Chapter 3: DEVELOPING INFORMATION SYSTEMS

STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. 3

THE PROCESS OF SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION
This module more closely examines the systems development process that was first introduced in
previous module. Successful systems development is governed by some fundamental, underlying principles that
we introduce in this module. We also introduce a basic, repre-sentative systems development methodology as a
disciplined approach to developing information systems. Although such an approach will not guarantee success, it
will greatly improve the chances of success. You will know that you understand information systems development
when you can: This module introduces a focus on information systems development

What is System Development Process?

System development process is a set of activities, methods, best practices, deliverables, and automated
tools that stakeholders use to develop and continuously improve information systems and software.
-Many variations
-Using a consistent process for system development:
• Create efficiencies that allow management to shift resources between projects
• Produces consistent documentation that reduces lifetime costs to maintain the
systems
• Promotes quality
CMM Process Management Model
Capability Maturity Model (CMM) – a standardized framework for assessing the maturity level of an
organization’s information system development and management processes and products. It consists of five levels
of maturity:
•Level 1 - Initial: System development projects follow no prescribed process.
•Level 2 - Repeatable: Project management processes and practices established to track project costs,
schedules, and functionality.
•Level 3 - Defined: Standard system development process (methodology) is purchased or developed.
All projects use a version of this process.
•Level 4 - Managed: Measurable goals for quality and productivity are established.
•Level 5 - Optimizing: The standardized system development process is continuously monitored and
improved based on measures and data analysis established in Level 4.

THE CAPABILITY MATURITY MODEL (CMMI)

IMPACT OF SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT “PROCESS” ON QUALITY

Life Cycle versus Methodology
•System life cycle – the factoring of the lifetime of an information system into two stages, (1) systems
development and (2) systems operation and maintenance.
•System development methodology – a formalized approach to the systems development process; a
standardized development process that defines (as in CMM Level 3) a set of activities, methods, best practices,
deliverables, and automated tools that system developers and project managers are to use to develop and
continuously improve information systems and software.

THE SYSTEM LIFE CYCLE

Representative System Development Methodologies

•Architected Rapid Application Development (Architected RAD)
•Dynamic Systems Development Methodology (DSDM)
•Joint Application Development (JAD)
•Information Engineering (IE)
•Rapid Application Development (RAD)
•Rational Unified Process (RUP)
•Structured Analysis and Design
•eXtreme Programming (XP)

Principles of System Development

•Get the system users involved.
•Use a problem-solving approach.
•Establish phases and activities.
•Document through development.
•Establish standards.
•Manage the process and projects
•Justify systems as capital investments.
•Don’t be afraid to cancel or revise scope.
•Divide and conquer.
•Design systems for growth and change.
 Use a Problem-Solving Approach Classical Problem-solving approach
1. Study and understand the problem, its context, and its impact.
2. Define the requirements that must be meet by any solution.
3. Identify candidate solutions that fulfill the requirements, and select the ―best‖ solution.
4. Design and/or implement the chosen solution.
5. Observe and evaluate the solution’s impact, and refine the solution accordingly.

Establish Phases and Activities

Manage the Process and Projects

Process management – an ongoing activity that documents, manages, oversees the use of, and
improves an organization’s chosen methodology (the ―process‖) for system development. Process
management is concerned with phases, activities, deliverables, and quality standards should be
consistently applied to all projects.
Project management is the process of scoping, planning, staffing, organizing, directing, and controlling
a project to develop an information system at a minimum cost, within a specified time frame, and with
acceptable quality.

Justify Information Systems as Capital Investments

Cost-effectiveness -The result obtained by striking a balance between the lifetime costs of developing,
maintaining, and operating an information system and the benefits derived from that system. Cost-
effectiveness is measured by a cost-benefit analysis.
Strategic information systems plan – a formal strategic plan (3-5 years) for building and improving an
information technology infrastructure and the information system applications that use that
infrastructure.
Strategic enterprise plan – a formal strategic plan (3-5 years) for an entire business that defines its
mission, vision, goals, strategies, benchmarks, and measures of progress and achievement. Usually, the
strategic enterprise plan is complemented by strategic business unit plans that define how each
business unit will contribute to the enterprise plan. The information systems plan is one of those unit-
level plans.
 Don’t Be Afraid to Cancel or Revise Scope

Creeping commitment – a strategy in which feasibility and risks are continuously reevaluated
throughout a project. Project budgets and deadlines are adjusted accordingly.
Risk management – the process of identifying, evaluating, and controlling what might go wrong in a
project before it becomes a threat to the successful completion of the project or implementation of the
information system. Risk management is drive by risk analysis or assessment.

