04.

Materials Selection in Engineering Modeling I

01. Materials Science and Engineering
Sometimes it is convenient to subdivide the discipline of materials science and
engineering into materials science and materials engineering subdisciplines.
Strictly speaking, materials science involves investigating the relationships
existing between the structures and properties of materials. In contrast, materials
engineering is, on the basis of these structure–property correlations, designing or
engineering the structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of
properties. From a functional perspective, the role of a materials scientist is to
develop or synthesize new materials, whereas a materials engineer is called
upon to create new products or systems using existing materials, and to develop
techniques for processing materials.

Structure is a term deserving some explanation. In brief, the structure of a

material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal components. Subatomic
structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions with their
nuclei. On an atomic level, structure encompasses the organization of atoms or
molecules relative to one another. The next larger structural realm, which
contains large groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated together, is
termed microscopic, meaning that which is subject to direct observation using
some type of microscope. Finally, structural elements that may be viewed with
the naked eye are termed macroscopic.

The notion of property deserves elaboration. While in service use, all materials
are exposed to external stimuli that evoke some type of response. For example,
a specimen subjected to forces will experience deformation, or a polished metal
surface will reflect light. A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and
magnitude of response to a specific imposed stimulus. Generally, definitions of
properties are made independent of material shape and size.

Virtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six
different categories:

 Mechanical
 Electrical
 Thermal
 Magnetic
 Optical
 Deteriorative

For each there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of provoking different

responses. Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force
and examples include elastic modulus - stiffness, strength, and toughness. For
electrical properties, such as electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, the
stimulus is an electric field. The thermal behaviour of solids can be represented
in terms of heat capacity and thermal conductivity. Magnetic properties
demonstrate the response of a material to the application of a magnetic field. For
optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic or light radiation. Index of
refraction and reflectivity are representative optical properties. Finally,
deteriorative characteristics relate to the chemical reactivity of materials.

In addition to structure and properties, two other important components are

involved in the science and engineering of materials: processing and
performance. With regard to the relationships of these four components, the
structure of a material will depend on how it is processed. Furthermore, a
material’s performance will be a function of its properties. Thus, the
interrelationship between processing, structure, properties, and performance is
as depicted in the schematic below:

Components of the discipline of materials science and engineering and their interrelationship

We now present an example of essential processing-structure-properties-

performance principles using a photograph showing three thin disk specimens
placed over a print. It is obvious that the optical properties of each of the three
materials are different. The one on the left is transparent, whereas the disks in
the center and on the right are, respectively, translucent and opaque. All
specimens are of the same material, aluminum oxide, but the leftmost one is
what we call a single crystal with a high degree of perfection, which gives rise to
its transparency. The center one is composed of numerous and very small single
crystals that are all connected. The boundaries between these small crystals
scatter a portion of the light reflected from the print, which makes this material
optically translucent.
Finally, the specimen on the right is composed not only of small, interconnected
crystals, but also of a large number of very small pores or void spaces. The
pores effectively scatter the reflected light and render this material opaque. Thus,
the structures of the three specimens are different in terms of crystal boundaries
and pores, which affect the optical transmittance properties. Furthermore, each
material was produced using a different processing technique. If optical
transmittance is an important parameter relative to the application, the
performance of each material will be different.

02. Reasons for the Study of Materials Science and Engineering

Many engineers, whether mechanical, civil, chemical, or electrical, will at one
time or another be exposed to design problems involving materials. Examples
might include a transmission gear, the superstructure for a building, an oil
refinery component, or an integrated circuit chip. Materials scientists and
engineers are specialists who are totally involved in the investigation and design
of materials. Many times, a materials problem is one of selecting the right
material from the thousands of materials available. The final decision is normally
based on several criteria.

First of all, the in-service conditions must be characterized, for these will dictate
the properties required of the material. Only on rare occasions a material
possess the ideal combination of properties. It may be necessary to trade one
characteristic for another and a classic example involves strength and ductility.
Normally, a material having high strength will have only limited ductility. In such
cases a reasonable compromise between two or more properties may be
necessary. A second selection consideration is any deterioration of material
properties that may occur during service operation. For example, significant
reductions in mechanical strength may result from exposure to elevated
temperatures or corrosive environments. Finally, one of the most important
considerations is the cost. A material may be found that has the ideal set of
properties but is too expensive. Here again, some compromise is inevitable. The
cost of a finished piece also includes any expense incurred during fabrication to
produce the desired shape.

