GRAMMAR REFERENCE AND PRACTICE

1.1 PRESENT HABITS (PAGE 3)

Present habits
Talk about present habits in different ways:
1 Simple present (sometimes with adverbs of frequency)
My friend tells me she resists change because she usually likes things the way they are.
2 Tend to + the base form of a verb
I tend to adapt to new situations quickly.
3 Will for events that happen often (present, not future)
I’ll often call my parents when I want advice.
4 Present continuous for a continuing activity that happens at the same time as another habit
I usually listen to music when I’m cooking.
5 Present continuous for noticeable/unusual (often undesirable) habits; use always and constantly for emphasis.
I’m always worrying about how I’ll cope with all of my work.

1.2 PAST HABITS (PAGE 5)

Past habits
There are different ways to talk about habits, actions, and states that happened in the past but don’t anymore:
1 Used to for past habits, repeated past actions, and states
■ used to / didn’t use to + the base form of the verb
We didn’t use to make video calls, but we do now.
■ never + used to + the base form of the verb
They never used to ride their bikes to school.
■ use to, not used to, with didn’t/did in negative statements and questions
Did you use to take the bus?
2 Would for past habits and repeated past actions, not for past states
■ would (’d) / would not (wouldn’t) + the base form of verb
■ Use would only if it is clear when the action happened. Use used to if the time reference is not given.
We would text each other every night.  not I would have a big cell phone.
3 The simple past for past habits, repeated past actions, and past states (often with time expressions)
I had a big bedroom. I went to bed at 6:00 every night.
4 The simple past for single completed actions in the past, not used to or would
I watched three shows last night.  not I’d watch three shows last night. / I used to watch three shows last night.

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2.1 COMPARATIVE STRUCTURES (PAGE 13)
Comparative structures
1 Fewer/less + noun to show there is less of one thing than another
■ fewer + count nouns    less + non-count nouns
The new project will require fewer resources and less time.
2 Rather than to show a preference for something
■ Compare nouns/pronouns
■ Use verbs to compare activities (base form of the verb or verb + -ing)
■ To can be used instead of rather than with prefer but not with other verbs
I prefer ocean exploration rather than space exploration.
I prefer to study the ocean rather than learn/learning about space.
I prefer the ocean to deep space.
I want to study Earth rather than Mars.   not I want to study Earth to Mars.
3 Verb + more/less (as a pronoun)
I know less/more about Venus than about Mars.
4 Adjective + (not) enough + infinitive to compare the degree of actual and required ability
Technology is (not) advanced enough to send people to Mars.
5 A comparative + infinitive to compare actions
It’s easier to use a tablet than (to use) a laptop.
6 For many comparative structures, you do not need to repeat the first subject and verb.
We’re less likely to find life on the moon than (we are to find life) on Mars.

2.2 SUPERLATIVE STRUCTURES; UNGRADABLE ADJECTIVES (PAGE 15)

Superlative structures
1 With quantities: Phrases such as one of, two of, and some of + superlative adjective + plural noun
This country has some of the highest mountains in the world.
2 With to: Use a superlative + infinitive to show function or purpose.
May is the best time to hike here.
3 Least is the opposite of most (the comparative form is less).
This is surely the least suitable environment for anything to live.
4 With that clauses:
■ Use a superlative + a that clause.   ■ The use of that is optional.
It’s the most fascinating place (that) I’ve ever visited.
5 Ellipsis with the: Shows that one or more words have been left out to avoid repetition.
I have three sisters. Susana is the youngest (sister).

