Focus on the Learner the superego.

The id is pleasure-centered; the

Review of Theories Related to the ego, reality-centered and the superego, which is
related to the ego ideal or conscience. Freud
Learners' Development
believed that an individual goes through five
psychosexual stages of development. This
The principal goal of education is to create men
includes the oral, anal, phallic, latency and
who are capable of doing new things, not simply
genital stages. Each stage demands satisfaction
repeating what other generations have done —
of needs, and failure to do so results in
men who are creative, inventive and discovers. -
fixations.
Jean Piaget

Erikson said, "Healthy children will not fear life

if their elders have integrity enough not to fear
death." He believed in the impact of the
significant others in the development of one's
view of himself, life and of the world. He
presented a very comprehensive framework of
eight psycho-social stages of development. It is
Erikson who described the crisis (expressed in
opposite polarities) that a person goes through;
The ideas of the theorists, Freud, Erikson, the maladaptations and malignancies that result
Piaget, Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner remain to from failure to effectively resolve the crisis,
be foundational in the teacher's understanding and the virtue that emerges when balance and
of the learners' development Let us recall resolution of the crisis is attained. Piaget said,
highlights of their theories. "The principle goal of education in the schools
should be creating men and women who are
Freud said, "The mind is like an iceberg, it capable of doing new things, not simply repeating
floats with one-seventh of its bulk above, water" what other generations have done."
This is of course the very famous analogy that
Freud referred to when he explained the Piaget's theory centered on the stages of
subconscious mind. He believed that much of cognitive development. He described four stages
what the person is really about is not what we of cognitive development, namely the sensory-
see in the outside and what is conscious, but motor, pre-operational, concrete-operational
what is there hidden in the subconscious mind. and formal operational stages. Each has
As teachers, it is important that we remember characteristic ways of thinking and perceiving
not be too quick in making conclusions about our that shows how one's cognitive abilities develop.
students' intentions for their actions. Always
consider that there are many factors that may Kohlberg said, "Right action tends to be defined
influence one's behavior. in terms of general individual rights and
standards that have been critically examined and
Freud also emphasized the three components agreed upon by the whole society." Kohlberg
that make up one's personality, the id, ego and proposed three levels of moral development
(pre-conventional, conventional and post- immediate environment, but also at the larger
conventional) which are further subdivided into environment with which the child interacts.
the stages. Influenced by Piaget, Kohlberg
believed that one's cognitive development ADDRESING INDIVIDUAL
influenced the development of one's moral
reasoning. DIFFERENCES
Lesson Objectives
Vygotsky said, "The teacher must orient his
1. Identify the different factors that bring about diversity
work not on yesterday's development in the child
in classroom.
but on tomorrow's" Vygotsky emphasized the 2. Demonstrate positive attitude towards diversity as an
role of social interaction in learning and enriching element in the learning environment.
development. Scaffolding is the systematic 3. Come-up learning strategies that considers learner's
manner of providing assistance to the learner diversity.
that helps the learner to effectively acquire a
skill. He believed that guidance from a more
knowledgeable other (MKO) would lead a learner
to a higher level of performance than if he were
alone. This higher level of performance then
eventually becomes the learner's actual
performance when he works independently in the
future. His concept of zone of proximal
development (ZPD) illustrates this.