The more familiar an engineer or scientist is with the various characteristics and
structure–property relationships, as well as processing techniques of materials,
the more proficient and confident he or she will be in making judicious materials
choices based on these criteria.

03. Classification of Materials

Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic categories:
metals, ceramics, and polymers. This scheme is primarily based on chemical
makeup and atomic structure, and most materials fall into one distinct grouping
or another. In addition, there are the composites, which are engineered
combinations of two or more different materials. A brief explanation of these
material classifications and representative characteristics is offered next. Another
category is advanced materials - those used in high-technology applications,
such as semiconductors, biomaterials, smart materials, and nano-engineered
materials.

 Metals
Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements like iron,
aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, and nickel, and often also non-metallic
elements like carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen in relatively small amounts. Atoms in
metals and their alloys are arranged in a very orderly manner, and in comparison
to the ceramics and polymers, are relatively dense.

Room-temperature density values for various materials

With regard to mechanical characteristics, these materials are relatively stiff and
strong, yet are ductile - capable of large amounts of deformation without fracture.

Room-temperature stiffness values for materials

 Room-temperature tensile strength for various materials

Metals are also resistant to fracture, which accounts for their widespread use in
structural applications.

Room-temperature resistance to fracture for various materials

Metallic materials have large numbers of electrons not bound to particular atoms.
Many properties of metals are directly attributable to these electrons. Metals are
very good conductors of electricity and heat, and are not transparent to visible
light. A polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance. Some metals like Fe,
Co, and Ni have desirable magnetic properties.

Electrical conductivity ranges for metals, ceramics, polymers, and semiconducting materials
  Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and non-metallic elements. They are
most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For example, common ceramic
materials include aluminum oxide Al2O3, silicon dioxide SiO2, silicon carbide SiC,
silicon nitride Si3N4, and, in addition, what some refer to as the traditional
ceramics - those composed of clay minerals like porcelain, as well as cement
and glass. With regard to mechanical behavior, ceramic materials are relatively
stiff and strong - stiffnesses and strengths are comparable to those of the metals
– see images above. In addition, they are typically very hard. Historically,
ceramics have exhibited extreme brittleness and are highly susceptible to
fracture. However, newer ceramics are being engineered to have improved
resistance to fracture and these materials are used for cookware, cutlery, and
even automobile engine parts. Furthermore, ceramic materials are typically
isolative to the flow of heat and electricity and are more resistant to high
temperatures and harsh environments than metals and polymers. With regard to
optical characteristics, ceramics may be transparent, translucent, or opaque and
some of the oxide ceramics like Fe3O4 exhibit magnetic behavior. The
characteristics, types, and applications of this class of materials are discussed in
materials science textbooks.

 Polymers
Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are
organic compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other
non-metallic elements like O, N, and Si. Furthermore, they have very large
molecular structures, often chainlike in nature, that often have a backbone of
carbon atoms. Some of the common and familiar polymers are polyethylene PE,
nylon, polyvinyl chloride PVC, polycarbonate PC, polystyrene PS, and silicone
rubber. These materials typically have low densities, whereas their mechanical
characteristics are generally dissimilar to the metallic and ceramic materials -
they are not as stiff nor as strong as these other material types. However, on the
basis of their low densities, many times their stiffnesses and strengths on a per-
mass basis are comparable to the metals and ceramics. In addition, many of the
polymers are extremely ductile and pliable, which means they are easily formed
into complex shapes. In general, they are relatively inert chemically and non-
reactive in a large number of environments. One major drawback to the polymers
is their tendency to soften and/or decompose at modest temperatures, which, in
some instances, limits their use. Furthermore, they have low electrical
conductivities and are nonmagnetic. Future lectures are dedicated to discussions
of the structures, properties, applications, and processing of polymeric materials.

 Composite Materials

A composite includes two or more individual materials coming from the

categories previously discussed - metals, ceramics, and polymers. The design
goal of a composite is to achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed
by any single material, and also to incorporate the best characteristics of each of
the component materials. A large number of composite types are represented by
different combinations of metals, ceramics, and polymers. Furthermore, some
naturally occurring materials are composites - for example, wood and bone.
However, most of those we consider in our discussions are synthetic or human-
made composites.