Ungradable adjectives
1 Ungradable adjectives do not have different degrees and
Gradable adjectives have
therefore don’t usually have comparative or superlative forms. degrees and can be used with
They were furious and exhausted. adverbs, such as very, a little, and
2 With most ungradable adjectives, we can use intensifiers such as really, but not with intensifiers
absolutely, completely, totally, and utterly. like absolutely, completely, etc.
The green parrots of Masaya Volcano are totally amazing. Those animals are very tough.
3 With other ungradable adjectives – for example, male, female, Note: Really can be used with
married, single – we don’t use intensifiers. both gradable and ungradable
adjectives.
My first dog was male, but the second one was female.
3.1 RELATIVE PRONOUNS; REDUCED RELATIVE CLAUSES (PAGE 23)
Relative pronouns; reduced relative clauses
1 Relative pronouns are used to introduce relative clauses.
that/which = for things, that/who = for people, where = for places, when = for times,
whose = to show possession
My sister, whose children I often take care of, lives next door.
Today is the day when we decide it’s time for a change.
2 Subject relative clauses can be reduced by omitting the relative pronoun and the verb be. You can’t reduce
object relative clauses.
The following relative clauses are often reduced:
■ with be + an adjective
■ with be + past participle
■ with noun phrases
People who are worried about meeting strangers often get nervous at parties. ➞ People worried about meeting
strangers often get nervous at parties.
The bus that is parked in front of the office is the one we’ll take to the conference. ➞ The bus parked in front of the
office is the one we’ll take to the conference.
Steven, who is a quick learner, adapts easily to new situations. ➞ Steven, a quick learner, adapts easily to
new situations.

3.2 PRESENT PARTICIPLES (PAGE 25)

Present participles
Present participle = verb + -ing
1 To shorten sentences that describe two events happening at the same time, use the present participle of
the second verb after a comma. Do not use and.
I often work and listen to music. ➞ I often work, listening to music.
2 In reduced relative clauses, use the present participle. Do not use the relative pronoun and the verb be.
Look at all those lemons that are growing on that tree. ➞ Look at all those lemons growing on that tree.
4.1 ADDING EMPHASIS: so … that, such … that, even, only (page 35)
Adding emphasis
1 So + adjective or adverb (that) … emphasizes the results or effects of something.
It was so funny (that) I couldn’t stop laughing.
2 Such (a/an) + (adjective) noun (that) … also emphasizes the results or effects of something.
She is such a good friend (that) everyone turns to her when they have a problem.
3 Even before a word, phrase, or part of the sentence adds emphasis or signals that something is surprising.
Even the most confident person needs help sometimes.
He works long hours during the week and even works on Saturdays sometimes.
Building trust with people makes your life even happier.
4 Only before a word, phrase, or part of the sentence adds emphasis.
■ only = “no one else” or “nothing else” than the people, things, amount, or activity mentioned
Only you can steer him away from making a big mistake.
Quitting your job will only hurt your career.

4.2 REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS; PRONOUNS WITH OTHER/ANOTHER (PAGE 37)

Reflexive pronouns
Use a reflexive pronoun:
You has two
1 when the subject and object of a sentence are the same
reflexive
I enjoyed myself at the party.
pronouns:
2 directly after a noun or pronoun for greater emphasis yourself (singular)
The employees themselves decide what time they start and finish work. and yourselves
3 at the end of the clause for some emphasis (plural).
You and your brother should be able to do the job yourselves.
4 after by to mean “alone” or “without help”
I can’t lift this box by myself.

Pronouns with other/another

1 the other = the remaining member of a pair
One of his shoes was blue, the other, brown.
2 another = an additional member of a group
I’d like to hire another assistant.
3 the others = the remaining members of a group
Six people in my class are from this city. The others are from different cities.
4 others (without the) = not the members of the group already mentioned, but different ones
Some people drink coffee. Others prefer tea.
5 each other and one another = show that each person in a group does something to the others
During exams, students are not allowed to help each other / one another.
5.1 REAL CONDITIONALS (PAGE 45)
Real conditionals
1 Present: if/when/whenever + simple present + simple present in the main clause
■ to describe general facts or routines
I feel nervous if/when/whenever I think about flying.
2 Future: if/when/whenever + simple present + will / be going to in the main clause
■ for possible future situations and their results
If you try the therapy, it will make you more confident.
(You may or may not try the therapy. But if you do, it will make you more confident.)
When/Whenever you try the therapy, it will make you more confident.
(You will try the therapy, and when you do, it will make you more confident.)
3 With modals and modal-like expressions: if clause + a modal in the main clause
■ to show how likely or necessary the result is
Whenever you’re worried, you have to try not to panic.

