigation of political scientists.
2. Psychological approach:
There is a strong link between politics and psychology. Psychologists usually study the
political behaviour of individuals and factors leading to such behaviour. They also study
why certain individuals behave in a certain way. In simple form, psychology studies the
behaviour, attitude of the voter and after studying various aspects, the researchers draw
conclusions which very often serve the purpose of political leaders. It is not an
overstatement to hold that the foundation of behaviouralism is psychology of the
individuals. Presently, political scientists are eager to know how motives and emotions
work in the field of political activity. Sometimes, the psychologists focus upon the group
behaviour.
3. Economic approach:
Economics and politics are vital arenas of social science and in several respects they are
closely related. In the prospectus of universities of India and many other countries a few
decades ago, economics and political science established a single subject which suggests
the close relationship between the two. This signifies that in the study of politics,
economics has great importance.
4. Quantitative approach:
This approach is also known as statistical approach. It is described as the use of numerical
data so as to impart exactitude to the process of describing and analysing political
phenomenon. Mere descriptive or prescriptive analysis is not enough. The subscribers to
this approach demonstrate that there is a safety in numbers and researchers have to prove
scientifically the validity of a proposition by making use of graph, table, and charts.
5. System approach:
This approach falls in the category of modern approach. The notion of Systems Theory was
emerged from ancient time, dates back to 1920s. Ludwig Von Bertallanfy is considered as
the earliest advocate of the general systems theory. He utilized this theory for the study of
Biology. It is only after the Second World War, the social scientists claimed for the
amalgamation of sciences for which they took the help of the systems theory. However,
when the general systems theory in its abstract form traced back to natural sciences like
Biology, in its operational form, they are found in Anthropology. Then it was embraced in
Sociology and Psychology. In the decade of sixties, the systems theory became an
important tool to evaluate and investigate key factors in Political Science. Among political
scientists, David Easton has been the first to apply this theory to political analysis.
6. Simulation approach:

Simulation means the study with help of image construction or model building. Such facts
are used in political communication, decision making and game theory. The political
communication approach formulated by Karl Deutsch lays emphasis on how one part of
the system affects another by sending messages or transmitting information. According to
this approach, politics and government appear in essence as processes of steering and
coordinating human efforts towards the attainment of some goals.
7. Behavioural approach:
Behaviouralism is considered as contemporary approach to the study of political science.
But this approach was emerged during 20th century. An important consideration of
Behaviouralism has been the study of political behaviour, as an area of study within
Political Science. It concentrates is on the individual as voter, leader, revolutionary, party
member and the influences of the group or the political system on the individual's political
behaviour.
8. Marxian approach:
Marxian approach to politics is not limited to the writings of Marx, Engels and Lenin but
all those of a congregation of later writers such as Luxemburg, Trotsky, Gramsci and many
others. Further, an explicitly 'political' treatise cannot be found in the whole range of
classical Marxist texts. Miliband indicated that "a Marxist politics had to be constructed or
reconstructed from the mass of variegated and fragmented material which forms the corpus
of Marxism."
9. Structural functional approach:
According to this approach, the society is a single inter-related system where each part of
the system has a definite and distinct role to play. The structural-functional approach may
be considered as an offshoot of the system analysis. These approaches accentuate the
structures and functions. Gabriel Almond was an advocate of this approach. He described
political systems as a special system of interaction that exists in all societies performing
certain functions. According to him, the main attributes of a political system are
comprehensiveness, inter-dependence and existence of boundaries.
10. Communication Theory Approach:
This approach examines how one segment of a system affects another by sending messages
or information. Robert Weiner first defined this approach. Later on, Karl Deutsch
developed it and applied it in Political Science. Deutsch believes that the political system
is a system of communication channels and it is self-regulative. He further stated that the
government is responsible for overseeing different communication channels. This
approach treats the government as the decision making system. According to Deutsch, the
four factors of analysis in communication theory are; lead, lag, gain and load.
2.8 Political Socialization in Nepal: We can now discuss the overarching as well as much
more proximate institutional bases for the emergence and growth of social accounts, the
social sciences and "pre-sociology" in Nepal. It must be emphasized right away, however,
that the roots of such sociological endeavors have to be sought not only in other disciplines
such as literature and in economic, political and social history, but also in more lay accounts
of emerging social reform associations, agrarian conditions, labor migration, structures of

resistance, popular struggles, etc. Both "proper literature" and lay social accounts,
however, remain extremely sparse right till the 21th century.
2. 8.1 Pre-history (Ancient Period)
Prehistoric site of palaeolithic, Mesolithic and neolithic period have been
discovered in the Siwalik Hills of Dang District. The earliest inhabitants of Nepal
and adjoining areas were people from the Indus Valley Civilization. The Dravidian
people whose history predates the onset of the Bronze Age in South Asia (around
3300 BC), before coming of other ethnic groups like the Tibeto-Burmans and Indo-
Aryans from across the border. Tharus, people of mixed Dravidian and Austro-
Asiatic features are the forest-dwelling natives of the cental terai region of Nepal.
According to mythological story ashram of different rishis are located in different
areas such as; Byash Rishi: Tanahun Area, Kaushik Rishi: Koshi Area, Gautam
Rishi: Nuwakot, Kapil: Kapilvastu, Sing: Gulmi, Atri: Pyuthan, Yagyablbaya:
Sindhuli, Janak: Janakpur, Balmiki: Balmikinagar Chitwan, Basista: Tanahau
i. The Gopala: Cow heards (900 BC-700 BC)

The Gopals were the cowherd tribes who were supposed to have migrated from
south. Their migration to Nepal was related to Lord Krishna of Mahabharat times.
They must have occupied Kathmandu valley during (900 BC to 700 BC) 200 years.
They were settlements believed to have established in Matatirtha, Kirtipur,
Thankot, Balambu, Tistung and Palung areas. According to Dor Bahadur Bista 8
kings ruled over and they are: Bhumi Gupta (Bhuktaman), Jaya Gupta, Dharma
Gupta, Harsa Gupta, Bhim Gupta, Madi Gupta, Bishnu Gupta and Jeet Gupta.
ii. The Mahispala: Buffalo heard (700 BC-625 BC)

Mahispals succeeded Gopals in the Kathmandu valley. They were also called
Abhiras. Their main occupation was buffalo keeping. They must be migrated into
the Katmandu valley and later succeeded to throne Gopal dynasty. They were
followers of Vedic religion but later Siddhartha Gautam introduced Buddhist
religion. The main occupation of this era was agriculture, animal husbandry and
some local industry. The Avhir dynasty ruled (700 BC to 625 BC) 75 years. Bar
Singh, Jaya Singh and Bhuwan Singh are the three kings.
iii. The Rule of Kirants Kings (BC 625 - 100 AD)

After the rule of Gopals and Mahispals the domination of Nepal went into the
hands of Kirantas Who also played a major role for shaping Nepalese society and
in providing a direction to the Nepalese society and administration. The
emergence and the advent of the Kiranta rule marked the end of the pre historic
era and the commencement of the historical period of Nepal. Kirants are
mentioned in the Mahabharata, they are of Tibeto Burman families living between
the Himalayas and Gangetic plain. They were migrated Nepal from eastern part.
They succeeded the Mahispals.

King Yalambar who came from east attacked Bhuwan Singh, defeated him and
established his rule. Buddha came to Nepal during the rule of Jitedasti (7 th king)
the Samrath Asoka visited Nepal during the rule of Sthunko (14 th king). Emperor
Ashoka visited Kahmandu and he gave his daughter Charumati to Devapal. Trade
and commerce flourished under Kirants. Nepal had trade relation with China,
Tibet and India. The export mainly consisted of wool, woolen goods, wood and
the herbs. Hinduism remained main religion. They worshipped lord Shiva in the
form of Kirateshowr Mahedev. They also worshiped tree, rivers, rocks and
lighting.
2.8.2 The Licchavi Dynasty (Ancient Period)
The kings of Lichhavi dynasty (originated from Vaishali of modern Bihar of India)
have been found to rule Nepal after the Kirant monarchical dynasty. According to
the inscription of Jaya Dev II, Supushpa was the founder of Lichhavi dynasty. The
context that 'Suryavansi Kshetriyas had established new regime by defeating the
Kirats' can be found in some genealogies and Puranas.
2.8.3 Simroun Dynasty
The Simroun, Karnat or Dev Dynasty originated with an establishment of a

kingdom in 1097 CE headquartered at present day Simroungarh in Bara District.
The kingdom controlled the areas we today know as Tirhoot or Mithila in Nepal
and Bihar of India. The rulers of Simroungarh are as follows:
Nanya Dev Ganga Dev Narsingh Dev
(1097 - 1147 CE) (1147 - 1187 CE) (1187 - 1227 CE)
Ramsingh Dev Shaktisingh Dev Harisingh Dev
(1227 - 1285 CE) (1285 - 1295 CE) (1295 - 1324 CE)
In 1324 CE, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq attacked Simroungarh and demolished the fort.
The remains are still scattered all over the Simroungarh region. The king fled
northwards into the then Nepal. The son of Harisingh Dev, Jagatsingh Dev
married the widow princess of Bhaktapur Nayak Devi.
3.8.4 Rule of the Thakuri Kings
The Thakuri Dynasty was a Rajput Dynasty. After Aramudi, who is mentioned
in the Kashmirian chronicle, the Rajatarangini of Kalhana (1150 AD), many
Thakuri kings ruled over parts of the country up to the middle of the 12th
century. Raghava Deva is said to have founded a ruling dynasty in 879 AD,
when the Lichhavi rule came to an end. To commemorate this important event,

Raghu Deva started the 'Nepal Era' which began on 20 October, 879 AD. After
Amshuvarma, who ruled from 605 AD onward; the Thakuris had lost power and
they could regain it only in 869 AD. During the reign of Reghav Dev to
commemorate the occasion of the Thakuri dynasty coming to the power and end
the Lichhivi dynasty.
2.8.5 Rule of the Khas Kings
An ancient tribe named Khasa is mentioned in several ancient legendary Indian

texts, including the Mahabharata. The historical Khasa kingdom is different from
the territory of this legendary tribe, although there have been some speculations
about a connection between the two. The historical Khasas are mentioned in
several inscriptions dated between 8th and 13th centuries.
13th century was inscriped by King Ripu Malla on the Nigali Sagar pillar of
Ashoka in Lumbini. The inscription reads "Om mani padme hum" and "Sri Ripu
Malla Chiram Jayatu 1234" (year 1234 of the Saka Era, corresponding to 1312 AD).
Naagraj Chaap Chapilla Krashichalla
Kradhichalla Krachalla (1189-1223)
Jitari Malla Ashok Chlla / Malla (1223-87)
Ripu Malla (1312-13) Nephew of Jitari Aditya Malla (end of Rule Nagraj
Malla Clan)
Punya Malla son in law of Aditya Malla Prithvi Malla (he had no son)
Surya Malla (Son of Ripu Malla) Abhaya Malla
Copper Inscription by Baise King of Doti, Raika Mandhata Shahi at Saka Era 1612
(1690 AD or 1747 Bikram Samvat) in old Khas language using Devanagari script.
After late 13th century the Khas empire collapsed and divided into Baise Rajya (22
principalities) in Karnali-Bheri region and 24 principalities in Gandak region;
among Chaubise rajya (24 principalities) 12 were Khas and 12 were Magar Rajyas.
2.8.6 Malla Dynasty (Medieval Period)
The Malla Dynasty was the ruling dynasty of Kathmandu Valley from (1201-1779)
AD. They have claimed Kshatriya status for themselves. The Mallas means
"wrestlers" in Sanskrit. The first of the Malla kings came to power in Kathmandu
Valley around 1200 AD. The Malla period was a golden one that stretched over
600 years, though it was peppered with fighting over the valuable trade routes to
Tibet.

2.8.7 Shah dynasty: Shah dynasty was the ruling ChaubiseThakuri dynasty from the
Indian subcontinent; they claimed Rajput origin from medieval India, and derived from
the Gorkha Kingdom from 1559 to 1768 and later the unified Kingdom of Nepal from
1768 to 28 May 2008. Shah dynasty traces their historical ancestor to King of Kaski,
Kulamandan Shah, whose grandson Dravya Shah captured the throne of Gorkha from
Khadka kings with the help of accomplices from six resident clans of Gorkha to become
the King of Gorkha.
2.8.8 Rana dynasty: Rana dynasty is a Kshatriya (Rajput-Chhetri) dynasty from the
Indian subcontinent that ruled the Kingdom of Nepal from 1846 A.D until 1951 A.D,
reducing the Shah monarch to a figurehead and making Prime Minister and other
government positions held the Ranas as hereditary. Rana dynasty is historically known for
the iron-fisted rule. This changed after the Revolution of 1951 with the promulgation of a
new constitution, when power shifted back to the monarchy of King Tribhuvan.
The Rana dynasty descended from the Kunwar family, a nobility of the Gorkha Kingdom.
Due to the marital lineages with the politically reigning Thapa dynasty (of Mukhtiyar
Bhimsen Thapa) from early 19th century, Ranas gained entry to central Darbar politics.
Ranas were also linked to the minor faction of another politically acclaimed Pande
dynastyof Gorkha through Thapa dynasty.
2.8.9 Modern Period: In 1951 the Ranas were overthrown in an uprising to bring
democracy in the country with strong support from the-then monarch of Nepal, King
Tribhuvan. Soon after the overthrow of the Ranas, King Tribhuvan was reinstated as the
Head of the State. In early 1959, Tribhuvan’s son King Mahendra issued a new
constitution, and the first democratic elections for a national assembly were held.
The Nepali Congress Party was victorious and their leader, Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala
formed a government and served as Prime Minister. But this government didn’t last long
as King Mahendra decided to dissolve Parliament in 1960, and introduced a one party
Panchayat rule.
The Panchayat system lasted until 1990, when a popular people’s movement led by the
political parties that had been banned by the government which until then had been known
as ‘His Majesty’s Government’, gave way to democracy. The long struggle paid off when
King Birendra accepted constitutional reforms and established a multiparty parliament
with himself as the Head of State and an executive Prime Minister under him. In May 1991,
Nepal held its first parliamentary elections.
In February 1996, the Maoist parties declared a People’s War against monarchy and the
elected government. Then on 1st June 2001, a horrific tragedy wiped out the entire royal
family including King Birendra and Queen Aishwarya along with most of their closest
relatives. With only King Birendra’s brother, Gyanendra and his family surviving, he was
crowned king. King Gyanendra abided by the elected government’s rule for some time, but
then dismissed the elected Parliament to wield absolute power. In April 2006, another
People’s Movement was launched jointly by the democratic parties focusing on
Kathmandu, which led to a 19-day curfew imposed by the king. With the movement not
cowering down and ignoring the curfew, King Gyanendra eventually relinquished his
power and reinstated the Parliament. On 21st November 2006, Prime Minister Girija
Prasad Koirala and Maoist Chairman Prachanda signed the Comprehensive Peace
Agreement (CPA) 2006, committing to democracy and peace for the progress of the
country and people. The king was removed and the decade long Maoist war on the state
was over. A Constituent Assembly election was held on 10th April 2008. And on 28th May
2008, the newly elected Constituent Assembly declared Nepal a Federal Democratic
Republic, abolishing the 240 year-old monarchy. Nepal today has a President as Head of
State and a constitutionally elected Prime Minister heading the Government.
Unit 3: The Political Community: I. Behaviorist Approaches and Political