Bronfenbrenner's model also known as the

Bioecological Systems Theory presents child FACTORS THAT BRING ABOUT STUDENT DIVERSITY
development within the context of relationship
1. Socioeconomic Status - The millionaire's lifestyle
systems that comprise the child's environment.
differs from middle and lower income groups.
The model is composed of microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and the 2. Thinking/Learning Styles - Some of you learn by
chronosystem Each layer is further made up of seeing something, others by just listening, and others by
different structures. The term "bioecological" manipulating something.
points out that a child's own biological make-up
impacts on his/her development. The child's 3. Exceptionalities - In class there maybe one who has
difficulty in spoken language comprehension or in
growing and developing body and the interplay
seeing, hearing, etc.
between his/her immediate family/community
environment, and the societal landscape fuel and
steer his/her development. Changes or conflict
in any one layer will ripple throughout other HOW STUDENT DIVERSITY ENRICHES LEARNING
layers. To study a child's development then, we ENVIRONMENT?
must look not only at the child and his her 1. STUDENT'S SELF AWARENESS IS ENHANCED BY
DIVERSITY
Exposing students to others with diverse backgrounds • Periodically place students in homogeneous groups on
and experiences also serves help students focus on their the basis of shared demographic characteristics (e.g
awareness of themselves. same gender groups or same race/ethnicity group and
have them share their personal views and experience
2. STUDENTS DIVERSITY CONTRIBUTES TO COGNITIVE with respect for course issues.
DEVELOPMENT.
The opportunity to gain access to the perspective of • Try to form groups of students who are different with
peers and to learn from others students, rather that the respect to one demographic but similar with respect to
instructor only, maybe especially important in another. (similar gender but different respect to a race
promoting cognitive development of learners. or ethnicity or similar in age but different in gender).

3. STUDENT DIVERSITY PREPARE LEARNERS FOR THEIR • After students have completed self-assessment
ROLE AS RESPONSIBLE MEMBERS OF SOCIETY. instruments (e.g. learning style inventories or
The classroom can provide more that just theory in a personality profile) have them line up or move to the
lecture. With student diversity, the classroom can corner of the room according to different scores or
become a "public place" where community can be individual profiles.
practiced.

4. STUDENT DIVERSITY CAN PROMOTE HARMONY. 4. Communicate high expectations to students from all
When student diversity is integrated into the classroom subgroups.
teaching and learning process, it can became a vehicle • Draw in students from diverse groups by using
for harmonious race relations. effective "questioning techniques".

SOME TIPS ON STUDENT DIVERSITY. Some effective "Draw In" techniques":

1. Encourage learners to share their personal history 1. Assigning them the role of reporter in a small group
and life experiences. discussions.
By sharing their experiences, they will realize that they 2. Have them paired in a small group discussion with
have something in common according to their shared another classmate with stipulation that each of partners
stories. will assume the role of listener and speaker.
3. Scheduling instructor-student conference with them
2. Integrate learning experiences and activities that outside the classroom.
promotes student's multicultural and cross-cultural 4. Learn your student names specially those foreign
awareness. names that you may have difficulty of pronouncing.
• Initiating participation to an already scheduled
national week like "Linggo ng Wika", Disability 5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate
Awareness Week, and Indigenous People's Week. student diversity in learning styles.

• You can let your students interview people from • Diversify the sensory/perceptual modalities to which
different cultural backgrounds or nationalities. you deliver and present information (e.g. orally, in print,
diagrammatic, and pictorial presentation or "hands-on
• Invite students on a "Internet Discussions" e.g email, experiences".
google conferences, webinars etc. • Diversify the instructional "formats or procedures"
• Ask students if they have been a target of prejudice or you use in class:
discrimination. • Use format that are "student-centered" (class
discussion, small group work) and "teacher-centered"
3. Aside from diversity, identify patterns of unity that (lectures, demonstrations).
transcend group differences
• Use formats that are "unstructured" (trial and error, • panel presentations
discovery learning) and structured (step by step • group projects
instructions). • visual presentations
• Use procedures that both independent • dramatic vignettes (presented live or video taped)
learning"(independently completed projects, individual
presentations) and "interdependent learning" 9. Purposely, form small-discussion groups of students
(collaborative learning in pairs or small groups). from diverse backgrounds. You can form groups of
students with different learning styles, different cultural
6. Vary the example you use to illustrate concepts in background etc.
order to provide multiple context that are relevant to
students from diverse backgrounds. Small peer-learning groups may be effective for
promoting progress to a more advanced stage of
• Have student complete personal information cards cognitive development.
during the first week then use the information to select
example or illustration that are relevant to their This may promote cognitive development and
personal interests and life experiences. advancement because:
• Use ideas, comments, and questions that students
raise in class to help you think of examples and • The instructor is removed from center stage, thereby
illustrations to use. reducing likelihood that the teacher is perceived as the
• Ask students to provide their own example of ultimate or absolute authority.
concepts based on their own experiences drawn from • Students are exposed to the perspective of other
their personal lives. student, thus increasing their appreciation to multiple
• Have students apply concepts by placing them in a viewpoints and different approaches to learning.
situation or context that is relevant to their lives.