One of the most common composites is fiberglass, in which small glass fibers are
embedded within a polymeric material - normally an epoxy or polyester. The
glass fibers are relatively strong and stiff, but also brittle, whereas the polymer is
more flexible. Thus, fiberglass is relatively stiff, strong, and flexible. In addition, it
has a low density.

Another technologically important material is the carbon fiber–reinforced polymer

or CFRP composite - carbon fibers that are embedded within a polymer. These
materials are stiffer and stronger than glass fiber–reinforced materials, but more
expensive. CFRP composites are used in some aircraft and aerospace
applications, as well as high-tech sporting equipment like bicycles, golf clubs,
tennis rackets, and skis/snowboards, and recently in automobile bumpers. The
new Boeing 787 fuselage is primarily made from such CFRP composites. Future
lectures are dedicated to a discussion of these interesting composite materials.

 Advanced Materials
Materials that are utilized in high-tech applications are sometimes termed
advanced materials. Examples include electronic equipment, computers, fiber-
optic systems, spacecraft, aircraft, and military applications. These advanced
materials are typically traditional materials whose properties have been
enhanced, and also newly developed, high-performance materials. Furthermore,
they may be of all material types - metals, ceramics, polymers, and are normally
expensive.

Advanced materials include semiconductors, biomaterials, and what we may

term materials of the future - smart materials and nano-engineered materials.
The properties and applications of a number of these advanced materials - for
example, materials that are used for lasers, integrated circuits, magnetic
information storage, liquid crystal displays LCDs, and fiber optics – are discussed
in materials science textbooks.

04. Static Tensile Test. Engineering Stress–Strain Relationships

The basic engineering test of material strength and rigidity is the standard tensile
test, from which stress–strain curves as shown below are obtained. The stresses
and strains plotted are the nominal or so-called engineering values, defined as
 P
 , where P is the load, A0 is the original unloaded cross-sectional area
A0
L
and   , where L is the change in length caused by the load and L0 is the
L0
original unloaded length. The Greek letter  denotes normal stress, which is a
function of the applied loads. S with appropriate subscripts designates strength
properties of the material. For example, the illustration below shows that when 
= 39 ksi – kilopounds - the material begins to yield. Hence, Sy = 39 ksi. Similarly,
the greatest load that the test specimen can withstand corresponds to an
engineering stress of 66 ksi. Hence, Su = 66 ksi. Whereas S with suitable
subscripts is used for all strength values including those for torsion or shear, the
letter  is used for normal stresses only, that is, stresses caused by tensile,
compressive, or bending loads. Shear stresses, caused by torsional or
transverse shear loads, are designated by the Greek letter  .

Engineering stress–strain curve for hot-rolled 1020 steel

Several other mechanical properties are indicated on the stress–strain curve.

Point A represents the elastic limit, Se. It is the highest stress the material can
withstand and still return exactly to its original length when unloaded. When
loaded beyond point A, the material exhibits a partially plastic response. For most
engineering materials, point A also approximates the proportional limit, defined
as the stress at which the stress–strain curve first slightly deviates from a straight
line. Below the proportional limit, Hooke’s law applies. The constant of
proportionality between stress and strain - which is the slope of the curve
between the origin and the proportional limit - is the modulus of elasticity, or
Young’s modulus, E. For some materials, a slight deviation from linearity occurs
between the origin and a point such as A, at which the deviation begins to
become more apparent. Such material has no true proportional limit, nor is its
modulus of elasticity definitely defined. The computed value depends on the
portion of the curve used for measuring the slope.

Point B represents the yield strength, Sy. It is the value of stress at which
significant plastic yielding first occurs. In some ductile materials, notably soft
steel, marked yielding occurs suddenly at a clearly defined value of stress. In
other materials the onset of appreciable yielding occurs gradually, and the yield
strength for these materials is determined by using the offset method. This is also
illustrated above: it shows a line, offset an arbitrary amount of 0.2 percent of
strain, and drawn parallel to the straight-line portion of the original stress–strain
diagram. Point B is the yield point of the material at 0.2 percent offset. If the load
is removed after yielding to point B, the specimen exhibits a 0.2 percent
permanent elongation. Yield strength corresponding to a specified and very small
offset is a standard laboratory determination, whereas elastic limit and
proportional limit are not.