Where Do Systems Development Projects Come From?

•Problem – an undesirable situation that prevents the organization from fully achieving its purpose,
goals, and/or objectives.
•Opportunity – a chance to improve the organization even in the absence of an identified problem.
•Directive - a new requirement that is imposed by management, government, or some external
influence.
•Planned Projects
•An information systems strategy plan has examined the business as a whole to identify those system
development projects that will return the greatest strategic (long-term) value to the business
•A business process redesign has thoroughly analyzed a series of business processes to eliminate
redundancy and bureaucracy and to improve efficiency and value added. Not it is time to redesign the
supporting information system for those redesigned business processes.
•Unplanned projects
•Triggered by a specific problem, opportunity, or directive that occurs in the course of doing business.
•Steering committee – an administrative body of system owners and information technology
executives that prioritizes and approves candidate system development projects.
•Backlog – a repository of project proposals that cannot be funded or staffed because they are a lower
priority than those that have been approved for system development.

The PIECES Problem-Solving Framework

P the need to improve performance

I the need to improve information (and data)
E the need to improve economics, control costs, or increase profits
C the need to improve control or security
E the need to improve efficiency of people and processes
S the need to improve service to customers, suppliers, partners, employees, etc.

Project Phases
•FAST - (Framework for the Application of Systems Thinking ) a hypothetical methodology used
throughout this book to demonstrate a representative systems development process.
•Each methodology will use different project phases.
 FAST PROJECT PHASES

Building Blocks View of System Development

SCOPE DEFINITION PHASE

Problem statement – a statement and categorization of problems, opportunities, and directives; may
also include constraints and an initial vision for the solution. Synonyms include preliminary study and
feasibility assessment.

Constraint – any factor, limitation, or restraint that may limit a solution or the problem-solving process.

Scope creep – a common phenomenon wherein the requirements and expectations of a project
increase, often without regard to the impact on budget and schedule.

Statement of work – a contract with management and the user community to develop or enhance an
information system; defines vision, scope, constraints, high-level user requirements, schedule, and
budget. Synonyms include project charter, project plan, and service-level agreement.

REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS PHASE

•What capabilities should the new system provide for its users?
•What data must be captured and stored?
•What performance level is expected?
•What are the priorities of the various requirements?
LOGICAL DESIGN PHASE

Logical design – the translation of business user requirements into a system model that depicts only the
business requirements and not any possible technical design or implementation of those requirements.
Common synonyms include conceptual design and essential design.
System model – a picture of a system that represents reality or a desired reality. System models
facilitate improved communication between syste m users, system analysts, system designers, and
system builders.
Analysis paralysis – a satirical term coined to describe a common project condition in which excessive
system modelling dramatically slows progress toward implementation of the intended system solution.

DECISION ANALYSIS PHASE

•Candidate solutions evaluated in terms of:
•Technical feasibility – Is the solution technically practical? Does our staff have the technical expertise
to design and build this solution?
•Operational feasibility – Will the solution fulfill the users’ requirements? To what degree? How will
the solution change the users’ work environment? How do users feel about such a solution?
•Economic feasibility – Is the solution cost-effective?
•Schedule feasibility – Can the solution be designed and implemented within an acceptable time?
•Risk feasibility – What is the probability of a successful implementation using the technology and
approach

PHYSICAL DESIGN & INTEGRATION PHASE

Physical design – the translation of business user requirements into a system model that depicts a
technical implementation of the users’ business requirements. Common synonyms include technical
design or implementation model.
Two extreme philosophies of physical design
•Design by specification – physical system models and detailed specification are produced as a series of
written (or computer-generated) blueprints for construction.