7. Adapt to students' diverse backgrounds and learning

styles by allowing their personal choices and decision
making opportunities concerning what they will learn
and how they will learn it.
Learning/Thinking Styles and
• Promote positive student attitude towards the subject
matter.
Multiple Intelligences

• Foster more positive interaction towards student and One factor that brings about student diversity
results students working more consistently without is thinking/learning styles. Individuals think and
teacher intervention. learn in distinct ways. In any group of learners
• When individuals have some control over a task, they there will always be different learning
tend to experience less anxiety or stress while
characteristics, particularly in the learners'
performing the task.
8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating manner of processing information. Some would
student learning. absorb the lesson better when they work with
their hands than when they just listen. Others
Aside from paper-and-pencil test and written would prefer to watch a video about a topic.
assignments, your students can demonstrate learning Students, likewise, have preferred ways of
by: expressing their thoughts, feelings and ideas.
Some would prefer to write, others would draw
• Individually delivered oral reports
or even dance and sing. These preferences illustrated text books, overhead transparencies,
involve thinking/learning styles and multiple videos, flipcharts and hand-outs. During a
intelligences. lecture or classroom discussion, visual learners
often prefer to take detailed notes to absorb
Learning/Thinking Styles the information.

Ri Charde further breaks down visual learners

into:
Visual-iconic. Those who prefer this form of
input are more interested in visual imagery such
as film, graphic displays or pictures in order to
solidify learning. They usually have good "picture
memory," a.k a. iconic imagery and attend to
pictorial detail. They would like to read a map
better than to read a book.

Learning/Thinking styles refer to the preferred

Visual-symbolic. Those who prefer this form of
way an individual processes information. They
input feel comfortable with abstract symbolism
describe a person's typical mode of thinking,
such as mathematical formulas or the written
remembering or problem solving. Furthermore,
word. They would prefer to read a book than a
styles are usually consider to be bipolar
map and would like to read about things than
dimensions. For instance, your particular learning
hear about them. They tend to be good abstract
thinking style would lie at a point in a continuum.
thinkers who do not require practical means for
Having a particular learning thinking style simply
learning.
denotes a tendency to behave in a certain
manner. Your styles usually described as a
Auditory Learners. They learn best through
personality dimension which influences your
verbal lectures, discussions, talking things
attitudes values and social interaction.
through and listening to what others have to say.
Auditory learners interpret the underlying
There are several perspectives about learning-
meanings speech through listening to tone of
thinking styles. We shall focus on sensory
voice, pitch, speed and other nuances. Written
preferences and the global-analytic continuum.
information may have little meaning until it is
Sensory Preferences. Individuals tend to
heard. These learners often benefit from
gravitate toward one or two types of sensory
reading text aloud and using a tape recorder
input and maintain a dominance in one of the
They can attend aurally to details, translate the
following types:
spoken word easily into the written word, and
Visual Learners. These learners must see their
are not easily distracted in their listening
teacher's actions and facial expressions to fully
ability.
understand the content of a lesson. They tend to
prefer sitting in front so no one would block,
Auditory learners also fall into two categories:
their view. They may think in pictures and learn
The "Listeners" This is the more common type
best from visual aids including: diagrams,
"Listeners most likely do well in school. Out of Global. Global thinkers lean towards non-linear
school too, they remember things said to them thought and tend to see the whole pattern
and make the information their own. They may rather than particle elements They are the
even carry on mental conversations and figure "forest seers" who give attention only to the
out how to extend what they learned by overall structure and sometimes ignore details.
reviewing in their heads what they heard others
say. Several theorists have tied the global-analytic
continuum to the left-brain/right-brain
The “Talkers" They are the ones who prefer to continuum. In accord with Roger Sperry's model.
talk and discuss. They often find themselves the left-brained dominant individual is portrayed
talking to those around them. In a class setting as the linear (analytic), verbal, mathematical
when the instructor is not asking questions, thinker while the right-brained person is one
auditory-verbal processors (talkers) tend to who is viewed as global, non-linear and holistic in
whisper comments to themselves. They are not thought preferences.
trying to be disruptive and may not even realize
that they need to talk. Both sides of the brain can reason but through
different strategies In an individual, one side
Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners. may be more dominant than the other. The left
Tactile/Kinesthetic persons benefit much from a brain is regarded as analytic in approach while
hands-on approach, actively exploring the the right is described as holistic or global. A
physical world around them. They may find it successive processor (left brain) prefers to
hard to sit still for long periods. They may not learn in a step-by-step sequential format,
benefit so much from the discussion or the beginning with details leading to a conceptual
written materials, and may become distracted by understanding of a skill. A simultaneous
their need for activity and exploration. Those processor (right brain) prefers to learn
preferring this form of input move toward beginning with the general concept and then
active, sensorimotor learning. They tend to going on to specifics. See the comparison on
prefer "learning by doing," preferring the use of next page:
psychomotor skills to, say, abstract thinking Multiple Intelligences
skills. They tend to have good motor memory and
motor coordination.