5.2 CONDITIONALS: alternatives to if (page 47)

Conditionals: alternatives to if
You can use real conditionals with expressions other than if, but they have different meanings:
1 Even if: Stresses that the condition doesn’t matter. The condition may happen, but the result will be the same.
Even if video calls improve, talking in person is much nicer.
2 Only if, providing / provided (that), as/so long as, on condition that: Show the result or effect will happen when
a specific condition becomes true. No other condition will have this result.
I’ll lend you my phone, only if / provided / providing / as/so long as / on condition that you promise to return it soon.
3 Unless: Describes a possible negative condition in the present or future = “except if” or “if … not.”
We can’t reach an agreement unless you communicate more openly.
6.1 NARRATIVE TENSES (PAGE 55)
Narrative tenses
1 Simple past for the main completed events and situations in a story.
He became famous when he was only 14.
2 Past continuous (was/were + verb + -ing) for background activities in progress at the same time as the main
event in the simple past.
She translated what the president was saying.
3 Past perfect (had + past participle) for an event that happened before another event in the simple past.
All my friends went to the concert, but I’d forgotten to buy a ticket.
4 Past perfect continuous (had + been + verb + -ing) for an event that continued up to another event in the
simple past. It shows the continuing nature of a past activity/situation leading up to a more recent past time.
■ It can show a reason.    ■  It can give background information.
The band had been playing all night, so they were very tired.
I had been dreaming of being famous for years, and suddenly it happened.

6.2 REPORTED SPEECH WITH MODAL VERBS (PAGE 57)

Reported speech with modal verbs
1 Some modals change when the reporting verb is in the past:
will – would    can – could    may – might Only change
the tense of the
“Will/Can you help me?” ➞ Jen asked me if I’d / I could help her.
main verb when
2 Some modals don’t change, even if the reporting verb is in the past: might, the reporting
could, should, must verb is in the
“What could they do about traffic?” ➞ He wondered what they could do past tense.
about traffic.
7.1 GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES AFTER ADJECTIVES, NOUNS, AND
PRONOUNS (PAGE 67)
Gerunds and infinitives after adjectives, nouns, and pronouns
Infinitives (to + verb) Gerunds (verb + -ing)
1 Adjective + infinitive 1 Adjective + gerund
It’s boring and difficult to work at night. It was boring waiting in line for the roller coaster. But it
2 Noun + infinitive – to show purpose was cool riding on it.
It was an interesting place to visit. 2 Fixed expression + gerund
3 Pronoun + infinitive – to show purpose e.g.: be worth, have fun, spend/waste time
I need something to eat. I spend a lot of time traveling for my job.

Some adjectives can be followed by either gerunds

or infinitives, others - only gerunds or only infinitives.

