W Grobler

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITY STUDIES
Vol 9, No 2, 2017 ISSN: 1309-8063 (Online)
A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COPING STRATEGIES USED BY

FOOD SECURE AND FOOD INSECURE HOUSEHOLDS
Wynand CJ Grobler
North West University, South Africa
[email protected]
Steve Dunga
North West University, South Africa
[email protected]
─Abstract ─
Food security has become a priority in many developing countries and is
considered a fundamental human right. Food security can be defined as “when all
people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe
and nutritious food which meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an
active and healthy life”. The recent focus on food insecurity shifted to access,
vulnerability and sustainability of food in an urban context. In this context, the use
of coping strategies to overcome food insecurity can be seen as a measure of food
insecurity and the associated vulnerability towards food insecurity. The question
that arises is: To what extent does the coping strategies used by food secure
households differ from the coping strategies used by food insecure households? A
quantitative research method was employed whereby a stratified random sample
of 600 households was taken from two low-income areas in South Africa. The
Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) was used to determine the food
security status of households and the Coping Strategies Index (CSI) was used to
determine the coping strategies used by the food secure and food insecure
households. Different statistical techniques were used to compare the food secure
and food insecure households with regard to coping strategies used. The study
found that the use of coping strategies increases as households move from food
secure to severely food insecure. The study indicated that there should be policies
that deal with the vulnerability of certain groups.
Key Words: Coping Strategies, Food Insecurity, Development Economics,
Vulnerability, Poverty
JEL Classification: D13,D14,I15,I31,I32,O18,Q18
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1. INTRODUCTION
Globally, food security has become a priority in many countries, and can be seen
as a fundamental human right. In this regard, in 1976, the United Nations
identified food security as a fundamental human right. As early as 1991 the
United Nations (1991) outlined food insecurity as a situation where food is not
available or where food cannot be accessed in terms of quality, quantity, safety or
in acceptable ways. In 1996 the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO,
1996) explained food insecurity as a “complex sustainable issue” that is linked to
health and nutrition outcomes. In this context, the World Food Summit (FAO,
1996) defined the concept of food insecurity along the lines of access to sufficient,
safe and nutritious food. In 2000, the United Nations included food security as
one of the Millennium Development Goals (UN, 2000). As part of this debate,
from a development perspective, it is important to understand the factors
associated with food insecurity. From a resilience perspective, Maxwell (1996)
indicated that household food insecurity can be characterized by numerous
behavioural responses. In recent studies, such as Ahamad et al. (2010), Shariff,
(2008), and Quaye (2008), several “coping strategies” were found to be associated
with food insecurity.
In this regard, Khatri-Chhetri and Maharjan (2006) postulated that a better
understanding of food insecurity and the associated vulnerable groups are needed
to solve the problem of food insecurity at the household level. In this context, this
paper aims to analyses the “coping strategies” used by food secure and food
insecure households. Mishra (2007), in a study, indicated that in many instances
households make changes to food consumption behaviour in order to prevent a
situation of food insecurity. Several other studies, such as Mabuza, (2016), Gupta
et al. (2015), and Akerele et al, (2013), argue that, in most cases, households use
coping strategies to “combat” food insecurity. The aim of this paper is to compare
the coping strategies used by food secure households and food insecure
households. The following questions can be asked: Is there a difference between
the coping strategies used by food secure households compared to food insecure
households? What coping strategies are used by food secure households, to enable
them to stay food secure?
The paper is outlined as follows: Section 2 analyses the literature with regard to
food insecurity and coping strategies used by food secure and food insecure
households. Section 3 outlines the background to the study area, sample and
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methodology used to determine food insecurity and coping strategies used.

