GEO1201
Assignment 9.1 – Bridge
1. What is a bridge? What are the forces that act on a bridge? Write notes on girders, abutments,
and piers of a bridge.
a. A bridge is a structure that spans and provides a passage over a road, railway, river, or
some other obstacle.
b. Forces acting on a bridge:
Static load - the weight of the bridge's material, including the weight of the
supports
Live load - the vehicular and train movements over the bridge
c. Girders – also called beams, the part of the superstructure which bends along the span.
The deck is supported by beams.
d. Abutments - support structures at bridge ends that carry the load from the superstructure
to the ground.
e. Piers - the part of the substructure that supports the superstructure and transfers loads of
superstructure to the foundations.
2. Give a short account on the major types of bridges and the forces acting on their support
system.
Girder or Beam Bridge – It is the simplest type of bridge that has two supports, called
abutments, to hold a beam or girder. The two abutments take the load, from the beam,
acting vertically and transmit it to the foundation. Piers are added aside from the
abutments in the case of multi-span beam bridges.
Arch Bridge - The bridge's two ends are carried outward and curve inward to meet the
two sides of the valley it is built over. The weight is distributed outward via two curved
pathways that point downward. Because of this, the earth close to the abutments is
constricted and exerts pressure against the abutment.
Cantilever Bridge - The end beams of the bridge have extended arms to hold a relatively
small beam. Each two beams of the bridge, firmly anchored with the piers, support
another beam that is the middle deck of the traffic-way. The total weight of the load is
transferred vertically to the two piers and with the abutments bearing almost minimal
stress.
Suspension Bridge - A trafficway is suspended from towers by cables. These towers
transmit the weight to the cable, which then transmits it to the earth. The stress from the
load is transferred vertically to the foundation but the bridge is anchored with the
bedrock.
Cable-stayed Bridge - Instead of extending from tower to tower, the cables from the
towers go straight to the road deck. The deck must maintain its stiffness during all phases
of construction and use since it is compressed and being pulled toward the towers.
3. Describe the foundation and support systems of bridges. What is superstructure and
substructure of a bridge? State how piers of a bridge are founded on river bed materials.
Describe the foundation and support systems of bridges
o Abutments are the two terminal supports of a bridge and are either made of
concrete or reinforced concrete, or stone masonry works with lime and sand or
clay as cementing materials.
o Piers are usually provided for longer bridges and are commonly made of concrete
or reinforced concrete. The piers take on the load to transport the weight of the
superstructure to the rocky foundation below.
o Wells are caissons built of wood, metal, or concrete that have openings on both
the top and bottom. They are built by sinking the hollow shells (wells) inside the
loose deposits by dredging up to firm soil or bedrock.
Superstructure – The superstructure carries the weight of traffic crossing it. This
facilitates the transfer of the forces generated by the loads to the substructures below. It
consists of deck slab, girder, truss etc.
Substructure – The substructure refers to the area of the structure that is buried
underground. The building's weight is dispersed throughout the substructure and the
ground beneath it. It consists of piers, abutments, wing walls, foundation, piers, etc.
How piers of a bridge are founded on riverbed materials
- The piers that remain submerged are built cylindrical with rounded edges to
allow for unimpeded tide and current flow. Piers rest on spread footings in uniformly
sandy soil. When the pier is founded at shallow depths, spread footing is given. The
foundation is set on piles, though, if the soil is clay-banded and heterogeneous in nature
and the pier base is quite deep.
4. What is well foundation of a bridge? Illustrate and describe the different components of a well
foundation.
a. Steining - made of concrete or masonry work. It is
built in a straight line from bottom to top to facilitate
tilting of the well at any stage of its construction.
b. Top plug - serves as shuttering for laying the well
cap; provided after filling the well with sand.
c. Bottom plug - made of concrete & used to transfer
the load from the steining to the soil below.
d. Well curb - made of steel and the outer surface is
made vertical.
e. Cutting edge - made of steel with sharp edge that can penetrate into the ground and
withstand stresses from boulders, blows, and so forth.
f. Well cap - made of reinforced concrete is seated over the top of the steining. It is needed
to transfer the loads and moments from the pier to the well below.
g. Sand filling - done after two or three days of laying the bottom plug. The sand used for
filling the well should be clean and free from clay, plant roots, and pebbles.
5. Discuss the different aspects of geological investigation of a bridge site and the manner of
their performance.
I. Selection or evaluation of bridge site in different terrain conditions
- Find several probable sites and the site most suitable from both geological and
engineering considerations.
II. Exploration of the site by drill holes and laboratory tests of rock and soil samples
- Topography of the terrain, hydrology of the river, and the rock and soil conditions
for the support of the superstructure are important in the selection of the bridge
site.
III. Evaluation of the foundation condition of abutments and piers
- Piers built on riverbeds covered by unconsolidated natural deposits of sand,
gravels and boulders are unsafe and unstable.
IV. Search for concrete aggregates and earth for approach embankments
- Coarse and fine aggregates for the concrete can be obtained from the rock cuttings
and river sands from the bridge site itself.
6. Give a short account on the construction of bridges in the upper, middle, and lower reaches of
a river in relation to its flow pattern, erosion, deposition, and transportation characteristics.
Upper Reaches
- The valley in the upper reaches is narrow and V-shaped, terraces are rarely
formed and the hill slopes are rocky. A single-span bridge supported by two
abutments can be constructed.
Middle Reaches
- The river valley in the middle reaches becomes broader, terraces are formed on
the two banks at different levels. A bridge at this site will require one or two piers
for supporting the superstructure.
Lower Reaches
- The river valley in the lower reaches is generally quite broad and already
attained the matured stage. A bridge at this site is to be located at a higher level.
The approach roads for the bridge may be taken through the plain and then with
proper gradient to the higher level.
7. List the types of materials required for the construction of a bridge. Where do you expect to
find such materials? Explain the type and percentage of deleterious minerals whose presence in
concrete is harmful in bridge construction and add a note on how the problem can be solved.