Socialization: Power and the Classics of Political Sociology. Elitism and
Pluralism; Cultural Politics Approaches; Main Approaches to the Study of
Political Behavior: The Behaviorist Approach; The Golden Age of
Behaviorism; Post-behaviorism and Easton: A Systemic Approach;
Socialization in Nepal.
3.1 Types of Power: Power is frequently defined as the ability to influence the behavior
of others with or without resistance. Max Weber (1958) believed that there are three (not
one) independent and equally important orders of power as under.
a. Economic power: For Marx, economic power is the basis of all power, including
political power. It is based upon an objective relationship to the modes of production, a
group’s condition in the labour market, and its chances. Economic power refers to the
measurement of the ability to control events by virtue of material advantage.
b. Social power: It is based upon informal community opinion, family position,

honour, prestige and patterns of consumption and lifestyles. Weber placed special
emphasis on the importance of social power, which often takes priority over
economic interests. Contemporary sociologists have also given importance to
social status so much so that they sometimes seem to have underestimated the
importance of political power.
c. Political power: It is based upon the relationships to the legal structure, party
affiliation and extensive bureaucracy. Political power is institutionalized in the
form of large-scale government bureaucracies. One of the persistent ideas has been
that they are controlled by elites, that is, small, select, privileged groups.
d. Knowledge power: To Foucault (1969), power is intimately linked with

knowledge. Power and knowledge produce one another. He saw knowledge as a
means of ‘keeping tabs’ on people and controlling them.
e. Military power: It involves the use of physical coercion. Warfare has always
played a major role in politics. Modem mass military systems developed into
bureaucratic organizations and significantly changed the nature of organizing and
fighting wars. According to Weber, few groups in society base their power purely
on force or military might.

f. Ideological power: It involves power over ideas and beliefs, for example, are
communism, fascism and some varieties of nationalism. These types of ideologies are
frequently oppositional to dominant institutions and play an important role in the
organization of devotees into sects and parties. According to Michael Mann (1986), there
are two types of power, viz., distributional and collective.
g. Distributional power: It is a power over others. It is the ability of individuals to get
others to help them pursue their own goals. It is held by individuals.
h. Collective power: It is exercised by social groups. It may be exercised by one social
group over another.
3.1.1 Sources of Power: There are three basic sources of power: force, influence and
authority. These are explained below:
a. Force: As defined earlier, force is the actual (physical force) or threatened (latent force)
use of coercion to impose one’s will on others. When leaders imprison or even execute
political dissidents, they thus apply force. Often, however, sheer force accomplishes little.
Although people can be physically restrained, they cannot be made to perform complicated
tasks by force alone.
b. Influence: It refers to the exercise of power through the process of persuasion. It is the
ability to affect the decisions and actions of others. A citizen may change his or her position
after listening a stirring speech at a rally by a political leader. This is an example of
influence that how the efforts to persuade people can help in changing one’s opinion.
c. Authority: It refers to power that has been institutionalized and is recognized by the
people over whom it is exercised (Schaefer and Lamm, 1992). It is established to make
decisions and order the actions of others. It is a form of legitimate power. Legitimacy
means that those subject to a government’s authority consent to it (Giddens, 1997).
The people give to the ruler the authority to rule, and they obey willingly without the threat
of force. We tend to obey the orders of police officer because we accept their right to have
power over us in certain situations. Legitimate power is accepted as being rightfully
exercised (for example, power of the king). Thus, sociologists distinguish power from
authority.
Authority is an agreed-upon legitimate relationship of domination and subjugation. For
example, when a decision is made through legitimate, recognized channels of government,
the carrying out of that decision falls within the realm of authority. In brief, power is
decision-making and authority is the right to make decisions, that is, legitimate power.
Thus, there is a difference between authority and influence:
(i) Authority is an official right to make and enforce decisions, whereas influence is the
ability to affect the actions of others apart from authority to do so;
(ii) Authority stems from rank, whereas influence rests largely upon personal attributes;
and
(iii) Authority is based upon the status one holds, whereas influence is based upon the
esteem one receives.
An admired institutional officer can have both authority and influence, whereas an
unpopular officer has authority but little influence.
3.1.2 Types of Authority:
a. Traditional Authority: It is the legitimate power conferred by custom, tradition or
accepted practice. Traditional authority is ‘hallowed with time’, like that of a king, an
established dynasty or a religious leader. It is based on an uncodified collective sense that
it is proper and longstanding and should therefore be accepted as legitimate.
In patriarchal societies, the authority of husbands over wives or of father over his children
is obeyed because it is the accepted practice. Similarly, a king or queen is accepted as ruler
of a nation simply by virtue of inheriting the crown. For the traditional leader, authority
rests in custom or tradition (inherited positions), and not in personal characteristics.
b. Legal Rational Authority: It is established in law or written regulations (formally
enacted norms) that determine how the society will be governed. This is the form of
authority found in workplaces, government, schools, colleges and most major social
institutions.
Leaders derive their legal authority from the written rules and regulations of political
systems. It is this type of authority that characterizes modem bureaucratic organizations.
Rational authority rests in the leader’s legal right rather than in family or personal
characteristics.
c. Charismatic Authority: Weber also observed that power can be legitimized by the
charisma of an individual. Charisma is ‘a certain quality of an individual personality by
virtue of which he is set apart from ordinary man and treated as endowed with supernatural,
superhuman, or at least specifically exceptional powers or qualities’.
Charisma is, therefore, unusual spontaneous and creative of new movements and new
structures. The term ‘charismatic authority’ refers to the power made legitimate by the
exceptional personal characteristics of the leader, such as heroism, mysticism, revelations,
or magic. Charisma allows a person to lead or inspire without relying on set rules or
traditions. Charismatic authority is generated by the personality and the myths that
surround the individual, like that of Jesus, Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Hitler
and Pandit Nehru.
3.2 Classes: A social class is a set of concepts in the social sciences and political theory
centered on models of social stratification in which people are grouped into a set of
hierarchical social categories, the most common being the upper, middle and lower classes.
large groups of people differing from each other by the place they occupy in a historically
determined system of social production, by their relation (in most cases fixed and
formulated in law) to the means of production, by their role in the social organization of
labor, and, consequently, by the dimensions of the share of social wealth of which they
dispose and the mode of acquiring it."
3.2.1 Social Classes of People: Social class refers to a group of people with similar levels
of wealth, influence, and status. Approximately 15 to 20 percent are in the poor, lower
class; 30 to 40 percent are in the working class; 40 to 50 percent are in the middle class;
and 1 to 3 percent is in the rich, upper class.
a. The lower class: The lower class is typified by poverty, homelessness, and
unemployment. People of this class, few of whom have finished high school, suffer
from lack of medical care, adequate housing and food, decent clothing, safety, and
vocational training. The media often stigmatize the lower class as “the
underclass,” inaccurately characterizing poor people as welfare mothers who
abuse the system by having more and more babies, welfare fathers who are able
to work but do not, drug abusers, criminals, and societal “trash.”
b. The working class: The working classes are those minimally educated people
who engage in “manual labor” with little or no prestige. Unskilled workers in the
class dishwashers, cashiers, maids, and waitresses usually are underpaid and have
no opportunity for career advancement. They are often called the working poor.
Skilled workers in this class carpenters, plumbers, and electricians are often
called blue collar workers. They may make more money than workers in the
middle class secretaries, teachers, and computer technicians; however, their jobs
are usually more physically taxing, and in some cases quite dangerous.
c. The middle class: The middle class are the “sandwich” class. These white collar
workers have more money than those below them on the “social ladder,” but less
than those above them. They divide into two levels according to wealth, education,
and prestige. The lower middle class is often made up of less educated people with
lower incomes, such as managers, small business owners, teachers, and secretaries.
The upper middle class is often made up of highly educated business and
professional people with high incomes, such as doctors, lawyers, stockbrokers,
and CEOs.
d. The upper class: Comprising only 1 to 3 percent of the United States population,
the upper class holds more than 25 percent of the nation's wealth. This class
divides into two groups: lower‐upper and upper‐upper. The lower‐upper
class includes those with “new money,” or money made from investments,
business ventures, and so forth. The upper‐upper class includes those aristocratic
and “high‐society” families with “old money” who have been rich for generations.
These extremely wealthy people live off the income from their inherited riches.
The upper‐upper class is more prestigious than the lower‐upper class.
3.3 Elitism and Pluralism

a. Elitism: Elitism is the belief or attitude that individuals who form an elite a select group
of people with a certain ancestry, intrinsic quality, high intellect, wealth, special skills, or
experience are more likely to be constructive to society as a whole, and therefore deserve
influence or authority greater than that of others. In the United States, the term elitism often
refers to the concentration of power in the Northeast Corridor and on the West Coast,
where the typical American elite resides journalists, lawyers, doctors, high-level civil
servants (such as White House aides), businesspeople, university lecturers, entrepreneurs,
and financial advisors in the quaternary sector, often in established technological or
political catchments of their higher education alma mater.
b. Pluralism: Pluralism denotes a diversity of views or stands rather than a single approach
or method.
● Pluralism (political philosophy), the acknowledgement of a diversity of
political systems
● Pluralism (political theory), belief that there should be diverse and competing
centres of power in society
● Legal pluralism, the existence of differing legal systems in a population or area
Pluralist democracy, a political system with more than one center of powe pluralism is
the view that politics and decision making are located mostly in the framework of
government, but that many non-governmental groups use their resources to exert
influence. The central question for classical pluralism is how power and influence are
distributed in a political process. Groups of individuals try to maximize their interests.
Lines of conflict are multiple and shifting as power is a continuous bargaining process
between competing groups. There may be inequalities but they tend to be distributed
and evened out by the various forms and distributions of resources throughout a
population.
● This is not necessarily undesirable for two reasons:
(i) It may be representative of population content with the political happenings,
(ii) Political issues require continuous and expert attention, which the average
citizen may not have.
Aristotle and the six forms of political regimes:

Aristotle identifies six types of constitution, three to be fair (monarchy, aristocracy and
democracy), and three considered unfair (tyranny, oligarchy, anarchy). The test of a
constitution is the common good, a plan is just as it benefits everyone:
▪ Monarchy: A constitution is a monarchy if power is exercised by a person and
that the laws are the public good. But if the monarch has the power in the
interest of the monarchy becomes tyranny.
▪ Aristocracy: An aristocracy constitution when the power is controlled by an

elite for the good of all, but degenerates into an oligarchy if the leaders are bad.
▪ Democracy: A democracy is the regime of the people but the plan may pay
into anarchy when demagogues take power.
3.4 Cultural politics: The term cultural politics refers to the way that culture
including people’s attitudes, opinions, beliefs and perspectives, as well as the
media and arts shapes society and political opinion, and gives rise to social,
economic and legal realities.
It is a field of theoretically, politically, and empirically engaged cultural analysis

that concentrates upon the political dynamics of contemporary culture, its
historical foundations, defining traits, conflicts, and contingencies. Cultural
studies researchers generally investigate how cultural practices relate to wider
systems of power associated with or operating through social phenomena, such as
ideology, class structures, national formations, ethnicity, sexual orientation,
gender, and generation. The field of cultural studies encompasses a range of
theoretical and methodological perspectives and practices. Although distinct from
the discipline of cultural anthropology and the interdisciplinary field of ethnic
studies, cultural studies draws upon and has contributed to each of these fields.
3.4.1 Factors of Political Culture: A Political System operates within the framework of
a set of meanings and purposes- the political culture of the society. All political activity is
characterised by the values, beliefs and orientations of the people towards political
objects and actions. “Pattern of orientations to the political action within any given
society” is called the Political Culture of the society. It is a valuable part of the general
culture. Political Culture is determined by several historical and socio-economic- ethnic

factors which are referred to as its determinants or the elements. Changes in Political
Culture also come under the influence of these factors.
1. The Historical Factor: History plays an important role in the making and evolution
of Political Culture. Historical events always influence the shaping of political culture
in a big way. Political culture bears a deep impact on the Revolution and the
“Declaration of Rights of Man and of Citizen.” Likewise, the Declaration of
Independence, the War of Independence and the Civil War of century exercised a big
influence upon the Political Culture.
2. Political Continuity or Discontinuity: The continuity or discontinuity of a political
system determines the nature of its political culture. Continuity of political process
helps the evolution of a participant political culture and secures the linkage between
the past and the present.
3. Geography: Geography plays a big role in determining the political culture of the
society. Favourable location has helped to meet successfully foreign invasions. Small
size has helped to maintain the continuity of its political traditions. The vast size and
diversities have helped to accept the values of equality and freedom for all.
4. Socio-Economic Factors: Socio-economic factors always play a deterministic role
in laying down the foundations of the political culture and in securing a change in the
orientations of the people towards political objects and actions. Levels of poverty,
employment, urbanisation, literacy, etc., play a leading role in shaping the political
culture of a society.
5. Ethnic Factor: The existence of ethnic differences and ethnic conflicts among
several ethnic groups or minorities which live in the society always determine the
nature of political culture. Ethnic pluralism as manifested in linguistic, cultural,
religious and social diversities plays a deterministic role in the evolution of the
political culture and the regional sub-political cultures. Ethnic differences and
conflicts give rise to the emergence of strong sub-political cultures within the national
political culture.
6. Ideological Factor: The concept of political culture refers to orientations cognitive,
affective and evaluative, towards political objects and actions. These orientations are
greatly influenced by the ideology or ideologies that are popular with the people. As
a set of principles offering an explanation of a given phenomenon or even life in
society, an ideology plays an important role in forming and changing people’s values,
commitments and orientations.
3.5 Political Behavior: Political behavior as an aspect of political science, attempt to
quantify and explain the influences that define a person's political views, ideology, and
levels of political participation. Broadly speaking, behavior is political whenever
individuals or groups try to influence or escape the influence of others. Political behavior
is the subset of human behavior that involves politics and powers.

3.5.1 Behavioralism: Behaviouralism is considered as contemporary approach to the study
of political science. But this approach was emerged during 20th century. An important
consideration of Behaviouralism has been the study of political behaviour, as an area of
study within Political Science. It concentrates is on the individual as voter, leader,
revolutionary, party member and the influences of the group or the political system on the
individual's political behaviour.
Behviouralism stresses scientific, objective and value-free study of the political
occurrences as conditioned by the environment, firmly the behaviour of the individuals
involved in that phenomenon. As such, it focuses on the role of the behaviour of the
individual at various levels and the scientific analysis. Behaviouralism is the development
of method against traditional political science which did not take into account if human
behaviour as an actor in politics.
Behaviouralism is quite different from behaviourism. Behaviourism is narrow in its
application. It refers to the response of an organism as aroused by some stimulus. It does
not consider role of the feelings, ideas, prejudices that determine the response of that
individual. Behaviouralism does take into account the role of the feelings, ideas and
prejudices. David Easton differentiates between behaviourism and behaviouralism through
an example. The paradigm adopted by behaviourists, according to him is S- R (Stimulus-
Response). But the behavioural lists have improved it by making it as S-O-R (Stimulus-
Organism-Response). David Easton regards behavioural revolution is an intellectual
tendency on the part of the political scientists to study empirically the political behaviour
of persons.
3.5.2 Post behaviourism: The progress of behavioural movement in Political Science is
one of the important breakthroughs in the history of Political Science. The growth of
behaviouralism clearly presented a scientific dynamism in the study of political
phenomena. Nevertheless, after sometime, it began to be realized that unlike natural
sciences, generalizations could not be made in the field of social sciences, as the study of
man in the societal framework was a far more complex pursuit than the study of objects in
the natural sciences. Therefore, a new thinking emerged among the behaviouralists for
transforming behaviouralism.
David Easton who was a faithful supporter of behaviouralism later became a strong
opponent of behaviouralism. In his presidential address to the Annual Convention of the
American Political Science Association held in 1969, David Easton avowed that he felt
unhappy with the political research and teaching made under the impact of behaviouralism.
He further said that because of excessive use of mathematics, Political Science looked more
of mathematics instead of social science and that it does not study the current and
contemporary world. The post-behaviouralism is an improvement of behaviouralism as it
changes its focus strictly from empirical research to resolving problems confronting the
society.
3.5.3 David Easton and post behavioraism: (June 24, 1917 – July 19, 2014) was
a Canadian-born American political scientist. Easton, who was born in Toronto, Ontario,
came to the United States in 1943. From 1947-1997, he served as a professor of political
science at the University of Chicago.
At the forefront of both the behavioralist and post-behavioralist revolutions in the
discipline of political science during the 1950s and 1970s, Easton provided the discipline's
most widely used definition of politics as the authoritative allocation of values for the
society. He is renowned for his application of systems theory to the study of political
science. Policy analysts have utilized his five-fold scheme for studying the policy-making
process: input, conversion, output, feedback and environment. Gunnell argues that since
the 1950s the concept of "system" was the most important theoretical concept used by
American political scientists. The idea appeared in sociology and other social sciences but
it was Easton who specified how it could be best applied to behavioral research on politics.
During his career he served as a key gatekeeper, as consultant to many prominent
organizations and funding agencies, and author of numerous influential scholarly
publications. He served on many boards and committees and was president of
the American Political Science Association. The eight characteristics features of
behaviouralism as given by David Easton are as follows:
1. Regularities: The behaviouralists hold the opinion that human behaviour, despite its
differences, shows some remarkable uniformity in political behaviour, which can be
generalised and formulated in a systematic theory. Political behaviouralists contend that in
political science results can be explained and predicted. So the behaviouralists claim that
Political Science may not be comparable to physics and chemistry in regard to the
exactness of its results but certainly it may become comparable to astronomy or biology.
2. Verifications: The behaviouralists do not accept anything as granted like the
traditionalists. They do not believe in the abstract political theory, rather they verify and
test every-thing. Any-thing which cannot verify or tested can be termed only as dogmatic
and not scientific. They believe in empirical or scientific results only which can be achieved
after scientific verification.
3. Techniques: The behaviouralists stress on the use of those research tools and
methods which generate valid, reliable and comparative data. A researcher must
make use of refined tools like sample surveys, mathematical models, simulation.
4. Quantification: The behaviouralists contend that a researcher cannot properly