•Design by prototyping – Incomplete but functioning applications or subsystems (called prototypes) are
constructed and refined based on feedback from users and other designers.

CONSTRUCTION AND TESTING PHASE

•Construct and test system components
•Software
•Purchased
•Custom-built
•Databases
•User and System Interfaces
•Hardware
•Networks

INSTALLATION AND DELIVERY PHASE

•Deliver the system into operation (production)
•Deliver User training
•Deliver completed documentation
•Convert existing data
 System support – the ongoing technical support for users of a system, as well as the maintenance
required to deal with any errors, omissions, or new requirements that may arise.

Cross Life-Cycle Activities

System Operation & Maintenance

Cross life-cycle activity – activities that overlap multiple phases

•Fact-finding - formal process of using research, interviews, meetings, questionnaires, sampling, and
other techniques to collect information about system problems, requirements, and preferences.
•Documentation and presentation
•Documentation – recording facts and specifications for a system for current and future
reference.
•Presentation – communicating findings, recommendations, and documentation for review
by interested users and mangers.
•Repository – database and/or file directory where system developers store all
documentation, knowledge, and artifacts for information systems or project(s).
•Feasibility analysis
•Process and project management

Sequential versus Iterative Development

Waterfall development approach an approach to systems analysis and design that completes each phase one after
another and only once.

Iterative development approach an approach to systems analysis and design that completes the entire
information system in successive iterations. Each iterations does some analysis, some design, and some
construction. Synonyms include incremental and spiral.
Taxonomy for System Development Methodologies & Strategies

MODEL-DRIVEN DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY

Model-driven development – a system development strategy that emphasizes the drawing of system models to
help visualize and analyze problems, define business requirements, and design information systems.
 •Process modeling – a process-centered technique popularized by the structured analysis and design
methodology that used models of business process requirements to derive effective software designs
for a system.
•Data modeling – a data-centered technique used to model business data requirements and design
database systems that fulfill those requirements.
•Object modeling – a technique that attempts to merge the data and process concerns into singular
constructs called objects. Object models are diagrams that document a system in terms of its objects
and their interactions.

Logical vs. Physical Models

Logical model - a pictorial representation that depicts what a system is or does.

Physical model - a technical pictorial representation that depicts what a system is or does and how the
system is implemented.

Model-Driven Development Strategy

Advantages:

•Requirements often more thorough

•Easier to analyze alternatives
•Design specifications often more stable and flexible
•Systems can be constructed more correctly the first time

Disadvantages:

•Time consuming
•Models only as good as users' understanding of requirements
•Reduces users' role because pictures are not software
•Can be Inflexible

Rapid Application Development Strategy

•Rapid application development (RAD) – a system development strategy that emphasizes speed of development
through extensive user involvement in the rapid, iterative, and incremental construction of series of functioning
prototypes of a system that eventually evolves into the final system.
•Prototype – a small-scale, representative, or working model of the users’ requirements or a proposed design for
an information system.
•Time box – the imposition of a non-extendable period of time, usually 60-90 days, by which the first (or next)
version of a system must be delivered into operation.

Rapid Application Development Strategy

Advantages
•User requirements often uncertain or imprecise
•Encourages active user and management participation

•Projects get higher visibility and support

•Stakeholders see working solutions more rapidly
•Errors detected earlier
•Testing and training are natural by-products
•More natural process because change is expected
Disadvantages
•May encourage "code, implement, repair" mentality
•Can solve wrong problem since problem analysis is abbreviated
•May discourage analysts from considering alternatives
•Stakeholders reluctant to throw away prototype
•Emphasis on speed can adversely impact quality

Commercial Application Package Implementation Strategy

•Commercial application package – software application that can be purchased and customized to meet business
requirements of a large number of organizations or specific industry. A synonym is commercial off-the-shelf (COTS)
system.