Global-Analytic Continuum
Analytic. Analytic thinkers tend toward the
linear, step-by-step processes of learning. They
tend to see finite elements of patterns rather
than the whole; they are the "tree seers." They
are more comfortable in a world of details and
The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was
hierarchies of information.
first described by Howa Gardner in Frames of
Mind (1983), Gardner defines intelligence as
ability or set of abilities that allows a person to only auditory learning but also the identification
solve a problem or fashion a product that is of patterns through all the senses.
valued in one or more cultures". Gardner believes
the different intelligences may be independent Intrapersonal (Self Smart) - learning through
abilities a person can be low i one domain area feelings, values and attitudes. This is a decidedly
but high in another. All of us possess the affective component of learning through which
intelligences be in varying degrees of strength. students place value on what they learn and take
ownership for their learning.
His most current research indicates that there
are nine distinct forms of intelligences. In order Interpersonal (People Smart) - learning through
to facilitate learning effectively, teachers interaction with others. Not the domain of
should strategies that match these kinds of children who are simply "talkative" or "overly
intelligences. The nine kinds are: social" This intelligence promotes collaboration
and working cooperatively with others.
Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart) -
learning visually an organizing ideas spatially. Naturalist (Nature Smart) - learning through
Seeing concepts in action in order t understand classification, categories and hierarchies. The
them. The ability to "see" things in one's mind in naturalist intelligence picks up on subtle
planning to create a product or solve a problem. differences in meaning. It is not simply the
study of nature; it can be used in all areas of
Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart) - learning study.
through the spoken and written word. This
intelligence is always valued in the tradition Existential (Spirit Smart) - learning by seeing
classroom and in traditional assessments of the "big picture": "Why are we here?" "What is
intelligence and achievement. my role in the world?" "What is my place in my
family, school and community?" This intelligence
Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/Logic seeks connections to real world understanding
Smart) - learning through reasoning and problem and application of new learning.
solving. Also highly valued in the traditional
classroom where students are asked to adapt to It is important for teachers to use their
logically all sequenced delivery of instruction. knowledge about thinking/ learning style and
multiple intelligences in planning activities to
Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart) - learning help their students learn effectively. While
through interaction with one's environment. This researches on these typologies continue, it is
intelligence is the domain of "over active" clear that the teachers can no longer just teach
learners. It promotes understanding through the text book. It is a sensible practice to teach
concrete experience. each child according to his/her thinking/learning
styles and multiple intelligence.
Musical (Music Smart) - learning through
patterns, rhythms and music. This includes not
Teaching Strategies guided by DISABILITY
Thinking/Learning Styles and Multiple - a measurable impairment or limitation
Intelligence: that interferes with a person's ability,
for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn.
1. Use questions of all types to stimulate various
levels of thinking from recalling factual HANDICAP
information to drawing implications and making - a disadvantage that occurs as a result of
value judgments. a disability or impairment. The degree of
2. Provide a general overview of material to be disadvantage is often dependent on the
learned, i.e., structured overviews, advance adjustment made by both the person and
organizers, etc., so that students' past his environment.
experiences will be associated with the new
ideas. CATEGORIES OF EXCEPTIONALITIES
3. Allow sufficient time for information to be SPECIFIC COGNITIVE/ACADEMIC
processed and then integrate using both the DIFFICULTIES
right-and left-brain hemispheres. Learning Disabilities - involve difficulties in
specific cognitive processes like perception,
4. Set clear purposes before any listening, language, memory or metacognition that are not
viewing or reading experience. dive to other disabilities like mental retardation,
5. Warm up before the lesson development by emotional or behavioral disorders, or sensory
using brainstorming, set induction, etc. impairments.
6. Use multisensory means for both processing Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder -
and retrieving information. (Write directions on ADHD is manifested in either or both of these.
the board and give them orally.)
7. Use a variety of review and reflection (1) Difficulty in focusing and maintaining
strategies to bring closure to learning (writing attention
summaries, creating opinion surveys, etc.). (2) Recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior
8. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply Speech and Communication Disorders -
praising ("The example you've provided is an Difficulty in spoken language including voice
excellent one to point to the concept of..."). disorders, inability to produce sounds correctly,
(From Cornett, C. E. (1983). What you should stuttering, difficulty in spoken language
know about teaching and learning styles. comprehension that significantly hamper
Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational classroom performance.
Foundation).
SOCIAL/EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL
EXCEPTIONAL LEARNERS DIFFICULTIES
includes those with special needs related to Autism - a condition manifested by different
cognitive abilities, behavior, social Functioning, levels of impaired social interactions and
physical and sensory impairments, emotional communication, repetitive behaviors, and limited
disturbances, and giftedness. interests.
Mental Retardation - refers to significant sub- aspects intellectual ability, aptitude in academic
average intelligence and deficit in adaptive subjects, creativity, visual or performing arts or
behavior. leadership.
Emotional/Conduct Disorders - involves the PEOPLE-FIRST LANGUAGE
presence of emotional states like depression and - Putting the person first, not the disability (e.g.
aggression over a considerable amount of time a person with a disability, not a disabled person).
that they notably disturb learning and - avoiding generic labels emphasizing
performance in school. abilities, not limitations avoiding euphemisms
(such as physically- challenged) avoiding implying
PHYSICAL DISABILITIES AND HEALTH illness or suffering.
IMPAIRMENTS