explain political phenomena nor can he safely predict a political result for the
future without measurement and quantification. For example, David Easton has
observed: "Precision in the recording of data and the statement of their findings
requires tables, graphs and curves are drawn in behavioural research."
Quantification in the opinion of the traditionalists, on the other hand, is an
unattainable goal un-measurable and requires extremely precise concepts and
matrices which Political Science does not possess.
5. Values: The behaviouralists have emphasised on separation of facts from

values. They believe that to do objective research, one has to be value free. It means
that the researcher should not have any pre-conceived idea or a prejudiced view.
6. Systematization: Behaviouralism believes that research in Political Science must

be systematic by which they mean that it must be "theory oriented and theory-
directed", that theory and research should form as "closely interrelated parts of a
coherent and orderly body of knowledge" and that "research, untutored by the
theory, may prove trivial and theory, unsupported by data, futile".
7. Pure Science: Behaviouralists by and large, insist on what they call "pure science
approach". This means that whatever research they make, that should be applied
in solving the problems of mankind. Therefore they apply the scientific theory to
the social problems. Behaviouralists also make research in the social problems.
8. Integration: behaviouralists stated that political Science should not be detached

from various other social sciences such as history, sociology and economics. This
approach denotes that political events are formed by various other factors in the
society and therefore, it would be incorrect to separate Political Science from other
disciplines.
Therefore, the behaviouralists believe in integrated approach and for this purpose the
political scientists have to study other social sciences like sociology, history, economics,
anthropology etc. because the study of political phenomena requires one understanding of
how the economic, cultural and other phenomena in society are unfolding themselves. In
other words it means inter disciplinary approach.
Human Behaviour - Behavioural Approach
Advantages Disadvantages
● It is easy to put into practice ● Not always easy to get people to
change their mind
● It is simple to understand
● The client may rebel against being
● The results are usually quick
told what to do
● It uses small steps to shape the ● Older people may resent being
behaviour 'treated like a child'
● It doesn't require a specialist to ● It doesn't consider the client's
implement it - anyone can use the thoughts or feelings
approach
● It may be seen as dogmatic and a
● It is based on the principle that
punishment
reinforced (rewarded) behaviour
will be repeated ● Punishment is often used more
frequently than rewards
● The results can be measured
and demonstrate progress

● It is suitable for any age and ● Could be seen as de-humanising -
ability reducing our behaviour to responses to a
stimuli
● Suggests that we are only pleasure-

seeking animals
3.6 Socialization: It is the process of internalizing the norms and ideologies of society.
Socialization encompasses both learning and teaching and is thus "the means by which
social and cultural continuity are attained". Socialization essentially represents the whole
process of learning throughout the life course and is a central influence on the behavior,
beliefs, and actions of adults as well as of children.
3.6.1 Types of Socialization
a. Primary socialization: Primary socialization occurs when a child learns the
attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a
particular culture. For example if a child saw his/her mother expressing a
discriminatory opinion about a minority group, then that child may think this
behavior is acceptable and could continue to have this opinion about minority
groups.
b. Secondary socialization: Secondary socialization refers to the process of

learning is appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group within the larger
society. It is usually associated with teenagers and adults, and involves smaller
changes than that occurring in primary socialization is entering a new profession,
relocating to a new environment or society.
c. Developmental socialization: Developmental socialization is the process of

learning behavior in a social institution or developing your social skills.
d. Anticipatory socialization: Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of

socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and
social relationships.
3.6.2 Agents of socialization: Agents of socialization, sometimes referred to as

institutions, work together to influence and shape people's political and economic norms
and values. Such institutions include, but are not limited to: families, media, peers, schools,
religions, work and legal systems.
1. Family: Families perpetuate values that support political authorities and can
heavily contribute to children's initial political ideological views, or party
affiliations. Families have an effect on "political knowledge, identification,
efficacy, and participation", depending on variables such as "family
demographics, life cycle, parenting style, parental level of political cynicism and
frequency of political discussions."
2. Schools: Spending numerous years in school, children in the United States are
taught and reinforced a view of the world that "privileges capitalism and
ownership, competitive individualism, and democracy." Through primary,
secondary and high schools, students are taught key principles such as
individual rights and property, personal responsibility and duty to their nation.
3. Media: Mass media is not only a source of political information; it is an

influence on political values and beliefs. Various media outlets, through news
coverage and late-night programs, provide different partisan policy stances that
are associated with political participation.
4. Religion: Religions beliefs and practices play a role in political opinion

formation and political participation. This is evident, for instance, n Arab
societies where there is no clear distinction between political cultures and
religions. The theological and moral perspectives offered by religious institutions
shape judgement regarding public policy, and ultimately, translates to direct
"political decision making on governmental matters such as the redistribution of
wealth, equality, tolerance for deviance and the limits on individual freedom, the
severity of criminal punishment, policies relating to family structure, gender
roles, and the value of human life."
5. Political parties: Scholars such as Campbell (1960) note that political parties
have very little direct influence on a child due to a contrast of social factors such
as age, context, power, etc.
6. The state: The state is a key source of information for media outlets, and has
the ability to "inform, misinform, or disinform the press and thus the public", a
strategy which may be referred to as propaganda, in order to serve a political or
economic agenda.
3.7 Socialization in Nepal: Socialization is the process whereby an individual

learns to adjust to a group (or society) and behave in a manner approved by the
group (or society). According to most social scientists, socialization essentially
represents the whole process of learning throughout the life course and is a central
influence on the behaviour, beliefs, and actions of adults as well as of children.
a. Political context: We can now discuss the overarching as well as much more proximate
institutional bases for the emergence and growth of social accounts, the social sciences and
"pre-sociology" in Nepal. It must be emphasized right away, however, that the roots of
such sociological endeavors have to be sought not only in other disciplines such as
literature and in economic, political and social history, but also in more lay accounts of
emerging social reform associations, agrarian conditions, labor migration, structures of
resistance, popular struggles, etc. Both "proper literature" and lay social accounts,
however, remain extremely sparse right till the 21th century.
The earliest inhabitants of Nepal and adjoining areas were people from the Indus
Valley Civilization. The Dravidian people whose history predates the onset of the
Bronze Age in South Asia (around 3300 BC), before coming of other ethnic groups
like the Tibeto-Burmans and Indo-Aryans from across the border.
The Gopals were the cowherd tribes who were supposed to have migrated from
south. Their migration to Nepal was related to Lord Krishna of Mahabharat times.
They must have occupied Kathmandu valley during (900 BC to 700 BC) 200 years.
Mahispals succeeded Gopals in the Kathmandu valley. They were also called
Abhiras. The Avhir dynasty ruled (700 BC to 625 BC) 75 years. After the rule of
Gopals and Mahispals the domination of Nepal went into the hands of Kirantas
Who also played a major role for shaping Nepalese society and in providing a
direction to the Nepalese society and administration. King Yalambar who came
from east attacked Bhuwan Singh, defeated him and established his rule. The
kings of Lichhavi dynasty (originated from Vaishali of modern Bihar of India)
have been found to rule Nepal after the Kirant monarchical dynasty.
After Amshuvarma, who ruled from 605 AD onward; the Thakuris had lost power
and they could regain it only in 869 AD. During the reign of Reghav Dev to
commemorate the occasion of the Thakuri dynasty coming to the power and end
the Lichhivi dynasty. The historical Khasa kingdom is different from the territory
of this legendary tribe, although there have been some speculations about a
connection between the two. The historical Khasas are mentioned in several
inscriptions dated between 8th and 13th centuries. The Simroun, Karnat or Dev
Dynasty originated with an establishment of a kingdom in 1097 CE headquartered
at present day Simroungarh in Bara District. The kingdom controlled the areas we
today know as Tirhoot or Mithila in Nepal and Bihar of India.
Malla Dynasty (Medieval Period): The Malla Dynasty was the ruling dynasty of
Kathmandu Valley from (1201-1779) AD. They have claimed Kshatriya status for
themselves. The Mallas means "wrestlers" in Sanskrit. The first of the Malla kings came
to power in Kathmandu Valley around 1200 AD. The Malla period was a golden one that
stretched over 600 years, though it was peppered with fighting over the valuable trade
routes to Tibet.
Shah dynasty: Shah dynasty was the ruling ChaubiseThakuri dynasty from the Indian
subcontinent; they claimed Rajput origin from medieval India, and derived from
the Gorkha Kingdom from 1559 to 1768 and later the unified Kingdom of Nepal from 1768
to 28 May 2008. Shah dynasty traces their historical ancestor to King of Kaski,
Kulamandan Shah, whose grandson Dravya Shah captured the throne of Gorkha from
Khadka kings with the help of accomplices from six resident clans of Gorkha to become
the King of Gorkha.
Rana dynasty: Rana dynasty is a Kshatriya (Rajput-Chhetri) dynasty from the Indian
subcontinent that ruled the Kingdom of Nepal from 1846 A.D until 1951 A.D, reducing
the Shah monarch to a figurehead and making Prime Minister and other government
positions held the Ranas as hereditary. Rana dynasty is historically known for the iron-
fisted rule. This changed after the Revolution of 1951 with the promulgation of a new
constitution, when power shifted back to the monarchy of King Tribhuvan.
Modern Period: In 1951 the Ranas were overthrown in an uprising to bring democracy
in the country with strong support from the-then monarch of Nepal, King Tribhuvan. Soon
after the overthrow of the Ranas, King Tribhuvan was reinstated as the Head of the State.
In early 1959, Tribhuvan’s son King Mahendra issued a new constitution, and the
first democratic elections for a national assembly were held. The Nepali Congress Party
was victorious and their leader, Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala formed a government and
served as Prime Minister. But this government didn’t last long as King Mahendra decided
to dissolve Parliament in 1960, and introduced a one party Panchayat rule.
The Panchayat system lasted until 1990, when a popular people’s movement led by the
political parties that had been banned by the government which until then had been known
as ‘His Majesty’s Government’, gave way to democracy. The long struggle paid off when
King Birendra accepted constitutional reforms and established a multiparty parliament
with himself as the Head of State and an executive Prime Minister under him. In May 1991,
Nepal held its first parliamentary elections.
In February 1996, the Maoist parties declared a People’s War against monarchy and the
elected government. Then on 1st June 2001, a horrific tragedy wiped out the entire royal
family including King Birendra and Queen Aishwarya along with most of their closest
relatives. With only King Birendra’s brother, Gyanendra and his family surviving, he was
crowned king. King Gyanendra abided by the elected government’s rule for some time, but
then dismissed the elected Parliament to wield absolute power. In April 2006, another
People’s Movement was launched jointly by the democratic parties focusing on
Kathmandu, which led to a 19-day curfew imposed by the king. With the movement not
cowering down and ignoring the curfew, King Gyanendra eventually relinquished his
power and reinstated the Parliament. On 21st November 2006, Prime Minister Girija
Prasad Koirala and Maoist Chairman Prachanda signed the Comprehensive Peace
Agreement (CPA) 2006, committing to democracy and peace for the progress of the
country and people. The king was removed and the decade long Maoist war on the state
was over. A Constituent Assembly election was held on 10th April 2008. And on 28th May
2008, the newly elected Constituent Assembly declared Nepal a Federal Democratic
Republic, abolishing the 240 year-old monarchy. Nepal today has a President as Head of
State and a constitutionally elected Prime Minister heading the Government.
b. Social and economic context: The international community has been heavily involved
in supporting Nepal's democratic transition and making progress toward the achievement
of the Millennium Development Goals. Nepal entered the modern era in 1951 without
schools, hospitals, roads, telecommunications, electric power, industry, or civil service.
The country has, however, made progress toward sustainable economic and opened the
country to economic liberalization leading to economic growth and improvement in living
standards than compared to the past. The biggest challenges faced by the country in
achieving higher economic development are the frequent changes in political leadership as
well as corruption. Nepal has used a series of five-year plans in an attempt to make progress
in economic development. It completed its ninth economic development plan in
2002. Foreign aid to Nepal accounts for more than half of the development budget.
Government priorities over the years have been the development of transportation and
communication facilities, agriculture, and industry. Since 1975, improved government
administration and rural development efforts have been emphasised.
Agriculture remains Nepal's principal economic activity, employing about 65% of the
population and providing 31.7% of GDP. Only about 20% of the total area is cultivable;
another 40.7% is forested (i.e., covered by shrubs, pastureland and forest); most of the rest
is mountainous. The lowland Terai region produces an agricultural surplus, part of which
supplies the food-deficient hill areas. GDP is heavily dependent on remittances (9.1%) of
foreign workers. Subsequently, economic development in social services and infrastructure
in Nepal has not made dramatic progress. A countrywide primary education system is
under development, and Tribhuvan University has several campuses. Although eradication
efforts continue, malaria had been controlled in the fertile but previously uninhabitable
Terai region in the south.
c. Policy and legal framework: Historically, the Nepalese legal system is based on
Hindu philosophy and its growth and development is largely influenced by
Hindu religious texts. Nepalese Legal system has over two thousand years of
history. The discussion about the legal history of Nepal starts from Kirants. They
formed crude form of government and judicature there under. The lichhavis
conquered the Kirants Kingdom of Kathmandu and introduced state system based
on religious myth and realities. They paid sufficient attention towards the
development of well-managed justice system in the country. However, the rulers
could not be free from religious prejudice. As a result, the King becomes source of
all state powers.
In 12th/13th century Mallas started to rule over the country. They also accepted the
religious influence. However, some of the Malla Kings did a lot for the reformation
of judicial system. Mallas issued legislative incorporations, known as thitis (a kind
of obligatory legal rule in society). Basically, administration of justice was
governed under the thitis.
Rama Shah, the King of Gorkha, was probably the most illustrations judicial
reformist in the history of Nepal. He issued thitis and followed the rule of “Justice
according to thitis (law)”. He was interested to deliver the judgments also. Royal
edicts provided guiding norms when Dharmasastra and Rriti Sthiti appeared to
be in conflict with each other. King Prithivi Narayan Shah the Great, (1742-1775)
spent most of this time for the unification of Nepal. Yet he could devote some of
his thoughts towards law and justice as well. Unification of Nepal by King Prithivi
Narayan Shah also helped in the systemization of judicial administration. In every
district, a Kachari (court) was set up manned by Dittha, Bichari, and Pandit. They
decided cases in cooperation with Amali, the administrator in the district.
Prime Minister JUNG BAHADUR to produce voluminous Muluki Ain (Country