•Request for proposal (RFP) – formal document that communicates business, technical, and support
requirements for application software package to vendors that may wish to compete for the sale of
application package and services.
•Request for quotation (RFQ) – formal document that communicates business, technical, and support
requirements for an application software package to a single vendor that has been determined as being
able to supply that application package and services.
•Gap analysis – comparison of business and technical requirements for a commercial application
package against capabilities and features of a specific commercial application package to define
requirements that cannot be met.

Commercial Application Package Implementation Strategy

Advantages
•Systems usually implemented more quickly
•Avoids staffing required to develop in-house solutions
•Generally less expensive
•Vendor assumes responsibility for improvements and corrections
•Many business functions more similar than dissimilar for all businesses in a given industry

Disadvantages

•Dependent on long-term viability of vendor

•Rarely reflects ideal solution
•Often resistance to changes business processes to adapt to software

Hybrid Strategies
The PAST routes are not mutually exclusive. Any given project may elect to or be required to use a
combination of, or variation of, more than one route. The route to be used is always selected during the scope
definition phase and is negotiated as part of the statemement of work. One strategy that is commonly applied to
both model-driven and rapid application development routes is an Incremental strategy. Figure below illustrates
one possible implementation of an Incremental strategy in combination with rapid application development. The
project delivers the Information system into operation in four stages. Each stage implements a version of the final
system using a RAD route. Other variations on routes are possible.
SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
System maintenance is intended to guide projects through the operation and support stage of their life
cycle which could last decades! The below illustrated the places system maintenance into perspective, System
maintenance in PAST is not really a unique route. As illustrated in the figure, It is merely a smaller-scale version of
the same PAST process (or route) that was used to originally develop the system. The figure demonstrates that the
starting point for system maintenance depends on the problem to be solved. We call your attention to the
following numbered bullets In the figure:

1 Maintenance and reengineering projects are triggered by some combination of user and technical feedback. Sud,
feedback may identify new problems, opportunities, or directives,
2 The maintenance project is initiated by a SYSTEM CHANGE REQUEST that indicates the problems, opportunities,
or directives.
3 The simplest fixes are SOFTWARE BUGS errors). Such a project typically Jumps right into a reconstruction AND
testing phase and Is solved relatively quickly.

Sometimes a DESIGN FLAW In the system becomes apparent after Implementation. For example, users may
frequently make the same mistake due to a confusing screen design. For this type of maintenance project, the
Physical design and Integration phase would need to be revisited, followed of course by the construction and
delivery phases,

Automated Tools and Technology

Today, entire suites of automated tools have been developed, marketed, and installed to assist systems
developers. While system development methodologies do not always require automated tools, most
methodologies do benefit from such technology. Some of the most commonly cited benefits include:
• Improved productivity-through automation of tasks.
• Improved quality-because automated tools check for completeness, consis-tency, and
contradictions.
• Better and more consistent documentation-because the tools make it easier to create and assemble
consistent high-quality documentation.
• Reduced lifetime maintenance-because of the aforementioned system quality improvements
combined with better documentation,
• Methodologies that really work-through rule enforcement and built-in expertise.

Three classes of automated tools for developers:

1. Computer-aided systems engineering (CASE)
2. Application development environments (ADEs)
3. Process and project managers

Computer-Assisted Software Engineering (CASE)

Computer-aided systems engineering (CASE) –automated software tools that support the drawing and
analysis of system models and associated specifications. Some CASE tools also provide prototyping and code
generation capabilities.
• CASE repository – system developers’ database where developers can store system models, detailed
descriptions and specifications, and other products of system development. Synonyms: dictionary and
encyclopedia.
 • CASE Facilities .To use the repository, the CASE tools provide some combination of the following
facilities.
o Diagramming tools are used to draw the system models required or recom-mended lo most
system development methodologies. Usually, the shapes on one system model can be linked
to otl1er system models and to detailed descriptions (see next item below).
o Dictionary tools are used to record, delete, edit, and output detailed documentation and
specifications. The descriptions can be associated wltl1 shapes appearing on system models
that were drawn with the diagramming tools.
o Design tools can be used to develop mock-ups of system components such as inputs and
outputs. These inputs and outputs can be associated with both the aforementioned system
models and the descriptions.
o Quality management tools analyze system models, descriptions and specifications, and
designs for completeness, consistency, and conformance to accepted rules of the
methodologies.
o Documentation tools are used to assemble, organize, and report on system models,
descriptions and specifications, and prototypes that can be reviewed by system owners,
users, designers, and builders.
o Design and code generator tools automatically generate database design and application
programs or significant portions of those programs.
o Testing tools simulate transactions and data traffic, measure performance, and provide
configuration management of test plans and test scripts.
• Forward engineering – CASE tool capability that can generate initial software or database code
directly from system.
• Reverse engineering – CASE tool capability that can generate initial system models from software
or database code.