05. Implications of the Engineering Stress–Strain Curve

The illustrations above and below represent identical stress–strain relationships,
but differ in two respects:

 The illustration above uses an arbitrary nonlinear strain scale in order to

illustrate more clearly the points previously discussed, whereas the strain
scale in the illustration below is linear
 The illustration below contains two additional strain scales that are
described below.
Several important concepts are related to these two figures:

 At the 36-ksi elastic limit of this particular steel, strain  has a value of σ/E
= 0.0012. The illustration shows the strain at ultimate strength and at
fracture to be about 250 and 1350 times this amount. Obviously, to the
scale plotted, the elastic portion of the curve in is virtually coincident with
the vertical axis.
 Suppose that a tensile member made from this steel has a notch or hole,
groove, slot, such that the strain at the notch surface is three times the
nominal P AE value. A tensile load causing a nominal stress P A of 30
ksi and nominal strain P AE of 0.001 produces a strain three times this
large - 0.003 - at the notch surface. Since even this strain is almost
imperceptible in the second illustration, the member would not be altered
in any normally detectable way despite the fact that the calculated elastic
stress at the notch would be 90 ksi, a value well above the ultimate
strength.
 It is difficult to measure accurately the large strains that occur after
necking of a tensile specimen. This is because the local elongation is
immensely greater in the necking zone than elsewhere, and the calculated
value of elongation depends on the gage length used. A more accurate
determination of elongation at fracture in the immediate region of failure
can be obtained indirectly by measuring the cross-sectional area at the
fracture location. Elongation is then computed by assuming that there has
been a negligible change in material volume. For example, let both the
original cross-sectional area and extremely short gage length be unity.
Suppose the area after fracture is 0.4. This gives a ratio R of initial area to
final area of 1/0.4 = 2.5. Similarly, the reduction in area Ar would be 60
percent of the original area, or 0.6. If volume remains constant, the gage
length must have increased to 2.5, thereby giving a strain  owing to
elongation of 1.5. The three abscissa scales in the second illustration all
represent quantities commonly used in the literature. Relations between
them will now be derived. For constant volume, and using subscripts 0
and f to denote initial and final values, respectively, we have
A0 L0  Af  L0  L   Af L0 1    , or:

A0
Af 
1 
A
Area Ratio R  0  1  
Af
 1 
A  A0  Af  A0 1  
 1  
A 1 1
Area Reduction Ar   1  1
A0 1  R
 For practice, it is suggested that the reader verify the agreement of the
three abscissa scales in the illustration above at one or two points.

 When experimentally determining the    curve for most engineering

materials, the load can be removed at any point and then restored without
significantly altering the subsequent test points. Thus, if the load is
removed at point D in the illustration above, the stress reduces to zero
along line DG, which has a slope of E = 30  10 6 psi. Reapplication of the
load brings the material back essentially to point D, and additional load
increases produce the same result as though the load removal had not
taken place. Suppose that we regard the test specimen at G as a new
specimen and determine its yield strength, ultimate strength, and
reduction in area when fractured. The new specimen will have a yield
strength higher than the original - in fact, its yield strength will be higher
than the 62 ksi shown at point D because the area of the new specimen is
less than that of the original. At point G the specimen has been
permanently stretched to 11/10 of its initial length and its area is only
10/11 of the original. On the basis of the new area, the yield strength of
the new specimen is 62 ksi divided by 10/11, or Sy=68ksi. Similarly, the
ultimate strength of the new specimen is 66 divided by 10/11, or Su =
73ksi. The reduction in area at fracture for the new specimen is from 10/11
- area at G - to 10/25 - area at F, or 56 percent. This compares with Ar =
60 percent based on the original area.

06. The Static Tensile Test or True Stress–Strain Relationships

The study of the above illustration revealed that whenever a material is elongated
to many times its maximum elastic strain - perhaps 20 or 30 times, the calculated
engineering stress becomes somewhat fictitious because it is based on an area
significantly different than that which actually exists. In such cases this limitation
can be avoided by computing the true stress, in this text designated as  T ,
defined as load divided by the cross-sectional area that exists when the load is
P P
acting. Thus,   and  T  . Substituting the equivalent of Af from
A0 Af
A
Af  0 gives:
1 
P
 T  1      1      R
A0