Code) was promulgated which amended and codified all laws of Nepal civil and

criminal including religious and customary. The preamble to the Muluki Ain
throws light on the conditions of those times particularly in respect of the
administration of criminal justice and there by shows the necessity of the
legislation. Padma Shamsher, initiated some constitutional reforms including a
Constitution viz. “Nepal Sarakar Baidhanik Kanoon 2004 BS”, which he could not
enforce. The year 1951 AD (2007 BS) makes the end of Rana regime and the
beginning of a democratic era under the supreme leadership of Shah Kings.
After the change of 2007 B.S. the concept of rule of law, fundamental right of
people, independent judiciary etc. was introduced in the legal system. These
concepts were the voluntary reception of foreign laws by the Nepalese natives. In
2017 B.S., the Government Cases Act introduced some new concept in the process
of criminal justice. Likewise Muluki Ain 2020 B.S. brought changes in the penal
system and introduced the concept of equality before he law in practice which was
adopted by previous Constitution but it was not fully enforced in practice.
In 2047 BS, the new Constitution was promulgated as per the aspiration of people’s
popular movement. This Constitution has adopted all the concepts, which were
necessary for a democratic country. Such as Rule of law, Fundamental Human
Right, Independent judiciary etc have become the basic principles of Nepalese
Legal system. Nepal is a newly declared federal democratic republic nation, the
Constitutional Assembly (CA) made the new constitution of Nepal 2072 BS.
d. Civil society: The word “civil” implies tolerance and the accommodation of pluralism
and diversity. A civil society comprises citizens and groups in the public arena working
outside the government and commercial market such as informal organisations, non-profit
groups and voluntary sectors. The NGO Federation of Nepal (NFN) emerged as an
umbrella organisation of NGOs in 1990. In addition to defending NGOs’ autonomy, the
NFN advocates human rights, social justice and pro-poor development. Today, it has
evolved as a leading civil society organisation in Nepal with over 5370 affiliated NGOs
across the country.
In 2003, the Human Rights Treaty Monitoring Coordination Center (HRTMCC)
was established. The HRTMCC is a coalition of human rights organisations
established to monitor the implementation of the international human rights
treaties the country has ratified. In 2013, a group of former bureaucrats,
professionals and individuals from various sectors in Nepal formed an
independent civil society organisation, the Citizens Assembly. Its objective is to
exert pressure on state authorities, political leadership and policymakers to work
for the interests of the country and the public.
Unit 4: The Political

Community II: Political

Culture, Ideology and
Social Capital
Political Culture and

Ideology; Social Capital
and Political Trust; Post-
materialism.
Characteristic of culture:
Culture is a man made Language is a chief values of the culture
Culture is a learned Culture is an integrated system

behavior
Each society processes distinctive culture
Culture is a product of
society Culture is a fundamental of informing human
personality
Culture is transmitted
Culture is always moves towards from simple to
Culture is dynamic comple
Culture satisfied human Every society has got it own culture

need
Culture is the ideal for the group
Culture is adoptive
Culture is an accounted
quality
4.1 Political culture: Political culture is defined by the International Encyclopedia

of the Social Sciences as the "set of attitudes, beliefs and sentiments that give order
and meaning to a political process and which provide the underlying assumptions
and rules that govern behavior in the political system". It encompasses both the
political ideals and operating norms of a polity. Political culture is thus the
manifestation of the psychological and subjective dimensions of politics. A
political culture is the product of both the history of a political system and the
histories of the members. Thus it is rooted equally in public events and private
experience.

Process of social change: Characteristics of Nepalies society and culture:
Industrialization Unity in diversity and diversity in unity
Education Cultural pluralism
Migration and diffusion Religious tolerance
Conflict Cast system
Geographical situation Nepalese society as the form of melting point
Planned effort Different social group
External effect Ancient culture and art
Democracy Subsistence production system
Modernization Patriarchal society

Discovery and invention
Changing authority pattern
Different typologies of political culture have been proposed. According to political

scientist William S. Stewart, all political behavior can be explained as participating
in one or more of eight political cultures: anarchism, oligarchy, Tory corporatism,
fascism, classical liberalism, radical liberalism, democratic socialism, and Leninist
socialism. Societies that exemplify each of these cultures have existed historically.
4.2 Political ideologies/thoughts: Ideology is a comprehensive set of normative

beliefs, conscious and unconscious ideas, that an individual, group or society has.
Political Ideologies are the sets of basic beliefs about the political, economic, social
and cultural affairs held by the majority of people within as society.
a. Absolutism: The political doctrine and practice of unlimited centralized

authority and absolute sovereignty, as vested especially in a monarch or dictator.
The essence of an absolutist system is that the ruling power is not subject to
regularized challenge or checks by any other agency, be it judicial, legislative,
religious, economic, or electoral. King Louis XIV (1643–1715) of France furnished
the most familiar assertion of absolutism when he said, “L’état, c’est moi” (“I am
the state”). Absolutism has existed in various forms in all parts of the world,
including in Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler and in the Soviet
Union under Joseph Stalin.
b. Anarchism: Society without government, laws, police or other authority. Laws that are
not carried into effect, authorities without force and despised, crime unpunished, property
attacked, the safety of the individual violated, the morality of the people corrupted, no

constitution, no government, no justice, these are the features of anarchy or System of self-
control.
c. Aristocracy: The privilege of social class whose members possess disproportionately
large percentage of society's wealth, prestige and political influence. As conceived by the
Greek philosophers Plato (428/427 – 348/347 BCE) and Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE),
aristocracy means the rule of the few best the morally and intellectually superior governing
in the interest of the entire population. Such a form of government differs from the rule of
one (by a monarchy or by a tyrant), of the ambitious, self-interested, or greedy few
(oligarchy or timocracy), or of the many (democracy or mobocracy). Because “the best” is
an evaluative and subjective notion, it is difficult to distinguish aristocratic from oligarchic
or timocratic governments objectively. Because a monarchical system has its own
aristocracy and because the people try to elect the best as their rulers in democracies, an
aristocratic element also is present in those regimes. For those reasons, the
term aristocracy often is used to mean the ruling upper layer of a stratified group. Thus, the
upper ranks of the government form the political aristocracy of the state; the stratum of the
highest religious dignitaries constitutes the aristocracy of the church; and the richest
captains of industry and finance constitute an aristocracy of economic wealth.
d. Autocracy: An autocracy is a system of government in which supreme power is
concentrated in the hands of one person, whose decisions are subject to neither external
legal restraints nor regularized mechanisms of popular control (except perhaps for the
implicit threat of a coup or mass insurrection). Absolute monarchies (such as Saudi Arabia,
the United Arab Emirates, Oman, Brunei and Swaziland) and dictatorships (such
as Turkmenistan and North Korea) are the main modern-day forms of autocracy.
e. Capitalism: Right-wing (Right-wing: politics hold that certain social orders and
hierarchies are inevitable, natural, normal or desirable, typically supporting this position
on the basis of natural law, economics or tradition.) political system where the principle
means of production and distribution are in private hands. Capitalism is an economic
system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation
for profit. Characteristics central to capitalism include private property, capital
accumulation, wage labor, voluntary exchange, a price system, and competitive markets.
In a capitalist market economy, decision-making and investment are determined by every
owner of wealth, property or production ability in financial and capital markets, whereas
prices and the distribution of goods and services are mainly determined by competition in
goods and services markets.
f. Communism: Extreme left-wing (Left-wing: politics supports social equality and
egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy. It typically involves a concern for
those in society whom its adherents perceive as disadvantaged relative to others
(prioritarianism) as well as a belief that there are unjustified inequalities that need to be
reduced or abolished). In political and social sciences, communism (from Latin communis,
"common, universal") is the philosophical, social, political, and economic
ideology and movementwhose ultimate goal is the establishment of the communist society,
which is a socioeconomic order structured upon the common ownership of the means of
production and the absence of social classes, money, and the state.
That in this system there are two major social classes; that conflict between these two
classes is the root of all problems in society; and that this situation will ultimately be

resolved through a social revolution. The two classes are the working class who must work
to survive and who make up the majority within society and the capitalist class a minority
who derives profit from employing the working class through private ownership of
the means of production. The revolution will put the working class in power and in turn
establish social ownership of the means of production, which according to this analysis is
the primary element in the transformation of society towards communism. Critics of
communism can be roughly divided into those concerning themselves with the practical
aspects of 20th century communist states and those concerning themselves with communist
principles and theory. Marxism/Leninism and social democracy were the two dominant
forms of socialism in the 20th century; social democracy advocates economic reform
through gradual democratic legislative action rather than through revolution.
g. Conservatism: Conservatism is a political and social philosophy promoting traditional
social institutions in the context of culture and civilization. The central tenets of
conservatism include tradition, human imperfection, hierarchy, authority, and property
rights. Conservatives seek to preserve a range of institutions such as monarchy, religion,
parliamentary government, and property rights, with the aim of emphasizing social stability
and continuity. The more extreme elements reactionaries oppose modernism and seek a
return to "the way things were".
h. Democracy: Democracy (literally "Rule by 'People'") is a system of government where
the citizens exercise power by voting. In a direct democracy, the citizens as a whole form
a governing body and vote directly on each issue. In a representative democracy the
citizens elect representatives from among themselves. These representatives meet to form
a governing body, such as a legislature. In a constitutional democracy the powers of the
majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but the
constitution limits the majority and protects the minority, usually through the enjoyment
by all of certain individual rights, e.g. freedom of speech, or freedom of association. "Rule
of the majority" is sometimes referred to as democracy. Democracy is a system of
processing conflicts in which outcomes depend on what participants do, but no single force
controls what occurs and its outcomes.
i. Dictatorship: Dictatorship implies absolute power one person who takes control of a
political situation, a family, a classroom or even a camping expedition. In government, a
dictatorship leaves no room for input from anyone who is not the top guy or gal. The noun
comes from the late 14th century Latin word, dictare, which means to "repeat or say often."
In a dictatorship, one person keeps repeating the same command: "My way or the
highway."
Adolf Hitler: (20 April 1889 – 30 April Benito Amilcare Andrea
1945) was a German politician and leader Mussolini: (29 July 1883 – 28 April
of the Nazi Party (National socialistische 1945) was an Italian politician and
Deutsche Arbeiterpartei; NSDAP). He rose journalist who was the leader of
to power as Chancellor of Germany in 1933 the National Fascist Party (Partito
and later Fuhrer in 1934. During his Nazionale Fascista, PNF). He
dictatorship from 1933 to 1945, he initiated ruled Italy as Prime Minister from
World War II in Europe by invading 1922 to 1943; he constitutionally
Poland in September 1939. He was closely led the country until 1925, when

involved in military operations he dropped the pretense of
throughout the war and was central to the democracy and established a
perpetration of the Holocaust. dictatorship.
j. Gandhism: Gandhism is a body of ideas that describes the inspiration, vision and the
life work of Mohandas Gandhi. It is particularly associated with his contributions to the
idea of nonviolent resistance, sometimes also called civil resistance. The two pillars of
Gandhism are truth and non-violence.
The term "Gandhism" also encompasses what Gandhi's ideas, words and actions mean to
people around the world, and how they used them for guidance in building their own future.
Gandhism also permeates into the realm of the individual human being, non-political and
non-social. A Gandhian can mean either an individual who follows, or a specific
philosophy which is attributed to, Gandhism.
k. Leninism: Leninism is the political theory for the organisation of a revolutionary
vanguard party and the achievement of a dictatorship of the proletariat as political prelude
to the establishment of socialism. Developed by and named for the Russian
revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, Leninism comprises socialist political and economic
theories, developed from Marxism and Lenin's interpretations of Marxist theories, for
practical application to the socio-political conditions of the Russian Empire of the early
20th century.
l. Liberalism: Representative government, free-speech, abolition of class privilege and
state protection of the individual. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on
their understanding of these principles, but they generally support civil rights, democracy,
secularism, gender equality, racial equality, internationalism, freedom of speech, freedom
of the press, freedom of religion, and free markets.
m. Marxism: Marxism is an economic and social system based upon the political and
economic theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. While it would take veritably
volumes to explain the full implications and ramifications of the Marxist social and
economic ideology, Marxism is summed up in the Encarta Reference Library as “a theory
in which class struggle is a central element in the analysis of social change in Western
societies.” Marxism is the antithesis of capitalism which is defined by Encarta as “an
economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and
distribution of goods, characterized by a free competitive market and motivation by
profit.” Marxism is the system of socialism of which the dominant feature is public
ownership of the means of production, distribution, and exchange.
n. Maoism: Interpretation of Marxist communism emphasizing the development of
agriculture. Maoism is not a term that is easy to define. While it is common sense that
Maoism refers to the vision, ideology, and political viewpoint of Mao Zedong (1893–
1976), it is difficult to pinpoint the specific contents and basic features of Mao's conceptual
world in the context of the evolving course of the Chinese Communist revolution. Despite
Mao's adoption of Marxist-Leninist terminology, his ways of thinking had been deeply
penetrated by Chinese thought and culture. In the People's Republic of China, it is "Mao
Zedong Thought," instead of Maoism, that designates Mao's ideas, strategies, and policies.
During the post-Mao era, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) leadership, in an effort to
legitimize the Chinese Communist state, emphasized that Mao Zedong Thought included

only those of Mao's ideas and theories that had stood the test of practice, and that the
"scientific system of Mao Zedong Thought" was the product of the collective wisdom of
the Party leadership, rather than Mao's sole creation. Beyond China, many radical
revolutionary movements and organizations have professed loyalty to a variety of self-
proclaimed versions of Maoism, even long after Mao's death.
o. Monarchy: A form of rule in which the head of state is a King or Queen. Monarchy is
a political system based upon the undivided sovereignty or rule of a single person. The
term applies to states in which supreme authority is vested in the monarch, an individual
ruler who functions as the head of state and who achieves his or her position through
heredity. Most monarchies allow only male succession, usually from father to son.
p. Nationalism: The unification of the state and release from foreign rule. Nationalism is
a political, social, and economic ideology and movement characterized by the promotion
of the interests of a particular nation, especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining
the nation's sovereignty (self-governance) over its homeland. Nationalism holds that each
nation should govern itself, free from outside interference (self-determination), that a
nation is a natural and ideal basis for a polity, and that the nation is the only rightful source
of political power (popular sovereignty).
q. Oligarchy: A system of government in which virtually all power is held a small number
of wealthy people who shape policy to benefit themselves. Aristotle used the term
oligarchia to designate the rule of the few when it was exercised not by the best but by bad
men unjustly. In this sense, oligarchy is a debased form of aristocracy, which denotes
government by the few in which power is vested in the best individuals. Most
classic oligarchies have resulted when governing elites were recruited exclusively from a
ruling caste a hereditary social grouping that is set apart from the rest of society by religion,
kinship, economic status, prestige, or even language. Such elites tend to exercise power in
the interests of their own class.
r. Socialism: Left-wing political system where the principle means of production,
distribution and exchange are in common ownership. Socialism is a range of economic
and social systemscharacterised by of the means of productionand workers' self-
management, as well as the political theories and movements associated with them. Social
ownership can be public, collective or cooperative ownership, or citizen ownership of
equity. There are many varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating
all of them, with social ownership being the common element shared by its various forms.
s. Stalinism: Stalinism is the means of governing and related policies implemented from
around 1927 to 1953 by Joseph Stalin (1878–1953). Stalinist policies and ideas as
developed in the Soviet Union included rapid industrialization, the theory of socialism in
one country, a totalitarian state, collectivization of agriculture, a cult of personality and
subordination of the interests of foreign communist parties to those of the Communist
Party of the Soviet Union, deemed by Stalinism to be the leading vanguard party of
communist revolution at the time.
4.3 Social capital: Social capital, concept in social science that involves the potential of
individuals to secure benefits and invent solutions to problems through membership in
social networks. Social capital revolves around three dimensions: interconnected networks
of relationships between individuals and groups (social ties or social participation), levels
of trust that characterize these ties, and resources or benefits that are both gained and
transferred by virtue of social ties and social participation. The term generally refers to;
(a) Resources, and the value of these resources, tangible (public spaces, private
property) and intangible ("actors", "human capital" and people),
(b) The relationships among these resources, and
(c) The impact that these relationships have on the resources involved in each
relationship, and on larger groups. It is generally seen as a form of capital that produces
public goods for a common good.
Social capital has been used to explain the improved performance of diverse groups, the
growth of entrepreneurial firms, superior managerial performance, enhanced supply chain
relations, the value derived from strategic alliances, and the evolution of communities.
4.3.1 Functions of Social capital: Social capital is network of relationships. It has
innumerable benefits in generating trust and cementing human relationships.
Anthropological literature has enlisted some functions:
● Cements the close relations between and among the members.
● Fosters trust, love, empathy and respect.
● Links the local in to institutional arrangement.
● Shapes interactional arrangements.
● Serves as a asset for individual as well as collective production of well being.
● Accumulation and mobilization of resources is only possible through unconditional
trust.
● Helps for economic growth daption and holistic development.
● Voluntary associations are the major sources of social capital and its helps for collective
ction.
● Provide a climate that increases informal relationships anong individuals.
Hence, social capital is an important property that fosters trust, love, unconditional
cooperation, empathy, network of relationship and solidarity wwhich eventually becomes
collective property to accomplish the organizational task on time.
4.4 Political Trust: Trust means holding a positive perception about the actions of an
individual or an organisation. It is a subjective phenomenon, reflected in the “eyes of the
beholder” that matters especially to the extent that it shapes behaviour. Trust in government
represents confidence of citizens in the actions of a “government to do what is right and
perceived fair” (Easton, 1965). It depends on the congruence between citizens’ preferences
their interpretation of what is right and fair and what is unfair and the perceived actual
functioning of government. As citizens’ preferences are diverse, they use a multitude of
different criteria to evaluate government actions/performance. What is considered right and
fair by one individual may not be considered so by another. In order to analyse what
influences trust in government, the preferences of citizens need to be compared to their
perceptions of the functioning of government. As it is not the actual performance of
government but its perceived performance that matters for trust in government, the drivers
of perceptions besides governmental performance need to be identified as well.
Importants of trust:
• Trust is important for the success of wide range of public policies that depend
on behavioral responses from the public.
• Trust is necessary to increase the confidence of investor and consumer.