7.2 INFINITIVES AFTER VERBS WITH AND WITHOUT OBJECTS (PAGE 69)
Infinitives after verbs with and without objects
1 Verb + infinitive   Common verbs: agree, decide, hope,
manage, plan, seem, tend Use not before the infinitive to
show the infinitive is negative.
They agreed not to climb the mountain without an instructor.
Use not before the main verb
2 Verb + object + infinitive   Common verbs: allow, convince, to show it is negative.
encourage, teach, tell, urge, warn
He did not convince us to hire him.    (The object performs the action of the infinitive.)
3 Verb + (object) + infinitive    Common verbs: ask, expect, need, promise, want, would like
■ No object – subject performs the action of the infinitive
■ With object – object performs the action of the infinitive
I’d like to buy the lamp. (I’m buying it.)   I’d like you to buy that lamp. (You’re buying it.)
8.1 MODAL-LIKE EXPRESSIONS WITH BE (PAGE 77)
Modal-like expressions with be
1 Be bound to / Be certain to / Be sure to for things that are definitely going to happen
If you drop that glass, it’s bound to / certain to / sure to break.
2 Be likely/unlikely to for things that are probably (not) going to happen
There’s a lot of traffic, so we’re likely to be late.
3 Be supposed to for things expected to happen (because they were arranged or sb is responsible for them)
My mom was supposed to pick me up at 3:30, but she didn’t arrive until 4:00.
4 Be about to for things that you’re going to do soon or are going to happen soon
Quick, turn on the TV. The game is about to start.
5 Be required to for things that we are made to do (e.g., because of rules)
Everyone who travels by plane is required to have a passport or some kind of photo ID.
6 Be forced to for things that we are made to do, but don’t want to
I missed the last bus, so I was forced to walk home.
7 Be allowed to / Be permitted to for things that we have permission to do
They’re allowed to / permitted to use their phones in school, but not in class.

8.2 FUTURE FORMS (PAGE 79)

Future forms
1 Present continuous: for general future intentions and definite plans or
arrangements I’m making a film about college life. The future
I’m meeting my friends tomorrow at 6:00 p.m. continuous
and be going
2 Be going to: for general future plans and intention and predictions about the to can both
future I’m going to make a film about college life. express future
It’s going to be a big surprise for them. plans and
3 Might, may, or could: when you’re not sure about the future intentions.
I might start my own business one day. The future
4 Will: for predictions about the future and decisions made at the moment of speaking continuous is
more formal.
It will be a big surprise for them.
That looks difficult. I’ll help you with it.
5 Will + be + verb + -ing (the future continuous): for an action in progress at a future time and for plans
and intentions
In a few years, I’ll be looking for a job.
Will you be coming to the meeting on Thursday?
9.1 UNREAL CONDITIONALS (PAGE 87)
Unreal conditionals
Present and future
if clause: could, simple past, or past continuous (imagined situation)
result clause: would/could/might + base form of a verb (predicted or possible result)
If Josh was/were studying at the library, I could help him with his homework.
If we got / could get tickets to the concert, we wouldn’t watch it on TV.
Past
if clause: past perfect (something possible that did not happen)
result clause: would/could/may/might have + past participle (imaginary past result that didn’t happen)
I could have been an X-ray technician if I had studied medicine.
Or would + base form of a verb (imaginary present result)
I would have a nicer apartment if I hadn’t bought a new car.

9.2 WISHES AND REGRETS (PAGE 89)

Wishes and regrets
I wish (that) / If only express a wish for something to be different or feelings of regret.
After I wish /
1 For wishes about general situations in the present: I wish / If only + simple past
If only, you
I wish / If only I knew the answer to this question.
can use was
2 For wishes about continuous situations in the present: I wish / If only + past continuous (informal) or
I wish / If only I was/were sitting at home and not in this traffic jam. were (more
3 For wishes about ability or possibility in the present: I wish / If only + could/couldn’t formal) with I,
I wish / If only I could find that book. he, she, and it.
4 For wishes about situations in the past: I wish / If only + past perfect
I wish / If only I had bought tickets in advance.
10.1 GERUNDS AFTER PREPOSITIONS (PAGE 99)
Gerunds after prepositions
1 Verb + preposition + gerund (e.g., boast about, care about, insist on, plan on, result in, think of, worry about)
Josh boasted about buying a new car.
2 be + adjective + preposition + gerund (e.g., be afraid of, be excited about, be guilty of, be interested in)
We are guilty of spending too much time on social media.
3 Noun + of + gerund (e.g., benefits, cost, danger, fear, idea, importance, possibility, process, risk, way)
My fear of flying has stopped me from visiting you.