Section 4 gives an interpretation to the data, while Section 5 draws a conclusion.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review in this section can be divided into the central themes of food
insecurity and coping strategies used by households. In 1996, the World Food
Summit defined food security as a situation “when all people, at all times have
physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious foods to meet their
dietary needs and preferences for an active and healthy life”. Ford (2009) divides
food insecurity into three distinct components, namely, food access, food
availability, and food quality. In this context, Ford (2009) describes food access as
the affordability, allocation and preference of food, while food availability
includes production, distribution and exchange of food, and food quality means
food of nutritional value. In this context, households may consume lower quality
food to ensure enough food during the month. Akerele et al. (2013), in a study,
found that food insecurity decreases with higher household income and higher
levels of education, while food insecurity increases with larger household sizes
and number of dependents.
According to Hendriks et al. (2006), South Africa is food secure at the national
level but food insecure, in many instances, at the household level. Several studies
(Mjonono et al., 2009; Machete, 2004; Hindson et al., 2003) highlight the
challenges of poor communities in South Africa with regards to food insecurity.
When households are confronted with adverse events or shocks, like a lack of
food availability or affordability, etc., households respond to food shortages with
certain “coping strategies” (Devereux, 2001). Snel and Staring (2001) term this as
“strategically selected acts that individuals and households in a poor
socioeconomic position use to restrict their expenses or earn some extra income to
enable them to pay for the basic necessities and not fall too far below their
society’s level of welfare. Maxwell et al. (2003) argue that coping strategies used
may differ from household to household, and within households. In this context,
Mjonono et al. (2009), indicates that the coping strategies used will vary between
different poverty levels. In this regard, this study analyses the coping strategies
used by the food secure group in a community versus the food insecure group in
the community.
According to Davies (1993), coping strategies in the context of food security can
be divided between “income soothing” and “consumption soothing” strategies.
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Income soothing strategies indicates, for example, income diversification or

receiving food from other resources, while consumption soothing strategies
implies, for example, modifying food consumption by reducing food intake or
reducing the number of household members eating in the household (Davies,
1993; Corbett, 1988). Several studies, such as Akerele et al. (2013), Orewa and
Iyangbe (2010), refer to the use of coping strategies like skipping meals and
eating less expensive foods, as strategies that will not alleviate food insecurity but
“secure” the continued existence of people in compromised living conditions. In a
study by Gupta et al. (2015), 63.7 % of food insecure households in the urban
areas of Delhi, India relied on less preferred and less expensive foods to cope with
food insecurity. In the same study, 30.9 % of food insecure households took
limited portion sizes at mealtimes. Several other studies, like Mabuza et al.
(2016), Norhasmah et al. (2010), Kempson et al. (2003), and Dore et al. (2003),
show that the most preferred coping strategies of food insecure households are to
rely on less expensive foods. Gupta et al. (2015), in a similar study, found that
strategies compromising quality and quantity of food are first observed as a
household falls into food insecurity. Gupta et al. (2015) indicated that “coping
strategies used by households can be seen as an expression of negotiated decisions
to minimize the impact of food insecurity in the household”. Farzana et al. (2017),
found a significant association between the different types of coping strategies
used and the level of household food insecurity. In this study, it was found that
severely food insecure households are more inclined to a wider selection of
coping strategies to cope with food insecurity, than mildly or moderately food
insecure households. Mabuza et al (2016) indicated that households do not act in
an arbitrary way when it comes to food insecurity, they in most cases, develop
strategies to minimize the risk to immediate food insecurity.
3. BACKGROUND TO STUDY, SAMPLE AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 Background of study area and sample
This study was conducted in in two low income townships in the Emfuleni
Municipal area, Southern Gauteng, South Africa. The study area consists of six
low income areas namely, Sebokeng, Evaton, Bophelong, Boipatong, Sharpeville,
and Tshepiso. Bophelong and Sharpeville were randomly selected from these
areas. A total of 600 household heads were interviewed in May 2015 by trained
fieldworkers. The respondents were interviewed in their own language and
interviewed on the food security situation in the household and coping strategies
used. After cleaning the data, 580 questionnaires were included in the analyses.
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Bophelong consists of a population of 37 779, with 12 352 households, and