• Trust is essential for key economic activities, most notably finance.
• Trust in institutions is important for success of many government politics,

programmed and regulations that depend on co-operation and complains of
citizens.
4.5 Post-materialism: In sociology, post-materialism is the transformation of

individual values from materialist, physical, and economic to new individual
values of autonomy and self-expression. Post-materialism is a tool in developing
an understanding of modern culture. It can be considered in reference of three
distinct concepts of materialism. The first kind of materialism, and the one in
reference to which the word post-materialism is used most often, refers to
materialism as a value-system relating to the desire for fulfillment of material
needs (such as security, sustenance and shelter) and an emphasis on material
luxuries in a consumerist society. A second referent is the materialist conception
of history held by many socialists, most notably Marx and Engels, as well as their
philosophic concept of dialectical materialism. The third definition of materialism
concerns the philosophical argument that matter is the only existing reality. The
first concept is sociological, the second is both philosophical and sociological, and
the third is philosophical.
4.5.1 Measuring post-materialism
There are several ways of empirically measuring the spread of post-materialism in

a society. A common and relatively simple way is by creating an index from survey
respondents' patterns of responses to a series of items which were designed to
measure personal political priorities.
● Maintaining order in the nation.
● Giving people more say in important political decisions.
● Protecting freedom of speech.
● A high level of economic growth
● Making sure this country has strong defense forces
● Trying to make our cities and countryside more beautiful
● Progress toward a less impersonal and more humane society
● Progress toward a society in which Ideas count more than money
● The fight against crime

Unit 5: The political community III: Political participation: Form and extent of
current engagement in politics; Political participation: conventional political
participation; A recent decline in conventional political participation? The case
of declining party membership and in Nepal.
5.1 Political Participation: Political participation encompasses the many activities

used by citizens to influence the selection of political leaders or the policies they
pursue.
Political participation derives from the freedom to speak out, assemble and
associate; the ability to take part in the conduct of public affairs; and the
opportunity to register as a candidate, to campaign, to be elected and to hold office
at all levels of government. Political participation extends beyond parties,
however. Individuals can also become involved in certain aspects of the electoral
process through independent action particularly at the local level and by joining
civil society organizations. Professional networks, trade unions, non-
governmental organizations, and the media can all provide avenues for political
participation.
Political participation is any activity that shapes, affects, or involves the political
sphere. Political participation ranges from voting to attending a rally to
committing an act of terrorism to sending a letter to a representative. Broadly
speaking, there are three types of participation:
1. Conventional participation: Activities that we expect of good citizens. For most

people, participation occurs every few years at election time. People strongly committed
to politics are more likely to participate on a regular basis.
Example: Conventional political participation includes voting, volunteering for a political
campaign, making a campaign donation, belonging to activist groups, and serving in public
office.
2. Unconventional participation: Activities that are legal but often considered
inappropriate. Young people, students, and those with grave concerns about a
regime’s policies are most likely to engage in unconventional participation.
Example: Unconventional political participation includes signing petitions, supporting

boycotts, and staging demonstrations and protests.
3. Illegal participation: activities that break the law. Most of the time, people
resort to illegal participation only when legal means have failed to create
significant political change.

Why People Participate
Most democratic citizens feel that some

level of political participation, particularly
conventional participation, is admirable
and acceptable. But political participation
can be hard: One must find time, and
perhaps money, in order to participate. So
why do people do it? People participate in
politics out of a sense of the following:
Idealism: Idealism is the diverse group

of metaphysical philosophies which assert
that "reality" is in some way inseparable
from human understanding or perception;
that it is in some sense mentally constituted,
or otherwise closely connected to ideas.
Responsibility: For many, participation is a

responsibility of democratic citizenship.
Self-interest: A person might work to

promote issues and causes that personally
profit that person.
Enjoyment: Some simply enjoy public

activity, either because of the activity itself
or because of the friends they make while
politically engaged.
Example: Illegal political participation includes political assassination, terrorism, and

sabotaging an opponent’s campaign through theft or vandalism.
5.2 Form of Political participation: There are many different forms of political
participation and whether you know it or not, you've probably taken part in some
of them at different points in your life. Some of the most common forms of political
participation are:
a. Voting: In a democracy, voting is the single most important form of political

participation that a person can take part in because it ensures that politicians are
elected by the people, rather than being assigned to their position of power by
someone else.
b. Protest: Whether or not it is a constitutional right, as it is public protests are

another important form of political participation because you are making your
opinions known in a very obvious way, with the hope that your actions will
influence or initiate change in a particular area of politics.
c. Public consultations: Like voting, public consultations (which are more
commonly known as town hall meetings) offer ordinary citizens the chance to get
together in a group with a politician or elected
official in order to make their opinions and
feelings known.
d. Jury duty: Although most people shudder

at the thought of having to attend jury duty,
it is an important type of political
participation because it ensures that people
who are charged with a crime are judged by
people like them, rather than allowing the
outcome to depend entirely on a single person, such as a judge.
5.3 Level and dimension of participation:
a. Powerful class: In political and sociological theory, the elite are a small group
of powerful people who hold a disproportionate amount of
wealth, privilege, political power, or skill in a society. Defined by the Cambridge
Dictionary, the "elite" are "those people or organizations that are considered the
best or most powerful compared to others of a similar type.
b. Power sekeer class: In political and sociological theory, the power sekeer are
a group of newly powerful people who try to hold a disproportionate amount of
wealth, privilege, political power, or skill in a society.
c. Political strata: Political strata are a group of people into mddle socioeconomic strata,
based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social status, or derived power (social
and political). Who are interested or to get the information towards the political activities.
d. Apolitical strata: Apolitical strata are a group of people into lower
socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social
status, or derived power (social and political). Who are not interested or do not get
the information towards the political activities.
Dimension of political Apathy (lack of interest): Power lessens, Political norm

lessens, Political isolation, political estrangement
Types of participation: Limited participation, Mass participation, Non

participation
Bases of political participation: Class, Social Group, Geographical, Political

Party
Style of political participation: Affective, Expressive, Instrumental,

5.4 Declining Conventional participation: (Declining in party membership)
In a democracy, the government draws its sense of legitimacy from popular
sovereignty, the idea of acting in accordance with the general will. However, if the
citizens stop participating in the political system, for example not voting, then that
system begins to lose legitimacy since it is hard for it to claim that it has a political
mandate of the majority of the people. In some countries, large parts of the
population do not participate in politics at all. In the United States, for example,
only about half of all eligible people vote in presidential elections. Such
nonparticipation signifies a number of attitudes:
a. Contentment: Lack of participation indicates satisfaction with the status quo if

they were upset about an issue, people would participate.
b. Freedom: In a democratic society, people have the freedom to not participate.
c. Apathy (cnufj): Many people do not know much about politics and do not care.
d. Alienation: People do not participate because they feel that no one in power listens to
their views and that the government is, at best, indifferent to them.
5.5 Provisions Relating to Political Parties (Article 269 to Article 272) in Nepal
269. Formation, registration and operation of political parties:
(1) Persons who are committed to common political ideology, philosophy and program
may, subject to laws made under sub-clause (c) of clause (2) of Article 17, form and operate
political parties, and generate, or cause to be generated, publicity in order to secure support
and cooperation from the general public for their ideology, philosophy and program or
carry out other necessary activity for this purpose.
(2) A political party formed in accordance with clause (1) must register the party with the
Election Commission upon fulfilment of the procedures established by law.
(3) A petition to be made for the purpose of registration of a party in accordance with clause
(2) must be accompanied by the constitution and manifesto of the concerned political party
and such other documents as required by the Federal law.
(4) For a petition to be made for the registration of a party in accordance with clause (2),
the political party must fulfil the following conditions:
(a) Its constitution and rules must be democratic,
(b) its constitution must provide for election of each of the officebearers of the party at the
Federal and State levels at least once in every five years; provided that nothing shall bar
the making of provision by the constitution of a political party to hold such election within
six months in the event of failure to hold election of its office-bearers within five years
because of a special circumstance.
(c) There must be a provision of such inclusive representation inits executive committees
at various levels as may be reflecting the diversity of Nepal.
(5) If the name, objective, insignia or flag of a political party is of such a nature as to
jeopardize the religious and communal unity of the country or to fragment the country, that
party shall not be registered.
270. Prohibition on imposition of restrictions on political parties:
(1) Any law, arrangement or decision so made as to impose any restriction on the formation
and operation of a political party and on the generation of publicity in order to secure
support and cooperation from the general public for the ideology, philosophy and program
of the party in accordance with Article 269 shall be deemed to be inconsistent with this
Constitution and shall, ipso facto, be void.
(2) Any law, arrangement or decision so made as to allow for participation or involvement
of only a single political party or persons having similar political ideology, philosophy or
program in the elections or in the political system of, or in the conduct of governance of,
the country shall be deemed to be inconsistent with this Constitution and shall, ipso facto,
be void.
271. Registration required for securing recognition for the purpose of contesting
elections as political party: (1) Every political party that is registered in accordance with
Article 269 and intends to secure recognition from the Election Commission for the
purposes of elections must be registered with the Election Commission in fulfilment of the
procedures set forth in the Federal law. (2) The political party must submit a yearly audit
report in addition to the matters set forth in clause (3) of Article 269 along with an
application to be made for the purpose of clause (1) and also fulfil the terms set forth in
clause (4) of that Article.
272. Other provisions relating to political parties: Provisions relating to the formation,
registration, operation and facilities of political parties and other matters pertaining thereto
shall be as provided for in the Federal law.
Unit 6: The political community IV: Political participation (part 2) LH 4
A decline in conventional political participation? The cause of declining

electoral turnout; explaining political participation and in Nepal.
6.1 Decline in conventional political participation:

● Many causes have been proposed for this decline; a combination of factors is most
likely. When asked why they do not vote, many people report that they have too little free
time. However, over the last several decades, studies have consistently shown that the
amount of leisure time has not decreased. Wealth and literacy have some effect on turnout,
but are not reliable measures.
● Institutional factors have a significant impact on voter turnout. Rules and laws are
also generally easier to change than attitudes, so much of the work done on how to improve
voter turnout looks at these factors. making voting compulsory has a direct and dramatic
effect on turnout. Simply making it easier for candidates to stand through easier nomination
rules is believed to increase voting. Ease of voting is a factor in rates of turnout. In the
United States and most Latin American nations, voters must go through separate voter
registration procedures before they are allowed to vote. This two-step process quite clearly
decreases turnout. US states with no, or easier, registration requirements have larger
turnouts.
● In politics, voter fatigue is the apathy that the electorate can experience under
certain circumstances, one of which could be (in exceptional circumstances) that

they are required to vote too often. Voter fatigue and voter apathy should be
distinguished from what arises when voters are not allowed or unable to vote.
Similarly, voter suppression is a strategy to influence the outcome of an election
by discouraging or preventing people from exercising their right to vote. It is
distinguished from political campaigning in that campaigning attempts to change
likely voting behavior by changing the opinions of potential voters through
persuasion and organization. Voter suppression instead attempts to reduce the
number of voters who might vote against the candidate or proposition advocated
by the suppressors. This suppression can be in the form of unfair tests or
requirements to vote. For example, in the southern United States before and
during the civil rights movement, white southerners used many methods to
prevent minorities from voting. These included literacy tests, a poll tax, and if all
else failed intimidation by threats of violence. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 put a
stop to literacy tests and any other methods of preventing people from voting.
Excluding convicted from voting and re-including them only on case-by-case
decisions by State Governors, as is the case in numerous U.S. states, can lead to
voter suppression and can induce biased voting, as there can be a class bias in the
state's decision.
Factors Affecting Voter Turnout: Many causes have been proposed for the
decline in voting, including demographics, voter fatigue and voter suppression,
among other things.
● Wealth and literacy have some effect on turnout, but are not reliable
measures.
● Demographics also have an effect. Older people tend to vote more than
youths, so societies where the average age is somewhat higher, such as Europe;
have higher turnouts than somewhat younger countries such as the
United States.
● Making voting compulsory has a direct and dramatic effect on turnout.

Simply making it easier for candidates to stand through easier nomination rules
is believed to increase voting.
● In politics, voter fatigue is the apathy that the electorate can experience
under certain circumstances, one of which could be (in exceptional
circumstances) that they are required to vote too often.
● Voter suppression is a strategy to influence the outcome of an election by

discouraging or preventing people from exercising their right to vote.
Who are citizens voting for on Election Day? Who can vote in the country?