Application Development Environments

Application development environments (ADEs) – an integrated software development tool that provides all the
facilities necessary to develop new application software with maximum speed and quality. A common synonym is
integrated development environment (IDE)

ADE facilities may include:

• Programming languages or Interpreters are the heart of an ADE. Powerful debugging

features and assistance are usually provided to help programmers quickly identify and solve
programming problems.
• Interface construction tools help programmers quickly build the user interfaces using a
component library.
• Middleware is software that helps programmers Integrate the software being developed
with various databases and computer networks,
•
 • Testing tools are used to build and execute test scripts that can consistently and thoroughly
test software.
• Version control tools help multiple programmer teams manage multiple ver-sions of a
program, both during development and after implementation, Help authoring tools are used
to write online help systems, user manuals, and online training
• Repository links permit the ADE to Integrate with CASE tool products as well as other ADEs
and development tools,

Process and Project Managers

•Process manager application – an automated tool that helps document and manage a methodology
and routes, its deliverables, and quality management standards. An emerging synonym is methodware.
•Project manager application – an automated tool to help plan system development activities
(preferably using the approved methodology), estimate and assign resources (including people and
costs), schedule activities and resources, monitor progress against schedule and budget, control and
modify schedule and resources, and report project progress.

SUMMARY

A systems development process is a set of activities, methods, best practices, deliverables, and automated
tools that stakeholders use to develop and continuously improve information systems and software.
The capability Maturity Model (CMM) is a framework for assessing the maturity level of an organization's
information systems development and management processes and products. It defines the need for a system
development process.
A system life cycle divides the life of an information system into two stages, systems development and
systems operation and maintenance.
A systems development methodology is a process for the system development stage, It de-fines a set of
activities, methods, best practices, deliverables, and automated tools that systems developers and project
managers are to use to develop and maintain information systems and software.
The following principles should underlie all systems development methodologies:
✓ Get the system users involved.
✓ Use a problem-solving approach.
✓ Establish phases and activities.
✓ Document throughout development.
✓ Establish standards.
✓ Manage the proce55 and projects.
✓ Justify Information systems as capital investments.
✓ Don't be afraid to cancel or revise scope.
✓ Divide and conquer.
✓ Design systems for growth and change.
✓ System development projects are triggered by problems, opportunities, and directives:
✓ Problems are undesirable situations that prevent the organization from full achieving its purpose, goals,
and/or objectives.
✓ Opportunities are chances to improve the organization even in the absence of specific problems.
✓ Directives are new requirements that are im-posed by management, government, or some external
influence.
Wetherbe’s PIECES framework is useful for categorizing problems, opportunities, and directives. The letters
of the PIECES acronym correspond to Performance, Information, Economics, Control, Efficiency, and Service.
 Traditional basic systems development phases include:
✓ Scope definition
✓ Problem analysis
✓ Requirements analysis
✓ Logical design
✓ Decision analysis
✓ Physical design and integration
✓ Construction and testing
✓ installation and delivery
There are different routes through the basic systems development phases. An appropriate route is selected
during the scope definition phase Typical routes include:
✓ Model-driven development strategies
✓ Rapid Application Development (RAD) strategies
✓ Commercial application package implementation strategies
✓ System maintenance, which occurs after a system is implemented and last throughout the system’s
lifetime.
Automated tools support all systems development phases:
✓ Computer-aided systems engineering (CASE) tools
✓ Application development environments (ADEs)
✓ Process management tools help us document and manage a methodology and routes, its
deliverables, and quality management standards.
✓ Project Management Tools