Sharpeville consists of a population of 41 031, with 8 152 household (Stats SA,
2011).
3.2 Measuring food insecurity
The measurement of food insecurity can be divided into five different groups,
namely, the measurement of undernourishment, the measurement of food intake ,
the measurement of nutritional status, measurement of income or total
consumption, and the measurement of vulnerability (Migotto et al., 2006). This
study focused on the food consumption concept and vulnerability concept. This
includes the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) as proposed by
Deitcler et al. (2010). The HFIAS is a nine-question scale measuring anxiety,
quality of food intake, and quantity of food intake. The HFIAS measures food
security status of a household on a continuum from 0 to 27, where 0 means
completely food secure. The scale classifies households into four categories
namely, food secure, mildly food insecure, moderately food insecure and severely
food insecure.
3.3 Measuring coping strategies
The measurement of coping strategies in this study is based on the classification
of coping strategies suggested by Maxwell and Caldwell (2008). In this context
Maxwell, et al (1999) indicated that it is possible to obtain valuable information
on food insecurity in a community by looking at the coping strategies used in the
community. In this regard, Davies (1993) refers to the use of non-erosive
strategies, erosive strategies and distress strategies. Non-erosive strategies refer to
strategies like reducing the frequency of meals, and the consumption of less
preferred food. Erosive strategies is the sale of productive assets that may reduce
the ability to earn income, and distress strategies is for example to beg, or send
members of the households to eat elsewhere. In this study the erosive strategies
for example selling of live stock was excluded, because the study focused on an
urban area. In the Coping Strategy Measurement suggested by Maxwell and
Caldwell (2008) a Coping Strategy Index (CSI) can be calculated, taking into
account the number of days a specific strategy is employed by a household as well
as the severity of such a strategy. The study, however, used the adapted
classification used by Mjonono et al. (2009), but makes use of the CSI suggested
by Maxwell and Caldwell (2008). This classification can be divided into four
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categories namely, dietary change strategies, increased food availability,

decreased number of people and rationing strategies.
4. RESULTS
4.1 Descriptive statistics of sample
This study is based on 580 households to determine the food security status of
households and the associated coping strategies used by these households to cope
with food insecurity. Based on the HFIAS, 227 households or 39.14 % of the
households in the sample were food secure, while 64 households or 11.03 % of
the households were mildly food insecure, and 86 households or 14.83 % of
households were moderately food insecure. A total of 203 households, or 35.0 %
of the households in the sample, were severely food insecure. The descriptive
statistics of the sample are shown in Table 1. When the household size of the
different categories of food insecurity is analysed, it shows that the mean
household size of the food secure households are 3.92, compared to 4.32 in the
mild food insecure group, 4.37 in the moderately food insecure group, and 4.30 in
the severely food insecure group. The mean household size thus increases as food
insecurity increase. The mean age of heads of households in the food secure
category are 47.3, compared to 48.08 in the mild food insecure group, 53.5 in the
moderately food insecure group and 50.77 in the severely food insecure group.
The age of the head of the household thus increases marginally as food insecurity
increase. When the years of schooling of the head of household is considered it
shows that, as food insecurity increases, the number of years schooling of the
head of the household decreases. In this regard, the mean years schooling of the
head of the household of the food secure group is 11.14 years compared to 7.73
years of the severely food insecure group. The fact that higher levels of schooling
are associated with food security is no surprise since this may be indicating the
level of income which is associated with those that are more educated. When
income of the household is considered it shows that as the mean income decrease
food insecurity increase. Table 1 shows the mean HFIAS score of the food secure
group as 0.127 compared to 3.27 of the mild food insecure group, 8.08 for the
moderately food insecure group, and 14.73 for the severely food insecure group.
When the minimum income level of the different food insecurity groups are
compared with the food secure group, it shows that the minimum income level of
the food secure group are R 2000 with a standard deviation of R 6169.70,
compared to a minimum income of the mildly food insecure group of R 1600.00
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with a standard deviation of R 3440.60. In the moderately food insecure group,

the minimum income level is R 1390.00 with a standard deviation of R 2568.30.
The minimum income level of the severely food insecure decreased to a mere R
320.00 with a standard deviation of R 2072.50. It is thus evident that as income
decreases the level of food insecurity increase. When the CSI is considered, it
shows a mean score of 11.04 for the food secure group compared to a mean score
of 20.39 for the mild food insecure group, 22.59 for the moderate food insecure
group and 26.78 for the severely food insecure group.
Table 1: Descriptive statistics of the sample
Variable Category N Min. Max. Mean Std Dev.