In like manner, engineering strain is not a realistic measure where large strains
are involved. In such cases it is appropriate to use true strain values, T.
Consider, for example, a very ductile specimen of unit length that is stretched to
a length of 5 units, and then stretched further to 5.1 units. The engineering strain
added by the final 0.1 unit of stretch is 0.1/1 or 0.1. The corresponding true
strain, however, is only 0.1/5 or 0.02 - change in length divided by the length
existing immediately prior to the last small strain increment. Mathematically, true
strain is defined as:
Lf
L
Lf
dL
T     ln R  ln 1   
L0 L L0
L

L0 and L f represent the initial and final lengths, respectively, and ln denotes the
natural logarithm. For metals, engineering and true strains are essentially the
same when they are less than several times the maximum elastic strain. The
illustration below is a true-stress–true-strain plot of the data represented in the
previous graphs. Such plots illustrate general relationships that are helpful in
predicting the effect of cold working on the strength properties of many metals. A
study of the three regions identified in the illustration reveals several important
relationships and concepts.

 Elastic region. Strictly speaking, Young’s modulus is the ratio of

engineering stress and strain, but with negligible error it is also the ratio of
true stress and strain:
 T  E T

On the log-log coordinates above, this equation plots as a straight line of

unit slope, positioned so that the line passes through the point (  T  1 ,
 T  E ). Note that E can be thought of as the value of stress required to
produce an elastic strain of unity.

 Plastic strain-strengthening region. This region corresponds to the strain-

strengthening equation:

 T   0 Tm
 Note that this equation has the same form as  T  E T except for the
strain-hardening exponent m, and plots the slope of the line on log-log
coordinates. The strain strengthening proportionality constant  0 is
analogous to the elastic proportionality constant E, in that  0 can be
regarded as the value of true stress associated with a true strain of unity.2

 Transition region. For an ideal material, the value of the elastic limit –
approximated as the yield point - corresponds to the intersection of the
elastic and plastic lines, as shown below. Real materials may have values
of  e , which are either higher or lower, requiring the addition of an
empirical transition curve, as I or II in the illustration below:

True-stress–true-strain curves showing transition region variations

Unfortunately, numerical values of the strain-hardening characteristics of many

engineering materials are not yet available and much of the available information
has been obtained by experiment.

06. Energy Absorbing Capacity

Some parts must be designed more on the basis of absorbing energy than of
withstanding loads. Since energy involves both loads and deflections, stress–
strain curves are particularly relevant. The graph below will be used for
illustration. It is essentially the same as the one introduced at the beginning of
this lecture except that the strain scale has been further expanded near the origin
in the interest of clarity.
 Resilience and toughness as represented by the stress–strain curve

The capacity of a material to absorb energy within the elastic range is called
resilience. Its standard measure is modulus of resilience Rm , defined as the
energy absorbed by a unit cube of material when loaded in tension to its elastic
limit. This is equal to the triangular area under the elastic portion of the curve:

1 Se S2
Rm    Se  e
2 E 2E

The total capacity of a material to absorb energy without fracture is called

toughness. The modulus of toughness Tm is the energy absorbed per unit volume
of material when loaded in tension to fracture. This is equal to the total shaded
area under the curve in the plot above:
f

Tm    d 
0

It is often convenient to perform this integration graphically. A rough

S y  Su
approximation sometimes used is Tm    f . It should be noted that
2
members designed for energy absorption are commonly subjected to impact
loading, and that special tests - traditionally, the Charpy test - are used to
estimate more accurately the impact energy-absorbing capacity of various
materials at various temperatures.
Summary
In this lecture we start discussing the selection of materials in engineering
modeling and simulation, fundamental engineering modeling principles, including:

 Materials Science and Engineering

 Reasons for the Study of Materials Science and Engineering
 Classification of Materials
 Static Tensile Test. Engineering Stress–Strain Relationships
 Implications of the Engineering Stress–Strain Curve
 The Static Tensile Test or True Stress–Strain Relationships
 Energy Absorbing Capacity

References
 Dassault Systems – SolidWorks Fundamentals, Concord, Massachusetts,
United States, 2012

 Engineering Modeling and Simulation in SolidWorks – Tutorials

 Dassault Systems – SolidWorks Simulation, Concord, Massachusetts,

United States, 2014

 Dassault Systems – SolidWorks Flow Simulation, Concord,

Massachusetts, United States, 2014

Readings and Resources:

 Cook, R. – Finite Element Modeling for Stress Analysis, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1995