Physical and Health Impairments

- involves physical or medical conditioning
long-term including one or more of these:
(1) limited energy and strength, (2) BEHAVIORISM
reduced mental alertness and/or (3) little
muscle control. OBJECTIVES:
• Explain the basic principles of behavior
Severe and Multiple Disabilities • Make a simple plan applying the primary laws of
- refers to the presence of two or more learning
different types of disability, at times at • Determine how to use rewards in the learning process
more effectively
a profound level. The combination of
disabilities makes it necessary to make
BEHAVIORISM
specific adaptions and have more • Emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through
specialized educational programs. conditioning and reinforcement
• Focuses on the study of observable and measurable
SENSORY IMPAIRMENTS behavior.
Visual Impairments - conditions when there is
malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves that IVAN PAVLOV'S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
prevent normal vision even with corrective THEORY
lenses. • Pavlov is a Russian physiologist is well known for his
work on classical conditioning or stimulus substitution.
Hearing Impairments - conditions when there is
• Pavlov's most renowned experiment includes meat, a
malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that
dog, and a bell
hinders perception of sounds within the
frequency ranged of normal speech.

Giftedness - involves a significantly high level of

cognitive development. There is unusually high
ability or aptitude in one or more of these
 A young child and a white rat.

PAVLOV'S FINDINGS

STIMULUS GENERALIZATION
Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of
EDWARD THORNDIKE'S CONNECTIONISM
the bell, it will salivate at other similar sounds.
THEORY
EXTINCTION • He is the Father of Educational Psychology
If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will • He represents the original S-R Framework in his book
eventually cease in response to the bell "Educational Psychology"

3 PRIMARY LAWS
SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
Extinguished responses can be "recovered" after an LAW OF EFFECT
elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is • The connection between the stimulus and response is
presented with food strengthened when the consequence is positive
• The connection between the stimulus and response is
DISCRIMINATION weakened when the consequence is negative.
The dog could learn to discriminate between similar
bells (stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the
presentation of food and which would not LAW OF EXERCISE
• If responses to stimuli produce a satisfying effect, they
HIGHER ORDER CONDITIONING are likely to be repeated.
Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell
with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as light
may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung. LAW OF READINESS
Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash of the light • States that the more an S-R bond is practiced the
without the sound of the bell. stronger it will become.

JOHN WATSON'S THEORY OF

BEHAVIORISM BURRHUS FREDERICK SKINNER'S OPERANT
• He was the first American psychologist to work with CONDITIONING THEORY.
Pavlov's ideas. • B.F Skinner is an American Psychologist and a
• He is well known for his experiment on Albert. professor in Harvard university
• He developed the operant conditioning theory. the VARIABLE RATIO SCHEDULE
idea that behavior is determined by it's consequences A learner is reinforced based on an average number of
correct responses.
Operant Conditioning Theory
• Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's theory. TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES
• Reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired INTERVAL REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES
response. • Learners are reinforced after some time.
• A behavior that is reinforced will likely be repeated
and a behavior that is punished will occur less FIXED INTERVAL SCHEDULE
frequently. • A learner is reinforced following a specified amount of
• Extinction/nonreinforcement- Responses that are not time.
reinforced are not likely to be repeated
VARIABLE INTERVAL SCHEDULE
2 KINDS OF REINFORCERS: • Reinforcement is provided after an average time
Positive Reinforcer- any stimulus that is given or added period but with varying intervals.
to increase the response.
Negative Reinforcer- any stimulus that results in the
increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn
or removed.
Neo Behaviorism: Tolman and
DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES Bandura
SHAPING BEHAVIOR
• Involves reinforcing successive approximations of the
target behavior until the behavior is fully learned.

BEHAVIORAL CHAINING
comes about when a series of steps are needed to be
learned.

REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE
• Once the desired behavioral response is
accomplished, reinforcement doesn't have to be 100%. Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism
It can be maintained through partial reinforcement
schedules. Edward Chace Tolman

TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES

•April 14, 1886 – November 19, 1959
• An American psychologist and a professor of
RATIO REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE
Reinforcement is provided after a specific number of psychology
correct responses. • Founded what is now a branch of psychology
known as purposive behaviorism.
FIXED RATIO SCHEDULE • Also referred to as Sign Learning Theory and
Reinforcement is delivered after a specified number of is often seen as the link between behaviorism
correct responses. and cognitive theory. Tolman’s theory found two
psychological views; those of the Gestalt determinants of behavior. Tolman believed that
psychologist and those of John Watson, the learning is mediated or is influenced by
behaviorist. expectations, perceptions, needs and other
internal or environmental.
Gestalt Psychology
It is a school of thought that looks at the human “Reinforcement is not essential for learning” –
mind and behavior as a whole. When trying to Tolman
make sense of the world around us, Gestalt
psychology suggests that we do not simply focus Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
on every small component. Instead, our minds
tend to perceive objects as elements of more Albert Bandura
complex systems. •December 4, 1925 – July 26, 2021
• A Canadian-American psychologist
John Watson • During his lifetime, he was widely described as
Behaviorism, according to Watson, was the the greatest living psychologist and as one of
science of observable behavior. Only behavior the most influential psychologist of all time.
that could be observed, recorded and measured • Bobo Dolls
was of any real value for the study of humans or
animals. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
- also called observational learning
Key Concepts - focuses on the learning that occurs within a
Goal-Directed – He held the notion that an social context.
organism acted or responded for some adaptive
purpose. He believed individuals do more than General Principles:
merely responded to stimuli; they act on beliefs, • People can learn by observing
attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive • Learning can occur without a change in behavior
toward goals. • Cognitive plays a role in learning
• Social learning theory can be considered a
Cognitive maps – this is tendency to “learn bridge or
location”signified that rats somehow formed • The transition between behaviorist theories
cognitive maps that help them perform well on and cognitive learning
the maze. He also found out that organism will
select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a How environment reinforces and punishes
goal. modeling:
Latent Learning – It is a kind of learning that • The observer is reinforced by the model.
remains or stays with the individual until needed. • The observer is reinforced by a third person.
It is learning that is not outwardly manifested • The imitated behavior itself leads to
at once. According to Tolman it can exist even reinforcing consequences.
without reinforcement. • Consequences of a model’s behavior affect the
Intervening Variables – this are the variables observer’s behavior vicariously.
that are not readily seen but serve as
Contemporary Social Learning Perspective of 2. Modeling influence the frequency of
Reinforcement and punishment. previously learned behaviors.
• Contemporary theory proposes that both 3. Modeling may and courage previously
reinforcement and punishment have indirect forbidden behaviors.
effects on learning. 4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar
• Reinforcement and punishment influence the behaviors.
extent of which an individual exhibits a behavior
that has been learned. The expectation of Educational Implications Social Learning
reinforcement influence cognitive processes Theory
that promote learning. 1. Students often learning a great deal simply by
observing other people.
Cognitive factors in Social Learning: 2. Describing the consequences of behavior can
• Learning without performance effectively increase the appropriate behaviors
• Cognitive processing during learning and decrease inappropriate ones.
• Expectations 3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping
• Reciprocal causation for teaching new behaviors.
• Modeling 4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate
behaviors and take care that they do not model
Behavior that can be learned through modeling. inappropriate behaviors.
• Many behaviors can be learned at least partly, 5. Teachers should exposed to dance to a variety
through modeling. of other models
• Aggression can be learned through models.
• Moral thinking and moral behavior are
influenced by observation and modeling.
Gestalt Theory
• Moral judgement regarding right and wrong •Initial cognitive response to behaviorism.
which can, in part, develop through modeling. •It emphasized the importance of sensory
wholes and the dynamic nature of visual
Conditions necessary for effective modeling to perception.
occur: •Gesta means form or configuration.
1. Attention – the person must first pat
attention to the model. Psychologists
2. Retention – the observer must be able to
 Max Wertheime, Wolfgang kobler,
remember the behavior that has been observed.
and Kurt Koffka
3. Motor Reproduction – The ability to replicate
• Studied perception and concluded that
the behavior that the model has just
perceives (or learners are not passive but
demonstrate.
4. Motivation – learners must want to rather active.
demonstrate what they have learned. •Certain factors impact on this perceptual
process.
Effects of Modeling on behavior:
1. Modeling teaches new behaviors.
• Factors like past experience needs, Law of Figure Ground
attitudes and one’s present situation can -We tend to pay attention and perceive
affect their perception. things in the foreground first. A stimulus
will be perceived as separate from its group.
Gestalt Principles
Law of Proximity INSIGHT LEARNING
-Elements that are closer together will be • Gestalt psychology adheres to the idea of
perceived as a coherent object. When learning taking Place discovery or insight.
objects we are perceiving are near each The idea of insight learning was first
other, we perceive them as belonging developed by Wolfgang Kohler in which he
together. describes experiments with apes where apes
could use hoses and sticks as tools to solve
problems.
• Kohler proposed the view that insight
Law of Similarity follows from the Characteristics of objects
-Elements that look similar will be perceived under consideration.
as part of the fame form We link similar •His theory suggested that learning could
elements together. occur when the individual perceives the
relationships of the elements before him
Law of Closure and reorganizes these elements and comes
-We tend to fill the gaps or “close” the to a greater understanding or insight. This
figure we perceive We enclose a space by could occur without reinforcement, and once
completing & contour and ignoring gaps in it occurs, no renew, no training or
the figure” investigation is necessary Significantly,
insight is not necessarily observable by
Law of Good Continuation another person.
-Individuals have the tendency to continue
contours whenever the elements of the Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-
pattern establish an implied direction People Learning Process
tend to draw a good continuous line. KURT LEWIN
• Expounded on Gestalt Psychology.
Law of Good Pragnanz • His theory focusing on life (safe) space
-The stimulus will be organized into as good adhered to gestalt psychology. He said that
a figure as possible In this example, good an individual has inner and outer forces that
refers to symmetry, simplicity, and affect his perceptions and also his learning
regularity. Inner forces include his own motivation,
attitudes, and feelings.
 Information Processing Theory Diagram
MARIO POLITO
• An Italian prychologist
• Writer about the relevance of Gestalt Types of Knowledge
Prychology to education. • General vs. Specific – this involves
• Gestalt theory is focused on the whether the knowledge is useful in many
experience of contact that occurs in the task or only in one.
here and now It considers with interest the • Declarative – this refers to factual
life space teachers as well as students. It knowledge. They relate to the nature of how