Secure 227 1.0 9.0 3.92 1.51
Household Mild Insecure 64 1.0 10.0 4.32 1.53
Size
Moderate 86 1.0 11.0 4.37 1.56
Severely 203 1.0 10.0 4.30 1.87
Secure 227 22.0 83.0 47.34 12.54
Age of Head Mild Insecure 64 27.0 82.0 48.08 12.76
Moderate 86 30.0 80.0 53.05 14.19
Severely 203 24.0 82.0 50.77 14.91
Secure 227 0.0 15.0 11.14 3.19
Years Mild Insecure 64 2.0 14.00 10.13 2.64
Schooling
Moderate 86 0.0 13.00 8.80 3.33
Severely 203 0.0 13.00 7.73 3.60
Secure 227 0 6 0.127 0.49
HFIAS Score Mild Insecure 64 1 6 3.27 1.25
Moderate 86 2 15 8.08 2.72
Severely 203 5 27 14.73 4.12
Secure 227 2000.0 35000.0 12109.4 6169.7
Income of Mild Insecure 64 1600.0 19000.0 6919.2 3440.6
Household
Moderate 86 1390 15000.0 4768.1 2568.3
Severely 203 320.0 14720.0 3037.9 2072.5
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Secure 227 0.0 50.0 11.04 8.57