Nepal is divided into 77 districts. The districts Only citizens registered on the
are divided into 753 local units. Each local voters’ list can vote in these
unit is further divided into 5 to 33 wards elections. Article 6 of the
making a total of 6742 wards in Nepal. A Electoral Rolls Act (2017) states
ward is the smallest local unit. Voters will that to be eligible to register as
vote for five ward members (a chairperson a voter, a person must be:
and four general members) plus an executive
head and deputy executive head for their A Nepali citizen
municipality (mayor and deputy mayor) or At least 18 years old on the
rural municipality (chair and deputy chair). date prescribed by the Election
Therefore, each voter can vote for seven local- Commission through
level representatives. In total, 34,908 local- publishing a notice in the
level legislative and executive representatives Nepal Gazette
will be directly elected.
A permanent resident in the
concerned ward
6.2 Elections of House of Representatives in Nepal
Nominate
Elected Constituencie
Year Date d
members s
members
Nepalese legislative 18 February

109 0 109
election, 1959 1959
Nepalese Rastriya
Panchayat election, 1971 109 16 109
1971
Nepalese Rastriya
Panchayat election, 9 May 1981 112 28 112
1981
Nepalese legislative
12 May 1986 112 28 112
election, 1986
12 May 1991 205 0 205
election, 1991
15
November 205 0 205
election, 1994
1994

Nepalese legislative 3 & 17 May
205 0 205
election, 1999 1999
Nepalese Constituent
10 April
Assembly election, 575 26 240
2008
2008
Nepalese Constituent 19
Assembly election, November 575 26 240
2013 2013
Nepalese legislative 26 Nov and

275 0 165
election, 2017 7 Dec 2017
Unit 7 : The political community V: Social movement LH 6
Unconventional political participation: Social movements contentious

Politics; Explaining Unconventional political participation and social
movement in Nepal.
7.1 Social movement: There is no single consensus definition of a social movement. Mario
Diani argues that nearly all definitions share three criteria: "a network of informal
interactions between a plurality of individuals, groups and/or organizations, engaged in a
political or cultural conflict, on the basis of a shared collective identity."
Sociologist Charles Tilly defines social movements as a series of contentious
performances, displays and campaigns by which ordinary people make collective claims
on others. For Tilly, social movements are a major vehicle for ordinary people's
participation in public politics. He argues that there are three major elements to a social
movement:
• Campaigns: a sustained, organized public effort making collective claims of target
authorities;
• Repertoire (repertoire of contention): employment of combinations from among the
following forms of political action: creation of special-purpose associations and coalitions,
public meetings, solemn processions, vigils, rallies, demonstrations, petition drives,
statements to and in public media, and pamphleteering;
• WUNC displays: participants' concerted public representation of worthiness, unity,
numbers, and commitments on the part of themselves and/or their constituencies.
According to Paul van Seeters and Paul James defining a social movement entails a few
minimal conditions of ‘coming together’:
(1) The formation of some kind of collective identity;
(2) The development of a shared normative orientation;
(3) The sharing of a concern for change of the status and
(4) The occurrence of moments of practical action that are at least subjectively connected
together across time addressing this concern for change.
Thus, we define a social movement as a form of political association between persons who
have at least a minimal sense of themselves as connected to others in common purpose and
who come together across an extended period of time to effect social change in the name
of that purpose.
7.2 Contentious politics: Contentious politics is the use of disruptive techniques to make
a political point, or to change government policy. Examples of such techniques are actions
that disturb the normal activities of society such as demonstrations, general strike
action, riot, terrorism, civil disobedience, and even revolution or insurrection. Social
movement soften engages in contentious politics. The concept distinguishes these forms of
contention from the everyday acts of resistance explored by James C. Scott, interstate
warfare, and forms of contention employed entirely within institutional settings, such as
elections or sports. Historical sociologist Charles Tilly defines contentious politics as
"interactions in which actors make claims bearing on someone else's interest, in which
governments appear either as targets, initiators of claims, or third parties."
It development, the study of contentious politics was divided among a number of traditions
each of which were concerned with the description and explanation of different contentious
political phenomena, especially the social movement, the strike, and revolution. One of the
primary goals of these three authors was to advance the explanation of these phenomena
and other contentious politics under a single research agenda. There remains a significant
plurality of agendas in addition to the one these three propose.
7.3 Social movements: Social movements are broad alliances of people who are
connected through their shared interest in social change. Social movements can
advocate for a particular social change, but they can also organize to oppose a
social change that is being advocated by another entity. These movements do not
have to be formally organized to be considered social movements. Different
alliances can work separately for common causes and still be considered a social
movement. Sociologists draw distinctions between social movements and social
movement organizations (SMOs). A social movement organization is a formally
organized component of a social movement. Therefore, it may represent only one
part of a particular social movement.
Modern social movements became possible through the wide dissemination of

literature and the increased mobility of labor, both of which have been caused by
the industrialization of societies. Anthony Giddens, a renowned sociologist, has
identified four areas in which social movements operate in modern societies:
● democratic movements that work for political rights
● labor movements that work for control of the workplace
● ecological movements that are concerned with the environment

● peace movements that work toward peace
7.3.1 Revolution of 2007 BS (1951 AD):
In 1903, BS Jung Bahadur Rana plotted Kot Massacre in the history of Nepal and
became
bloody, powerful and autocratic

prime minister of Nepal abducting
the rights of people and King as well.
The Rana rule continues for 104
years. In 2007 BS, the armed
revolution of Nepali Congress and
other political parties started Anti-
Ranarchy Movement.
In 1997 BS autocratic and despotic

government executed four freedom fighters: Shukraraj Shastri, Gangalal Shrestha,
Dharmabhakta Mathema and Dasharath Chand. It added fuel in the fire of
revolution. Nepali congress was about to start the armed revolution in 2007 BS,
King Trubhuvan fled to Indian Embassy and later to Delhi on 21st Kartik, 2007 BS.
When king Tribhuvan fled to India with his family, Mohan Shamsher declared
Tribhuvan’s grandson Gyanendra Shah as king but people and international
countries also did not support the activities of Mohan Shamsher. Nepali Congress
started Armed Revolution forming 'Liberation Army'. Various parts of the country
were occupied by 'Liberation Army' of Nepali Congress.
Mohan Shamsher requested Indian Government to mediate to solve the problem

of Nepal. Nepali Congress, King and Ranas signed in a 'Tripartite Agreement' in
Delhi, which is known as 'Delhi Agreement'. Delhi agreement or Tripartite
Agreement, Falgun 1st, 2007 BS.
7.3.2 Declaration of Democracy, 7th Falgun, 2007 BS.:
After that, King Tribhuvan returned back to Kathmandu on 4th Falgun, 2007 BS.
He declared the establishment of democracy on 7th Falgun, 2007 BS. A 10
members' 'Interim Government'was formed under the premiership of Mohan
Shamsher.
7.3.3 Declaration of Referendum, 10th Jestha, 2036 BS:
At the time of the Panchayat system in Nepal, the democratic wave was raised in
the world. Students and Parties became active and organized for struggle. In the
mean time the then government of Pakistan gave death penalty to Ex-President

Jhulfikar Ali Bhutto on 4th April, 1970 (22nd Chaitra, 2035) so Nepali students
were going to hand over a letter of condemnation to the Pakistani Embassy but
police tried to stop t hem. On the way, they were Lathi charged by the police. This
suppression burst into the nation-wide movement. So, to solve the problem, King
Birendra made a proclamation of Referendum on 10th Jestha, 2036 BS. A 15-
member National Election Commission was formed under the chairmanship of
Chief Justice Bhagawati Prasad
Singh. People voted either in the
side of Panchayat or in the side of
Multi Party Democratic System. On
20th Baishak 2037 reforendom
election was held then, Panchayat
System got 55% vote and declared
victorious. The outcome was to
retain Panchayat system with
correction according to time and
situation.
7.3.4 People's movement I (Falgun 7th to Chaitra 26th 2046 BS):
The Panchayat system was being autocratic and all political and fundamental
rights of the people had been abducted slowly. The Panchayat government was
not positive towards political leaders. To some democratic leaders death penalty
was given and the referendum was also the showy action to suppress the parties.
Nepali congress and Leftist front were working separately up to 2046 BS. Nepali
political leaders got united and formed a joint committee and made a joint plan to
fight against the Panchayat system. Nepali Congress called a conference on 6 and
7 Magh, 2046 BS in the house of Ganesh Man Singh. Leftist Front and Nepali
Congress jointly declared the revolution. Indian leaders also participated in this
conference and promised to help for movement. The conference declared
revolution against autocratic rule Panchayat system from 7th Falgun, 2046 BS on
the leadership of Ganesh Man Singh and on that day dozens of protest were held
in different places of the country. On the first day, few people gave their lives for
the nation and the political parties called Bandha, in the whole of Nepal.
The protest was supported by different professionals like lawyers, teachers,

doctors, intellectuals all from their own place. On the 18th and 20th of Chaitra
huge mass of people demonstrated in Patan. Then Prime Minister Marichman Sing
resigned from the post (24th Chaitra) and new cabinet (three members) was
formed under the chairmanship of Lokendra Bahadur Chand. King Birendra then
had become fully aware of the situation and he realized that peace and stability
could not be brought in the country until the people’s demand for multi party
system was introduced by abolishing the Panchayat system. King Birendra called
the leaders of political party leaders and Krishna Prasad Bhattarai, Girija Prasad
Koirala, Sahana Pradhan and Radhakrishna Mainali went Royal Palace to talk. The
King made the historic decision at 11:10 pm on 26th Chaitra, 2046 BS that ban on
political parties was lifted. On 3rd Baishakh, 2047 BS an Interim Government was
formed and Krishna Prasad Bhattarai laded the cabinet.
7.3.5 Maoist Insurgency (1st Falgun, 2052 BS):
The Nepalese Civil War (labeled the People's War by the Maoists) was an armed
conflict between government forces and Maoist fighters in Nepal which lasted
from 1996AD to 2006AD. The war was launched by the Communist Party of Nepal
(Maoist) on 13th February, 1996 AD, with the aim of overthrowing the Nepalese
monarchy and establishing a 'People's Republic'. It ended with the
'Comprehensive Peace Accord' signed on 21st November, 2006 AD. More than
15,000 people were killed and an estimated 100,000 to 150,000 people were
internally displaced as a result of the conflict.
But, this revolution brought significant changes in Nepal's political system i.e. it
made possible to abolish the 240 years long monarch and country declared a
Democratic Republic. Besides this secularism, inclusive representation of Dalit,
women and marginalized groups of people in decision making bodies, election of
Constitution Assembly, eradication of feudal lords from the rural areas etc are
some mentionable changes of this movement.
7.3.6 People's movement II (24 Chitra, 2062BS - 11th Baishakh, 2063 BS):
We know that the constitution of Nepal 2047 was democratic but it did not
represent the sentiments of Madhesi, Mahila, Dalit, Janjati, Marginalized people
and disadvantaged groups. It was drafted by a few people. They were
representatives of Congress, CPNUML, Royal Palace and independent. The
constitution declared Nepal as a Hindu kingdom including constitutional
monarchy. There was less people's participation. After few years, Maoists started
armed struggle. Its main motto was to liberate the people from economic, social
political and gender based disparities and discriminations. After the brutal
assassination of king Birendra and his family, (Jestha 19th 2058) King Gyanedra
dismissed the cabinet of Sher Bahadur Deuba and took all executive powers of
country in his hand. After that all political parties were against palace and
monarchy.
⮚ On the first day of the pro democracy demonstration, on 6 April 2006 (Chaitra
24, 2062) over 450 protestors were arrested in Kathmandu.

⮚ When the SPA had announced their protest program in the beginning of April,
the Maoists had followed up by issuing a statement that uponreceiving requests
from the political parties and civil society leaders, the party had decided to
halt their military actions in Kathmandu during the planned agitation.
⮚ From the second day onwards, protests rippled throughout the country, and
roads were blocked and buildings vandalized. Retaliation against the
demonstrators heightened with the announcement of a curfew in Kathmandu on
8 April, followed by arrests of those who defied the curfew orders. In Gongabu
of Kathmandu turned violent. In the meantime, tourists also joined the pro-
democracy movement and dozens of them were arrested in Thamel.
⮚ Two protesters get killed when police fires gunshot during a mass rally in
Pokhara, Kaski district. Development workers, civil servants and students
joining the protests, and the security forces continuing to respond in a heavy
handed manner.
⮚ On 14 April 2006, on the occasion of the Nepali New Year 2063,

the kingaddressed the nation calling on the parties for a dialogue. He said:
“Democracy demands restraint and consensus as all forms of extremism are
incompatible with democracy. Aware of our traditions and sensitivities, as well
as the self-respect and self- confidence of the Nepalese people who have always
remained independent throughout history, dialogue must form the basis for
the resolution of all problems. We, therefore, call upon all political parties to join
in a dialogue, which we have always advocated, to bear the responsibility of and
contribute towards activating the multiparty democratic polity.” (Gyanendra
2006)
⮚ On 24 April 2006 (2063, Baishak 11), the king addressed the nation near
midnight and reinstated the dissolved parliament, an announcement that was
greeted with jubilation on the streets. Twenty-one people died and thousands
were injured during the 19 days of protests.
Unit 8: The political community VI: Electoral Behavior and Party Politics LH8
Methodological Approaches to the study of Electoral Behavior: theoretical

approaches to the study of electoral behavior; Columbia, Michigan and
Nepalese Models; Parties and parties systems: an overview in Nepal.
8.1 Methodological approaches to the study of Electoral behavior: The present

study is based on primary data, field survey and secondary data sources. In
democratic countries like Nepal, voting is important political process. Voting
refers to elect a representative by casting a vote in election. Our constitution give

each and every citizen of Nepal a right of Universal Adult Franchise that means
every adult who is 18 and above 18 has right to vote. The process of voting is
influenced by voting behaviour of an individual. Voting Behaviour means how
voters make up their mind to vote, their choices, preferences, why do they follow
particular candidate and their voting pattern. Voting behaviour studies open
windows on the minds of the millions of people who are involved in the political
process as voters. Voting Behaviour of an individual is influenced by some Social
and Psychological factor and these are also called determinants of voting
behaviour. These factors affect voting Electoral Behaviour and Voting Pattern of
women behaviour of an individual and ultimately affect political system and
government. The main social determinants of voting behaviour are:
● Caste: Castism is in the roots of Indian and Nepali society. In our Puranas we
have Varna System. Castism has deep impact on our election because some people
caste their vote keeping caste factor in their mind. If a candidate belongs to their
caste they caste their vote to the candidate irrespective of anything. The political
parties follow castism and form their strategies and policies according to caste.
Even candidates get selected keep caste factor in mind so that they easily
manipulate voters and voters on the basis of caste can easily connect to the
candidate. Gradually this castism becomes one of the important determinants of
voting behaviour.
● Charismatic Personality of the Candidate: The strong and charismatic

personality of a particular candidate their thoughts and solutions over some issues
and their ability to understand the problems of voters are also taking into consider
by voters. Many times candidates won just because of their charismatic personality
irrespective of which party they belong , their party wins or not or they are
individual candidate .
● Age and Gender: Age is becoming important determinant of voting behaviour.

Voters mostly vote mature candidate because they find mature candidate more
competent as comparison to young or old candidates. Old voters are rigid in their
thoughts and they vote the same party which they follow from years. Young voters
observe the candidates and manifesto of parties, before casting their votes they
think and check candidate's ability, willingness to work and calibre rather
following the same party. Many women vote under influence of their family or
husband and if their family are party biased they follow the same.
● Education: Level of education is important determinant of voting behaviour

because illiterate people vote under influence .They have group discussion in their
respective places at the time of election and this discussion will be at their home

or their work place they don‟ t vote according to their will rather they vote
according to the head.
● Money: If we talk about voting behavior, money is important determinant.