takes an interest in the complexity of things are.” They made be in form of a word
experience, without neglecting anything, but or image.
accepting and amplifying all that emerges. • Procedural – this includes knowledge on
• It stimulates learning as experience and how to do things.
the experience as a source of learning It • Episodic – this includes memories of life
appreciates the affections and meaning that events.
we attribute to what we learn. • Conditional – this is about “knowing when
• Knowledge is conceived as a continous and why” to apply declarative or procedural
organisation and rearrangement of strategies.
information according to needs, purpose and
meanings.
• It asserts that learning is not accumulation
but remodelling or insight Autonomy and Stages in the Information
freedom of the students is stimulated by
Processing
the teacher.
Three Primary Stages in IPT:
• The time necessary for assimilation and
• Encoding – information is sensed,
for cognitive and existential remodelling is
perceived, and attended to.
respected the contact experience between
• Storage – the information is stored for
teachers and student’s is given value: an
either a brief or extended period of time,
authentic meeting based on sharing ideas
depending upon the process following
and affections.
encoding.
• Retrieval – the information is brought back
Information Processing at the appropriate time and reactivated for
- Is a cognitive theoretical framework use on a current task, the true measure of
that focuses on how knowledge enters effective memory.
and is stored in and is retrieved from
our memory. Sensory Register
• Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount
of information but it is more than what our Forgetting
minds can hold or perceive. • is the inability to retrieve or access
• Duration: The sensory register only holds information when needed.
the information for an extremely brief
period – in the order of 1 to 3 seconds. Two main ways in which forgetting likely
There is a difference in duration based on occurs:
modality: Auditory memory is more • Decay-Information is not attended to, and
persistent than visual. eventually “fades” away.
• Interference- new or old information
The Role of Attention “blocks” access to the information in
• To bring information into consciousness, it question.
is necessary that we give attention to it.
• Getting through this attentional filter is Methods for Increasing Retrieval of
done when the learner is interested in the Information
material. • Rehearsal- this is repeating information
• Before information is perceived, it is verbatim, either mentally or aloud.
known as “precategorical” information. • Meaningful Learning- this is making
connections new information and prior
Short-Term Memory (Working Memory) knowledge.
• Capacity: The STM can hold 5 to 9 • Organization- it is making connections
“chunks” of information, sometimes describe among various pieces of information. Info
as 7+/- that is organized efficiently should be
2. STM maintains information for limited recalled.
time, until the learner has adequate • Elaboration- this is adding additional ideas
resources to process the information. to new information based on what one
• Duration: Around 18 seconds or less already knows.
• Visual Imagery- this means forming a
Long-Term Memory “picture” of the information.
• Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity. • Generation- things we ‘produce’ are easier
• Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite. to remember than things we ‘hear’.
• Context- remembering the situation helps
Executive Control Process recover information.
• Involve the executive process or what is • Personalization- it is making the
referred to as metacognitive skills. information relevant to the individual.

Other Memory Methods

• Serial Position Effect (Recency and
Primacy)- you will remember the beginning
and end of a ‘list’ more readily.
• Part Learning - break up the “list” or
“chunk” information to increase
memorization.
• Distributed Practice- break up learning
sessions, rather than cramming all the info
in at once.
• Mnemonic Aids - these are memory
techniques that learners may employ to help
them retain or retrieve information more
effectively.