CSI Score Mild Insecure 64 7.0 68.0 20.39 10.43
Moderate 86 10.0 69.0 22.59 8.47
Severely 203 10.0 73.0. 26.78 11.04
In the next section the coping strategies of these different categories of food
insecure households are analysed.
The coping strategies used across households are, to a greater extent, an indication
of the level of food insecurity that household experience. Table 2 shows the
coping strategies used by the food secure, mildly food insecure, moderately food
insecure and the severely food insecure households. In Table 2, it is evident that
households that are food secure still employ coping strategies. This may be seen
as a sign that households in some cases employ a coping strategy in anticipation
of future possible food insecure vulnerability. In this instance, it is possible to find
a household with a HFIAS score of 6 (maximum for group-see table 1) employing
coping strategies. In this regard, 153 households in the food secure category buy
only necessities. A total number of 168 households in the food secure category
skip meals. This may be an indication of some households who skip meals to
enable the household to ensure enough food is available during the month. A total
of 149 households in the sample buy food on credit to ensure food security. With
the high cost of credit in informal settlements this may put these households at
risk towards food insecurity. Only 49 households in the food secure category
maintain a food garden compared to 94 households in the severe food category.
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Table 2: Coping Strategies used by food secure and food insecure households
Food Mildly Moderately Severely Chi-Square
Secure Food
Food Food
Insecure
Insecure Insecure
Buy necessities 153 57 77 184 0.000
Rely on less expensive food 38 28 41 140 0.000
Stick to the budget 52 20 47 149 0.000
Limit portions at meal times 69 24 61 168 0.000
Skip meals 168 55 79 190 0.000
Purchase food on credit 149 52 68 170 0.000
Maintain a food garden 43 18 33 94 0.000
Borrow food from friends 24 12 32 106 0.000
Restrict consumption of adults in 5 7 12 59 0.000
order for children to eat
Gather wild vegetables 10 5 16 70 0.000
Sent household members to eat 8 5 11 34 0.000
elsewhere
Sent household members to beg 41 18 32 66 0.002
The results in Table 2 show that the more food insecure household become, the
more coping strategies they use to cope with food insecurity. Table 2 shows that
the food secure households uses mostly income or food saving strategies, while
the severely food insecure use all strategies available. The Chi-Square test for all
strategies shows that there is a significant difference between the different food
insecurity levels in terms of what strategy they use to cope with food insecurity.
Table 3 shows the coping strategy used as a percentage of the number of
households in the food insecure category. The results show that 67.0 % of the
food secure households use the coping strategy “buy necessities”, while 74.01 %
of the households in the food secure category skip meals from time to time. This
may be an indication that most of the households in this category are on the
margin to become food insecure, or they skip meals to ensure food for all days in
the month. .The skipping of meals is a popular strategy in the sample, as shown in
the results, where the 85.94% of the mildly food insecure, 91.86% of the moderate
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food insecure and 93.60% of the severely food insecure also skip meals as a
strategy. As households fall deeper into food insecurity they are forced to buy
only necessities. In this regard, 89.06 % of mild food insecure households, 89.53
% of moderately food insecure households and 90.64% of severely food insecure
households opt to buy only necessities. This would be an obvious strategy given
the fact that the household is already severely insecure.
Table 3: Coping strategies used by households as percentage of households in
category
Food Mildly Moderately Severely Chi-
Secure Square
Food Food Food
Insecure Insecure Insecure
Buy necessities 67.40% 89.06% 89.53% 90.64% 0.000
Rely on less expensive food 16.74% 43.75% 47.67% 68.97% 0.000
Stick to the budget 22.91% 31.25% 54.65% 73.40% 0.000
Limit portions at meal times 30.40% 37.50% 70.93% 82.76% 0.000
Skip meals 74.01% 85.94% 91.86% 93.60% 0.000
Purchase food on credit 65.64% 81.25% 79.07% 83.74% 0.000
Maintain a food garden 18.94% 28.13% 38.37% 46.31% 0.000
Borrow food from friends 10.57% 18.75% 37.21% 52.22% 0.000
Restrict consumption of adults 2.20% 10.94% 13.95% 29.06% 0.000
in order for children to eat
Gather wild vegetables 4.41% 7.81% 18.60% 34.48% 0.000
Sent household members to eat 3.52% 7.81% 12.79% 16.75% 0.000
elsewhere
Sent household members to beg 18.06% 28.13% 37.21% 32.51% 0.002
The food insecure households use almost all coping strategies, however, the
strategy of maintaining a food garden is not highly used. The main reason why
only a few households maintain a garden would be the unavailability of land in
townships. Thus, in proposing intervention, making pieces of land available, or
discovering modern ways of gardening that do not require big pieces of land
would be ideal. For example, planting vegetables in old tyres or instead of having
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flowers in the pots, one would plant vegetables in the flower pots as a way of
supplementing food in the household.
Table 4 shows the number of coping strategies used by the food insecurity
categories. As expected, the food secure household use fewer coping strategies
compared to the severely food insecure household. In this regard, only 33
households in the food secure category use no coping strategy at all, 11
households in the food secure category use only one coping strategy, while 44
households uses up to 3 coping strategies. Amongst the severely food insecure
group, all households use one or more coping strategies. In the severe food
insecure category only one household uses one or two coping strategies. The
majority of the households in the severely food insecure category use multiple
strategies and 16 households reported to have been using all 12 coping strategies.
It is evident that the higher the level of food insecurity the more coping strategies
are used by households to cope with food insecurity.
Table 4: Number of coping strategies used by households
Level of Food Insecurity

Food Secure Mild Food Moderate Food Severely Food
Insecure Insecure Insecure
0 33 0 0 0
1 11 1 0 1
2 24 4 1 1
Number of 3 44 8 7 14
Coping
Strategies 4 41 13 12 10
Used 5 37 15 19 27
6 17 8 17 39
7 6 3 9 24
8 1 5 9 22
9 1 0 2 19
10 1 0 3 9
11 1 0 1 10
12 0 2 2 16
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Table 5 shows the average number of days a specific strategy is used by

households in a specific food security group. The strategy to “buy only
necessities” is used by the food secure group on average 2.78 days a week,
compared to the mild food insecure group who use this strategy for 4.94 days on
average per week. The moderately food insecure group use the strategy to “buy
necessities” for 5.40 days on average per week, while the severely food insecure
group use this strategy for 4.98 days on average per week. The strategy to “buy
food on credit” is, in terms of ranking, the most employed strategy of the food
insecure group. The food insecure group “skips meals” 3.06 days on average per
week. In terms of ranking, the severely food insecure group rely most on
“skipping meals” as a strategy with 5.24 days on average per week, followed by
“buying necessities” with 4.98 days on average per week, and “buying on credit”
for 4.49 days on average per week.
Table 5: Average number of days per week a specific coping strategy is
employed by households in different food insecurity groups
Food Secure Mild Food Moderately Severely Food