Money play very significance role in election. Parties spent lots of money on
election campaigns and they offer money to poor voters and poor voters get
attracted towards them and they cast their vote on behalf of money .With the help
of this money political parties solve immediate problems of people, offer them
liquor and people don't use their minds and vote blindly without thinking the
consequences of it.
● Psychological Determinants: It includes how an individual takes and

understand politics. Voting behaviour differs from individual to individual
because information of each and every individual regarding a candidateand their
beliefs and thoughts about why they select particular candidate is also different.
The other thing related to psychology which affect voting behaviour is negative
impact of a candidate, if at the time of election voter have negative information
about the candidate, it turn voter to vote against the candidate, here hate factor
works and voter vote in favour of opposite candidate because our brain remember
negative things easily as compare to positive things. Sometimes voters vote those
candidates who share their life to people because they connect their life to
candidate's life and these similarities are only in perception not in reality.
Psychological factors are only perception based and it differs from individual to
individual. Some other determinants of voting behaviour are also present like.
(a) Distance- if at the time of election polling booths are very far, some voters drop
the idea of casting the voters and other thing is that if voter is out of town, he/she
doesn't vote due to distance.
(b) Climate- if it's too hot, too cold or its raining some voters doesn't come out
from their houses to cast their voters. These factors affect voting behaviour of an
individual and ultimately affect political system and government.
8.2 Theories of political behavior: Theories of political behavior, as an aspect of

political science, attempt to quantify and explain the influences that define a
person's political views, ideology, and levels of political participation. Broadly
speaking, behavior is political whenever individuals or groups try to influence or
escape the influence of others. Political behavior is the subset of human behavior
that involves politics and powers. Theorists who have had an influence on this
field include Karl Deutsch and Theodor Adorno.
Long-term influences on political orientation: There are three main sources of

influence that shape political orientation which creates long-term effects.
Generally, the primary influence originates from family. As stated previously,
children will often adopt their parents' ideological values. Some theorists have
argued that family tends to be the strongest, most influential force which exists
over the lifetime; one essay has credited the majority of the student activism of the
1930s to the influence of parents.
Secondly, teachers and other educational authority figures have a significant impact on
political orientation. From as early as age 4 up until 18, children spend about 25% of their
time involved in educational processes. Post-secondary education significantly raises the
impact of political awareness and orientation; an October 2004 study of 1,202 college
undergraduates across the United States showed that 87% of college students were
registered to vote, compared to a national average of 64% of American adults. A study at
Santa Clara University also showed that 84% of students there were registered to vote. Also
consider that childhood and adolescent stages of personal growth have the highest level of
impressionability.
Thirdly, peers also affect political orientation. Friends often, but not necessarily, have the
advantage of being part of the same generation, which collectively develops a unique set
of societal issues; Eric L. Dey has argued that "socialisation is the process through which
individuals acquire knowledge, habits, and value orientations that will be useful in the
future." The ability to relate on this common level is what fuels and enables future
ideological growth.
Short-term influences on political orientation
Short-term factors also affect voting behavior; the media and the impact of individual
election issues are among these factors. These factors differ from the long-term factors as
they are often short-lived. However, they can be just as crucial in modifying political
orientation. The ways in which these two sources are interpreted often relies on the
individual's specific political ideology formed by the long-term factors.
Most political scientists agree that the mass media have a profound impact on voting
behavior. One author asserts that "few would argue with the notion that the institutions of
the mass media are important to contemporary politics in the transition to liberal
democratic politics in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe the media was a key battle
ground."
Second, there are election issues. These include campaign issues, debates and commercials.
Election years and political campaigns can shift certain political behaviors based on the
candidates involved, which have different degrees of effectiveness in influencing voters.
8.3 United States Congress: The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of
the Federal Government of the United States. The legislature consists of two chambers:
the House of Representatives and the Senate.
8.3.1 House of Representatives: The House currently consists of 435 voting members,
each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of representatives each state
has in the House is based on each state's population as determined in the most recent United
States Census. All 435 representatives serve a two-year term. Each state receives a
minimum of one representative in the House. In order to be elected as a representative, an
individual must be at least 25 years of age, must have been a U.S. citizen for at least seven
years, and must live in the state that he or she represents. There is no limit on the number
of terms a representative may serve. In addition to the 435 voting members, there are 6
non-voting members, consisting of 5 delegates and one resident commissioner. There is
one delegate each from the District of Columbia, Guam, the Virgin Islands, American
Samoa, and the Common wealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, and the resident
commissioner from Puerto Rico.
8.3.2 Senate: In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless
of population. There are currently 100 senators (2 from each of the 50 states), who each
serve six-year terms. Approximately one-third of the Senate stands for election every two
years.
8.4 Colombia: Republic of Colombia (Spanish: República de Colombia) is a sovereign
state largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central
America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with
Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and Peru. Colombia is organised
territorially by departments, municipalities and districts, there are 32 departmental units.
1123 municipalities and the Washington DC was one of five original political entities
within the District of Columbia, the capital of the United States.
8.4.1 Constitution of Colombia: Constitucion Politica de Colombia, better known

as the Constitution of 1991, is the current governing document of the Republic of
Colombia. Promulgated on July 4, 1991, it replaced the Constitution of 1886. It is
Colombia's ninth constitution since 1830. After an agitated constitutional period in
the 19th century, in 1886 Colombia adopted one of the oldest constitutions in Latin
America. Nevertheless, after a century in force, the Constitution of 1886 was in
need of modifications in order to adapt it to the country's changing social,
economic and political conditions
8.4.2 Elections in Colombia: Elections in Colombia are regulated and controlled by the
National Electoral Council which also gives information on elections and election results
in for the politics of Colombia. Colombia elects on national level a head of state the
president and a legislature. The president is elected for a four-year term by the
people. The Congress' (Congreso) has two chambers. The House of Representatives
has 162 members, elected for a four-year term by proportional representation. The
Senate of the Republic has 102 members, elected for a four-year term by proportional
representation.
8.4.3 Title VI: Legislative Branch: Title VI of the Constitution, from article 132 to 188,
details the legislative branch of Colombia, which is made up of the bicameral Congress
with the Senate and the Chamber of Representatives. Congress' main power is lawmaking
and legislative regulation, which entails drafting, enacting, interpreting, amending and
repealing laws. It also has additional powers - judicial (trying the President), elective (for
senior officials of the State, notably judges), ceremonial (receiving foreign dignitaries) and
political control (control of the executive). One of the significant changes introduced by
the 1991 Constitution was the election of the Senate in a single national constituency, rather
than by individual department. The 1991 Constitution also democratized the legislative
process, by creating possibilities for a large number of citizens or local elected officials to
initiate a bill or constitutional amendment project before Congress.
8.4.4 Title VII: Executive Branch (President of Colombia and Vice President of
Colombia): The seventh title of the Constitution, in articles 188 through 227, establishes
the executive branch, which is led by the President of Colombia and includes the Vice
President and the Council of Ministers (or cabinet). The President is head of State, head of
government and the supreme administrative authority. In these capacities, the President
appoints and dismisses members of cabinet and senior bureaucrats, manages international
relations, serves as Commander-in-chief of the Colombian Armed Forces, provides for the
external security of Colombia, promulgates laws, exercises regulatory authority
through presidential decrees, manages the public administration, ensures the collection and
administration of public revenue and manages the country's economic and trade policies.
The President is directly elected to a four-year term in a two-round election. The 1991
Constitution originally limited the President to a single, non-renewable lifetime term, but
a controversial 2004 constitutional amendment supported by then-President Álvaro
Uribe permitted a President to serve two terms. This provision allowed President Uribe and
his successor, Juan Manuel Santos, to successfully seek second terms in 2006 and 2014
respectively. In 2015, a constitutional amendment repealed the 2004 changes and reverted
to the original one-term limit.
8.5 Michigan:
The state's name, Michigan, originates from the mishigamaa, meaning "large water" or
"large lake". Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th
most extensive total area, and the largest state by total area east of the Mississippi River.
Michigan has a population of about 10 million. Its capital is Lansing. Metro Detroit is
among the nation's most populous and largest metropolitan economies.
Michigan was part of colonial New France until the Treaty of 1763 transferred ownership
to the Kingdom of Great Britain. During this time, it was governed by the Lieutenants
General of New Franceuntil 1627, the Governors of New France from 1627 to 1663, and
the Governors General of New France until the transfer to Great Britain. The 1783 Treaty
of Paris ceded the territory that is now Michigan to the United States as part of the end of
the Revolutionary War, but British troops were not removed from the area until 1796.
During the British ownership, their governors administrated the area as part of the
Canadian territorial holdings.
Prior to becoming its own territory, parts of Michigan were administered by the governors
of the Northwest Territory, the governors of the Indiana Territory and the governors of
the Illinois Territory. On June 30, 1805, the Territory of Michigan was created,
with General William Hull as the first territorial governor.
Voters in the state elect candidates from both major parties. Economic issues are important
in Michigan elections.
Administrative divisions of Michigan
Michigan is largely divided in the same way as many other U.S. states, but is distinct in
its usage of charter townships. The state is divided into 83 counties, and further divided
into 1,240 townships, 276 cities, and 257 villages. Additionally, the state consists of 553
school districts, 57 intermediate school districts, 14 planning and development regions,
and over 300 special districts and authorities.
8.5.1 Article II: Elections
Article two establishes the basic rules, procedures, and guidelines for elections in the State
of Michigan. It provides that all citizens of the United States who are at least 21 years of
age (though the 26th amendment to the United States Constitution lowers this to 18 years),
have resided in the state at least six months, and who meets the requirements of local
residence shall be entitled to vote. It also empowers the legislature to exclude people from
voting because of mental incompetence or commitment to a jail or prison. It also allows
the legislature to lessen these requirements for presidential elections.
The article also establishes the time, place, and manner of elections, in addition to the
necessity of a vote of the resident electors for increases in property taxes above certain
thresholds on the county and municipal level as well as for the issuing of municipal and
county bonds. Article two establishes a state board of canvassers and primary elections. It
prohibits ballot designations of candidates, except in cases of similar surnames. It also
instructs the legislature to “enact laws to preserve the purity of elections, to preserve the
secrecy of the ballot, to guard against abuses of the elective franchise, and to provide for a
system of voter registration and absentee voting.”
Article two provides for limited direct democracy through the initiative, referendum,
and recall, establishing a process for all three. All three are invoked by petitions followed
up by ballot votes.
Article two also attempts to restrict the number of terms United States Senators and
Representatives from the State of Michigan can serve. For senators, it is twice within any
given twenty-four year period (no more than two-consecutive terms without a break of two
terms), while for representatives it is three times during any given twelve-year period (no
more than three consecutive terms without a break of three terms). Such term limits were
adopted in 1992 by ballot initiative but were ruled to be unconstitutional by the United
States Supreme Court.
8.5.2 Article III: General Government
Article three outlines some of the basics of the Michigan government, including that the
state capital is Lansing and that within the government there shall be a separation of
powers into legislative, executive, and judicialbranches. It also establishes a great seal and
a militia, providing that law will regulate both. The article also allows the state and its
subdivisions to enter into agreements with other governments, including other states,
the United States, and Canada, and any subdivisions therein.
Section six limits internal improvements. Section seven of the article continues
the common law and statutes already in effect at the time it takes force which do not
conflict with the constitution itself. Section eight says that “Either house of the legislature
or the governor may request the opinion of the supreme court on important questions of
law upon solemn occasions as to the constitutionality of legislation after it has been enacted
into law but before its effective date.”
8.5.3 Article V: Executive Branch
Article V has a total of 30 sections which outline the powers and duties of officers in the
executive branch of state government.

The executive power of the state is vested in the governor.
Section 2 limits the number of state executive departments to 20 which may be reorganized
by the governor by executive order (the Legislature has the power to disapprove of
reorganization within 60 days). The head of each department is required to be a single
person appointed by the governor, except where the constitution or law provides for a board
or commission.
Many appointments by the governor are subject to the advice and consent of the state
Senate, however a Senate vote is only for disapproval of an appointment as opposed to the
advice and consent of the United States Senate for a presidential appointment which is
required before a nominee takes office.
The departments of state government are under the supervision of the governor, and the
directors form the governor's cabinet. The governor also has the power to initiate court
proceedings in the state's name to enforce compliance with a constitutional or state
mandate, but this power does not authorize a suit against the Legislature. The governor
also has the power to remove or suspend from office any elected or appointed state officer,
except a legislator or a judge.
The governor is the commander-in-chief of the Michigan National Guard, issues writs of
election to fill vacancies in the Legislature, has the power to grant reprieves, commutations,
and pardons, and may convene the Legislature on extraordinary occasions.
Annually, the governor delivers a State of the State message to a joint session of the
Legislature and may present special messages throughout the year on various topics. He
also delivers a budget recommendation each year, assisted by the State Budget Director.
The governor has a line-item veto for appropriations bills.
Article V also prescribes the powers and duties of the three other major elected state
officers: the lieutenant governor, secretary of state, and the attorney general. All three are
nominated at their respective party conventions; the lieutenant governor runs on a ticket
with the governor for the general election.
In order to be eligible for election as governor or lieutenant governor, a person must be 30
years old and a registered voter in Michigan for the four years preceding election.
An executive residence is provided for the use of the governor at Lansing. He also has
a summer residence on Mackinac Island.
Like the Vice President of the United States, the lieutenant governor is the president of the
state Senate. He is also first in the line of gubernatorial succession, followed by the
secretary of state and the attorney general. Unlike the Vice President, when the governor
is out of the state, the lieutenant governor possesses all of the powers of the governor,
including the power to sign bills passed by the Legislature.
Under an amendment to the state Constitution adopted by the voters in 1992, the governor,
lieutenant governor, secretary of state and attorney general are limited to two four-year
terms in office.
8.5.4 Article VI: Judicial Branch
Article VI has the Constitution vests the judicial power of the state in "one court of justice,"
divided into one supreme court, one court of appeals, one circuit court (the state trial court),
probate courts, and other courts that the Legislature may establish.
The Supreme Court consists of seven justices nominated at party conventions and elected
at a non-partisan general election. A chief justice is elected by the court from among its
members, and the court also selects an administrator of the courts. The Court has "general
superintending power" over all of the courts in the state, but it does not have the power to
remove a judge. Decisions of the Court and dissents are required to be in writing.
8.5.5 Article VII: Local government
Article VII provides for local units of government, particularly counties, townships, cities,
and villages. Counties are to be governed by an elected board of commissioners, as well as
a popularly elected sheriff, clerk, treasurer, register of deeds, and prosecuting attorney.
State law also provides for an optional form of county government which includes a
popularly elected county executive. Currently, only Oakland and Bay Counties are
governed in this fashion. Counties are also granted the authority to adopt a charter, subject
to a vote of the people. Currently, only Wayne and Macomb Counties have adopted county
charters.
8.6 Elections in Nepal: There are three types of elections in Nepal: elections to the Federal
Parliament, elections to the state assemblies and elections to the local government. Within
each of these categories there may be by-elections as well as general elections. Currently
two electoral systems are used: parallel voting for House of Representatives and provincial
assemblies and first past the post for local elections.
Federal Government System: In federal systems, political authority is divided
between two autonomous sets of governments, one national and the other
subnational, both of which operate directly upon the people. Usually
a constitutional division of power is established between the national
government, which exercises authority over the whole national territory, and
provincial governments that exercise independent authority within their own
territories.
8.6.1 Federal government elections in Nepal (According to constitution 2072)

Mem
Province
.
Province No.
28
1
Province No.
32
2
Province No.
33
3
Gandaki 18
Province No.
26
5

Karnali 12
Sudurpashchi
16
m
House of Representatives: National Assembly is the lower house of the bicameral

Federal Parliament of Nepal. According the Constitution of Nepal 2015, the term for the
Provincial Assembly is five years, except when dissolved earlier. Candidates for each
constituency are chosen by the political parties or stand as independents. Each
constituency elects one member under the first past the post system of election. Since
Nepal uses a parallel voting system, voters cast another ballot to elect members through
the party-list proportional representation. There are a total of 275 members will be elected
by two methods; 165 will be elected from single-member constituencies by first-past-the-
post voting and 110 seats will be elected by closed list proportional representation from a
single nationwide constituency. Each voter will get separate ballot papers for the two
methods. A party or electoral alliance must pass the election threshold of 3% of the overall
valid vote to be allocated a seat under the proportional method.
National Assembly: National Assembly is the upper house of the bicameral Federal
Parliament of Nepal. There are a total of 59 members: 8 members are elected from each of
the seven states by an electoral college of each state, and three are appointed by the
President on recommendation of the government. Members serve staggered six year terms
such that the term of one-third members expires every two years.
The electoral college consists of members of the Provincial Assembly and Chairperson or
Mayor and Vice Chairperson or Deputy Mayor of the local bodies within the province.
Each Provincial Assembly members vote has a weight of forty eight whereas each
Chairperson, Mayor, Vice Chairperson, Deputy Mayor vote has a weight of eighteen.
Out of the eight members from each province, three must be women, one must be a Dalit,
and one must be a disabled person or from a minority community. Each elector gets four
ballots: one for the three open seats, one for the three female seats, one for the dalit seat
and one for the disabled or minority seat.
8.6.2 Provincial assembly elections (According to constitution 2072)
According to Article 176 of the Constitution of Nepal 2015, following the dissolution of
the provincial assembly all the members forming the Provincial Assembly are elected. The
term for the Provincial Assembly is five years, except when dissolved earlier.
Candidates for each constituency are chosen by the political parties or stand as
independents. Each constituency elects one member under the first past the post system of
election. Since Nepal uses a parallel voting system, voters cast another ballot to elect
members through the party-list proportional representation. The current constitution
specifies that sixty percent of the members should be elected from the first past the
post system and forty percent through the party-list proportional representation system.
Women should account for one third of total members elected from each party and if one-

third percentage are not elected, the party that fails to ensure so shall have to elect one-
third of total number as women through the party-list proportional representation.
PR Tota
Provincial FPTP Provincial
Seat l
Assembly Seats capital
s seats
Province No. 1 56 37 93 Biratnagar
Province No. 2 64 43 107 Janakpur
Bagmati 66 44 110 Hetauda
Gandaki 36 24 60 Pokhara
Province No. 5 52 35 87 Butwal
Birendran
Karnali 24 16 40
agar
Sudurpashchi
32 21 53 Godawari
m
Total 330 220 550 -
A party with an overall majority (more seats than all other parties combined) following an
election forms the government. If a party has no outright majority, parties can seek to form
coalitions.
8.6.3 Local elections (According to constitution 2072): According to current constitution
Nepal has 6 metropolitan cities, 11 sub-metropolitan cities, 276 urban municipalities and
460 rural municipalities. Local levels will have a Chairperson/Mayor and a Deputy
chairperson/mayor. Local levels are further subdivided into wards which will have a ward
chairperson and 4 members. Out of the 4 members 2 must be female. All terms are for a
total of 5 years. The elections are direct in nature and with the one getting the most ballots
are declared the winner.
Local Level
Choice
Type
Metropolitan One Mayor, One Deputy Mayor, One Ward Chairman, 4