10.2 CAUSATIVE VERBS (PAGE 101)

Causative verbs
1 Help/let/make/have + object + base form of the verb My parents make me save money for my future.
2 Allow/cause/enable + object + infinitive Surveys enable stores to estimate sales.
3 Keep/prevent/protect/stop + object + from + gerund Her advice kept me from losing my job.
11.1 PASSIVE FORMS (PAGE 109)
Passive forms
Passive and active sentences have similar meanings. But in the passive, the receiver of the action is more important
than the doer and becomes the subject of the sentence. Add by + the agent if necessary.
1 Simple present passive: am/is/are + past participle These products are usually imported.
2 Simple past passive: was/were + past participle Were you given a refund?
3 Present perfect passive: has/have been + past participle The order has been canceled.
4 Future passive: am/is/are going to/will + be + past participle The goods will be checked before they’re shipped.
5 Present continuous passive: am/is/are + being + past participle Many goods are being imported.
6 Past continuous passive: was/were + being + past participle The store wasn’t being used until now.

11.2 PASSIVES WITH MODALS AND MODAL-LIKE EXPRESSIONS;

PASSIVE INFINITIVES (PAGE 111)
Passives with modals and modal-like expressions; passive infinitives
1 Passive with modals + be + past participle
For negative
■ Common modals: can, could, might, may, should, must
sentences, use
Should the photos be taken in natural light?
had better not + be
2 Passive with modal-like expressions + (to) + be + past participle
+ past participle.
■ Common expressions: have to, need to, had better, be likely to, be supposed to
Rumors had better not be spread at this school. Good journalists don’t need to be told what to do.
3 Passive infinitives (verb + to be + past participle)
■ Common verbs and expressions: ask, be likely, expect, hope, refuse, seem
The problem isn’t likely to be solved soon.
12.1 ADVERBS WITH ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS (PAGE 119)
Adverbs with adjectives and adverbs
With adjectives
An adverb +
1 Use an adverb before an adjective to provide more detail about it.
an adjective
■ Common adverbs: especially, exceptionally, mainly, (not) necessarily,
describes a
particularly, reasonably noun.
John is especially skilled at painting, while his brother is mainly good at drawing.
The concert was
2 Use an adverb before an adjective to say what the adjective is related to. reasonably good.
■ Common adverbs: artistically, athletically, financially, musically, physically, An adverb + an
scientifically, technically adverb describes
Sandra is artistically talented in many ways, but she’s not musically gifted at all. a verb.
With adverbs Sandra paints
3 Use an adverb before another adverb to provide more detail about it. exceptionally
■ Common adverbs: especially, exceptionally, particularly, reasonably well for
Some people are able to learn languages particularly easily. For example, a beginner.
my friend Paolo learned five languages exceptionally fast.

12.2 MAKING NON-COUNT NOUNS COUNTABLE (PAGE 121)

Making non-count nouns countable
Make non-count nouns countable with expressions describing specific quantities or amounts. For example:
1 Abstract ideas
■ a little bit of (kindness/luck/space/time)
A little bit of kindness brightens up people’s lives.
■ a piece of (advice/information)
This is a useful piece of information.
■ a word of (advice/encouragement/sympathy/wisdom)
He was full of words of wisdom and useful pieces of advice.
2 Activities and sports
■ a game of (basketball/chess/soccer/tennis)
We played a few games of basketball over the weekend.
3 Food
■ a box of, a bunch of, a can of, a grain of, a loaf of, a package of, A pound = about .45 kilograms
a piece/slice of, a pound of, a serving of A gallon = about 3.8 liters
I need a bunch of parsley and a packet of cereal. A quart = about .95 liters
4 Liquids
■ a bottle of, a cup of, a glass of, a drop of, a gallon of, a quart of
At the café, we ordered two cups of coffee and a glass of juice.
5 Miscellaneous
■ an act of (bravery/kindness) Helping me move was an act of kindness.
■ an article/item of (clothing) What is your favorite item of clothing?
■ a piece of (clothing/equipment/furniture/music/news) That’s a fantastic piece of equipment!
■ a work of (art) This painting is my favorite work of art.