Insecure Food Insecure Insecure
Mean Std. Mean Std. Mean Std. Mean Std.
Dev. Dev.
Dev. Dev.
Buy necessities 2.78 2.96 4.94 2.81 5.40 2.60 4.98 2.85
Rely on less 0.27 0.88 0.67 1.02 0.69 1.00 1.38 1.68
expensive food
Stick to the budget 0.29 0.68 0.55 1.14 1.04 1.62 1.50 1.70
Limit portions at 0.79 1.81 0.72 1.44 1.65 2.10 2.65 2.53
meal times
Skip meals 3.06 2.88 4.77 2.77 5.16 2.55 5.24 2.57
Purchase food on 3.27 3.09 4.34 3.00 4.38 2.96 4.49 2.90
credit
Maintain a food 0.64 1.78 1.29 2.51 1.19 2.20 2.02 2.76
garden
Borrow food from 0.14 0.49 0.36 1.12 0.54 1.04 1.10 1.70
friends
Restrict consumption 0.048 0.39 0.38 1.40 0.19 0.64 0.70 1.58
of adults in order for
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children to eat
Gather wild 0.079 0.50 0.34 1.40 0.29 0.86 0.80 1.54
vegetables
Sent household 0.05 0.39 0.27 1.26 0.29 0.98 0.53 1.52
members to eat
elsewhere
Sent household 0.30 0.96 0.62 1.46 0.88 1.79 0.96 1.87
members to beg
5. CONCLUSION
This paper reveals a number of issues associated with household food insecurity.
Based on the descriptive statistics, it is clear that age of the head of the household,
household size, and level of education of the head of the household have some
association with the food security status of the household. The households with
more members are faced with a greater chance of being food insecure. Similarly,
older heads of household are likely to be food insecure and those with low levels
of education are found to be more likely to be food insecure. Income is associated
with the level of household food insecurity, where lower income is associated
with higher levels of food insecurity.
The analysis of the coping strategies shows that the higher levels of food
insecurity are associated with using more coping strategies. Although it is shown
in the analysis that food secure households use some strategies, they are mostly
food saving and income saving, which are essentially a planning strategy as
opposed to a food shortage strategy. Of the strategies being used across the
households, maintaining a food garden is not common and this has been
interpreted to be a result of lack of land. The recommendation made is therefore
that households should utilise other measures of increasing their gardening
options, including land saving measures, like planting vegetables in pots instead
of flowers. The results, however, show that poverty remains the main cause of
food insecurity especially low income association with food insecurity. Therefore,
dealing with food security would be one way of addressing the bigger problem of
poverty. A limitation to the study is the fact that the link between coping
strategies and food insecurity could not be established. A follow-up study using
regression analysis is suggested for further studies.
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITY STUDIES

Vol 9, No 2, 2017 ISSN: 1309-8063 (Online)

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COPING STRATEGIES USED BY

methodology used to determine food insecurity and coping strategies used.

Income soothing strategies indicates, for example, income diversification or

Bophelong consists of a population of 37 779, with 12 352 households, and

categories namely, dietary change strategies, increased food availability,

with a standard deviation of R 3440.60. In the moderately food insecure group,

Variable Category N Min. Max. Mean Std Dev.

Secure 227 0.0 50.0 11.04 8.57

Level of Food Insecurity

Table 5 shows the average number of days a specific strategy is used by

Food Secure Mild Food Moderately Severely Food

Hindson, V. Mcintosh, A., Xaba, A. (2003). Tackling poverty i: South Africa’s

using Coping Strategy Index (CSI). 17th International Farm Management

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