City Ward members

Sub
One Mayor, One Deputy Mayor, One Ward Chairman, 4
Metropolitan
Ward members
City
One Mayor, One Deputy Mayor, One Ward Chairman, 4

Municipality
Ward members
Rural One Head, One Deputy Head, One Ward Chairman, 4

Municipality Ward members
Voting behavior types
The existing literature does not provide an explicit classification of voting

behavior types. However, research following the Cypriot referendum of 2004,
identified four distinct voting behaviors depending on the election type. Citizens
use different decision criteria if they are called to exercise their right to vote in
i) presidential, ii) legislative, iii) local elections and iv) referendum. In national
elections it is usually the norm that people vote based on their political beliefs.
Local and regional elections differ, as people tend to elect those who seem more
capable to contribute to their area. A referendum follows logic as people are
specifically asked to vote for or against a clearly defined policy.
Interestingly, an older study in postwar Japan identified that urban citizens were
more likely to be supportive of socialist parties, while rural citizens were
favorable of conservative parties. Regardless of the political preference, this is an
interesting differentiation that can be attributed to affective influence.
8.7 Party Politics: A group of organized people with the same political aim,
ideology, objective, and program are called political parties. To compete for
election and get a majority in the legislative, to form the government according to
the constitutional process and lead the nation according to their political
principles, practices and ideology are the main objectives of political parties.
While there is some international commonality in the way political parties are
recognized and in how they operate, there are often many differences, and some
are significant. Many political parties have an ideological core, but some do not,
and many represent ideologies very different from their ideology at the time the
party was founded. Many countries, such as Germany and India, have several
significant political parties, and some nations have one-party systems, such as
China and Cuba. The United States is in practice a two-party system but with
many smaller parties also participating and a high degree of autonomy for
individual candidates.
8.7.1 Types of party systems
● Dominant-party system: A system where there is "a category of

parties/political organizations that have successively won election victories and
whose future defeat cannot be envisaged or is unlikely for the foreseeable future".
● Non-partisan system: A system of government or organization such that

universal and periodic elections take place without reference to political parties.
● One-party system: A system in which a single political party has the right to
form the government, usually based on the existing constitution, or where only
one party has the exclusive control over political power
● Two-party system: A system where only two parties or alliances, typically

placed either side of the centre, have a realistic chance of forming a majority. Other
parties are very minor or solely regional.
● Three-party system or two-and-a-half party system: A system with two large

parties that can form a government, and a smaller but still considerable party
which can join either in coalition and acts as a kingmaker.
● Multi-party system: A system in which multiple political parties have the

capacity to gain control of government offices, separately or in coalition. A multi-
party system is a system in which multiple political parties across the political
spectrum run for national election, and all have the capacity to gain control of
government offices, separately or in coalition. Apart from one-party-
dominant and two-party systems, multi-party systems tend to be more common
in parliamentary systems than presidential systems and far more common in
countries that use proportional representation compared to countries that
use first-past-the-post elections.
First-past-the-post requires concentrated areas of support for large representation in

the legislature whereas proportional representation better reflects the range of a
population's views. Proportional systems have multi-member districts with more than one
representative elected from a given district to the same legislative body, and thus a greater
number of viable parties. Duverger's Law states that the number of viable political parties
is one plus the number of seats in a district.
Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Croatia, Denmark, Finland, France, Nepal,
Germany, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Mexico, Moldova,
Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, the Philippines, Portugal, Romania,
Serbia, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Tunisia and Ukraine are examples
of nations that have used a multi-party system effectively in their democracies. In these
countries, usually no single party has a parliamentary majority by itself. Instead, multiple
political parties are compelled to form compromised coalitions for the purpose of
developing power blocks and attaining legitimate mandate.
8.7.2 Functions of Political Parties: A political party is an organized group of
people who exercise their legal right to identify with a set of similar political aims
and opinions, and one that seeks to influence public policy by getting its
candidates elected to public office. Even though the presentation of candidates and
the electoral campaign are the functions that are most visible to the electorate,
political parties fulfill many other vital roles in a democratic society. They are also
institutionalized mediators between civil society and the duly-elected
representatives who decide and implement policy. For example, political party
affiliated legislators who meet with civil society representatives to solicit
individual (or organizational) opinion in the public policy formulation process. By
this, they enable their members’ and supporters’ demands to be represented in
parliament and in government. Key tasks of political parties include the following:
● Solicit and prioritize needs and policy priorities as identified by members and
supporters
● Familiarize and educate voters and citizens in the functioning of the political
and electoral system and in generating general political values
● Educate and train party members and leadership on an ongoing basis
● Balance opposing demands and convert them into general policies
● Activate and mobilize citizens toward political participation while

demonstrating how they can transform public opinion into viable policy options
● Channel public opinion from citizens to government
● Recruit and train candidates for public office
8.7.3 Common requirements to register a political party: Countries can choose to

have a minimalist approach with few requirements in order to encourage the
registration of a large number of parties, or a maximalist approach with more
demanding requirements to discourage parties that are not serious or well-
organized. The possible requirements can be grouped into five different
categories:
● Party Identity: Indication of a party name which does not resemble the names
of already registered political parties, is not provocative or offensive against public
decency, and does not incite violence or hatred. Further limitations on party names
may be formulated, such as prohibitions on the use on individuals’ names as part
of party names.
Indication of a party symbol or logo which does not resemble the symbol of any
already registered party or private company. In some countries, the use of
religious or national symbols is also prohibited. Colours with a symbolic value
such as the colour of the national flag are sometimes proscribed.
● Programmatic Documents: Provision of party statutes or constitution and often

a protocol that states that the statutes have been approved by an executive board
of the party. In many countries, the party statutes have to clearly state that the
party adheres to the rules of the democratic process.
● Popular Support or Adherence: List of a certain number of registered members

or/and supporters of the party, usually with signatures and addresses or other
identifying information such as voter registration number. The more maximalist
the approach, the higher the number of registered members required.
● Geographic Coverage: Proof of geographical presence, often in the form of

membership or supporting signatures from a certain number of regions or
districts.
● Economic Viability: Payment of registration fees ranging from smaller

administrative frees to more substantial sums. Payment of monetary deposits that
may or may not be returned to the political party on the basis of election results.
This exists especially in cases where political parties need to register separately for
each election they wish to contest.
8.7.4 Historical Political Parties in Nepal:
1. Nepal Praja Parishad: Nepal Prajaparisad is as the first political party of Nepal.
It was formed in Kathmandu on 22 Jestha 1993 BS. Nepal Praja Parishad consisted
of many Nepali revolutionaries including, Dharma Bhakta Mathema, Dashrath
Chand, Tanka Prasad Acharya, Gangalal Shrestha, among others. Dharma Bhakta
Mathema was also the instructor of King Tribhuvan, and the motives of the
organization were known to and also supported by the king. Other members of
this organization included Chudaprasad Sharma, Govinda Prasad Upadhya
(Poudyal), Puskar Nath Upreti, Mukunda Nath Rimal, Bal Bahadur Pandey,
Druba Prasad Dawade, Fadindra Nath Satyal, Hari Krishna Shrestha, Chakra
Bahadur Khatri, Ganesh Man Singh, Keshav Khatri, Ramji Shrestha, Chandraman
Shrestha, and also King Jaya Prithivi Bahadur Sing of Bajhang.
2. Nepali Rastriya Congress: The Rana oligarchy dismissed Nepal Praja Parrisad
and killed four martyre Sukraraj Shastri, asarath chand, Dharmabhakta Mathema,
Gangalal Shrestha. To fulfill the space of Praja Parisad Koirala traveled extensively
to places such as Benaras, Calcutta, Darjeeling, Assam, Bhaksu and Dehradhun

and established contact with the Nepalese there. He met with Ganesh Man
Singh during the same period. Nepalese representatives from different areas of
Nepal and India organized one session in Calcutta. Koirala, Dilli Raman
Regmi, Dharma Narayan Pradhan and Dhan Man Singh Pariyar were present. In
31st October 1946 AD (Kartik, 2003 BS) the same session, dropping Akhil
Bharatiya from its name, the organization was named Nepali National
Congress. Tanka Prasad Acharya, who was facing a life-sentence in Kathmandu,
was made its chairman.The flag was square-shaped with white, blue and red
colors in succession, with the moon and the sun in its center. The major four
proposals passed by the session were:
● Assist the Indians in their Independence movement.
● Support Vietnam struggling for freedom against French colonization.
● Ask for the immediate release of imprisoned members of the Praja Parishad.
● Initiate a non-violence movement in Nepal for the establishment of an

accountable ruling system.
The organization's modus operandi was chosen. The organization attached itself
to the civil conscience process in Nepal by establishing Tanka Prasad Acharya as
its chairman.
3. Nepali Congress: The Nepal Democratic Congress was founded by Subarna

Shumsher Rana in Calcutta on August 4, 1948 (20th Shrawan, 2005). The two
parties merged on April 10, 1950 to form the Nepali Congress and Koirala became
its first president. During the Bairgania Conference in Bairgania, Bihar, on
September 27, 1950 the Nepali Congress announced an armed revolution against
the Rana regime. The president of the party also announced the liquidation of
operations in India and that the party would operate only inside Nepal.
4. Nepal Communist Party: The Communist Party of Nepal was founded

in Calcutta, India, on September 15, 1949(10th Baisakh 2006 BS). CPN was formed
to struggle against the autocratic Rana regime, feudalism and imperialism. The
founding general secretary was Pushpa Lal Shrestha. Other members are Nar
Bahadur Karmacharya, Niranjan Govinda Baidhya and Narayan Bilas Joshi. CPN
played an important role in the 1951 uprising that overthrew the Rana regime.
5. Gorkha Parishad: Gorkha Parisad was a political party in Nepal, active in the
1950AD (20th Pous, 2007). The party was led by Bharat Shamsher. The party was
known as Gorkha Dal until 1952, when it was suppressed after having organised
riots against B.P. Koirala. According to Levi, the party was a

rightwing communal creation of the Ranas.
8.7.5 Current Political Parties in Nepal
1. National parties
Federal Parliament
Politica
Prades Local
l
Party Leader Rastriy h governme
positio Pratinidh
a Sabha nt
n i Sabha
Sabha
Khadga
Nepal Centre- Prasad
Communi left to le Oli and 42 174 351 19,539
st Party ft-wing Pushpa
Kamal Dahal
Sher
Nepali Centre-
Bahadur 13 63 113 11,915
Congress left
Deuba
Rastriya
Janata Centre- Mahanta
2 17 28 1,112
Party left Thakur
Nepal
Federal
Socialist Centre- Upendra
2 16 37 1,439
Forum, left Yadav
Nepal
2. Other parties currently represented in the parliament
Politica Federal Parliament

Prades Local
l
Party Leader h governmen
positio Rastriya Pratinidh
Sabha t
n Sabha i Sabha

Rastriya Chitra
Janamorch Far-left Bahadur 0 1 4 186
a K.C.
Rastriya
Centre- Kamal
Prajatantra 0 1 3 285
right Thapa
Party
Naya
Shakti Centre- Baburam
0 1 3 116
Party, left Bhattarai
Nepal
Nepal Narayan
Mazdoor Man
Far-left 0 1 2 99
Kisan Bijukchh
Party e
3. Parties currently represented in provincial assemblies
Political Pradesh Local

Party Leader
position Sabha government
Bibeksheel Sajha Rabindra

Centre-left 3 0
Party Mishra
Rastriya Prajatantra Centre- Pashupati SJB

1 7
Party (United) right Rana
Sanghiya
Loktantrik Rastriya Centre-left Kumar Lingden 1 7
Manch
Nepal Federal Mohammad

Centre-left 1 0
Socialist Party Rizwan Ansari
4. Parties represented only in local government
Political Local
Party Leader
position government

Bahujan Shakti Party Centre-left Biswendra Paswan 42
Nepali Janata Dal Centre-left Hari Charan Sah 39
Khagendra Prasad
Rastriya Janamukti Party Centre-left 20
Palungwa
Communist Party of Nepal Chandra Prakash

Left-wing 4
(Marxist–Leninist) Mainali
Nepal Pariwar Dal Centre Ek Nath Dhakal 1

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SOC 312: Nepalese Society and Politics

The subject includes: Introduction, society, political society, political community,

Unit 1: Introduction: What is society and what is Political Sociology?

Definitions & Scope of Analysis: Society, Politics and Sociology; A Historical

BTTM (NSP) By Kapil Banjara |1|

2. Many phenomena cannot be reduced to individual behavior. In order to

3. Collectives often endure beyond the lifespan of individual members.

|2| BTTM (6th Semester)

BTTM (NSP) By Kapil Banjara |3|

|4| BTTM (6th Semester)

1.2.1 Classifications of Politics

BTTM (NSP) By Kapil Banjara |5|

|6| BTTM (6th Semester)

● Watched Shah Dynasty capturing the Kathmandu Valley

● Observed Anglo- Nepal war

● Institute of Nepal and Asian studies was established under TU.

● Department of sociology and anthropology was established under TU.

● Panchayat training centre was founded by government of Nepal later changed

● Centre of economic development and administration was established in TU.

● Sociology and anthropology association in Nepal was founded under TU.

1.3.3 Scope of studying sociology

● To study diversified society and culture in Nepal.

● To conduct the ethnographic study and research of various ethnic groups

● To recognized Nepali religion and cultural diversity.

● To involve in formulation of plan and policies on development sectors.

● To study and analyzed the social, political and economic issues.

● To study the impact of globalization, modernizations as well as liberalization

● To understand the theoretical and practical differences between ancient society,

● To develop the concept of social inclusion and harmony among peoples.

● To promote the issues of minorities disadvantaged groups, rural women, Dalit

● To help socio cultural reconstruction.

● To lead social engineering, data collection, record keeping, participatory

1.3.4 Father of sociology:

|8| BTTM (6th Semester)

c. Monotheism: Monotheism means believing in one God or God in one;

BTTM (NSP) By Kapil Banjara |9|

d) Power relationships within and between social groups (e.g. families,

Four Different Views of “Political Sociology”

Without any hesitation Political Sociology can be described as a sub-discipline of

(i) Political Sociology as Science of State: One view considers Political

(ii) Political Sociology Studies interactions between Society and Politics:

This view of Political Sociology as the science of power, authority, command,

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1.4.1 Relation between Politics and Sociology:

1. Pre-industrial: In a pre-industrial society, food production, which is carried out through

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1. A transition from the production of goods to the production of services, with

2. The replacement of blue-collar manual labourers with technical and

3. The replacement of practical knowledge with theoretical knowledge.

5. The development of newer scientific disciplines such as those that involve

6. A stronger emphasis on the university and polytechnic institutes, which

1.6 Major Theoretical Approaches of society and Political Sociology:

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(c) Synthesis: "The possible without a preceding antithesis. As little as antithesis

● Conflict theory views social and economic institutions as tools of struggle

● Later versions of conflict theory look at other dimensions of conflict among

Major Assumption of conflict theory