WHEEL SLIP CONTROL FOR ALL-WHEEL DRIVE ELECTRIC VEHICLE

WITH COMPENSATION OF ROAD DISTURBANCES

Valentin Ivanov a*, Dzmitry Savitski a, Klaus Augsburg a, Phil Barber b,

Bernhard Knauder c, Josef Zehetner c

a
Automotive Engineering Group, Ilmenau University of Technology, Ehrenbergstr. 15

98693 Ilmenau, Germany

{valentin.ivanov,dzmitry.savitski,klaus.augsbug}@tu-ilmenau.de
b
Vehicle Capability Research, Jaguar Land Rover Limited, Abbey Road, Whitley,

Coventry CV3 4LF

[email protected]
c
AVL List GmbH, Hans-List-Platz 1, 8020 Graz, Austria

{bernhard.knauder,josef.zehetner}@avl.com

* Corresponding author

Abstract

Development of wheel slip control for ground vehicles with electric powertrain belongs

to the one of the most challenging problems in automotive control engineering. The

realization of the wheel slip control for anti-lock brake (ABS) and traction control (TC)

systems is a more complex task in the case of vehicles designed both for on-road and

off-road conditions. In this situation a control strategy must be able to handle different

tyre-surface contact dynamics. Within this context, the presented paper introduces the

wheel slip control and corresponding ABS algorithm developed for the all-wheel drive

sport utility electric vehicle with four individually controlled on-board motors. The

DOI: 10.1016/j.jterra.2015.06.005
© 2015. This manuscript version is made available under the CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
proposed paper, in particular, includes: Analysis of state-of-the art solutions for off-road

ABS; Description of the developed ABS architecture based on the direct wheel slip

control with predictive and reactive wheel torque contributions; Results of ABS

operation in the vehicle simulator software with special attention given to the braking

on rough surface; Procedure of the system tuning using hardware-in-the-loop technique;

Experimental results of the system testing on the vehicle demonstrator in real

operational conditions. The theoretical and experimental outcomes have confirmed

improved functionality of the developed wheel slip control in terms of vehicle safety

and energy efficiency.

Keywords: slip control, electric vehicle, anti-lock brake system, rough surface, off-road

vehicle

Graphical abstract
Highlights

 Introduction of an anti-lock braking system for full electric vehicle with on-board

motors

 Continuous wheel slip control enhancing vehicle safety at braking

 Pure electric and blended ABS functionality tests

 Disturbance rejection tools compensating the influence of uneven road in ABS

operation

 High ABS performance is confirmed on low-µ, transient and inhomogeneous

surfaces

1. Introduction

Vehicle dynamics control (VDC) systems such as anti-lock braking systems (ABS) or

electronic stability control (ESC), being a mandatory equipment for road cars and

trucks, are receiving nowadays more and more attention in the area of off-road

transportation, e.g. sport utility vehicles (SUV), agricultural machines, military vehicles

etc. First of all, this is caused by permanent strengthening of requirements to the vehicle

safety. An analysis of relevant studies shows a number of corresponding engineering

solutions for off-road vehicle dynamics control. In particular, the rollover and yaw

moment control systems, which are already well-established for the implementation on

passenger cars and commercial trucks, are receiving further enhancements for the

operation in off-road conditions [1-3]. However, it should be mentioned that many

publications in this area address only specific mobility machines like six-wheel drive /

steered vehicles [4-6].

Among other goals, most of VDC systems involve the braking control as an important

functional task. In relation to the off-road mobility, the ABS and the braking control in

general are being investigated now more intensively as before. For instance, recently

published studies in this field introduce the ABS design for ground vehicles operated on

deformable and rough surfaces [7, 8]. Next interesting and important topic is the

integration of the braking and suspension control to improve the off-road mobility and

comfort [9-12]. However, many specific problems like the adaptation of the ABS

control to the operation on rough and deformable surfaces are still not sufficiently

explored in the research publications. Many studies in this field refer to the classical

work of Watanabe and Noguchi [13] investigating the compensation of road

disturbances during the ABS operation. The proposed compensation mechanism is

based on the analysis of sensor-based parameters of wheel dynamics, in particular, the

wheel acceleration. A similar approach has been also discussed in [14], where the rough

road texture is identified by processing of the wheel speed sensor data with high-pass

filters implementing different cut-off frequencies.

The problem of ABS design for a vehicle driving on deformable, uneven or highly

rough surfaces becomes more challenging in the case of an electric powertrain, where

individual wheel motors can operate in the regeneration mode. Specific character of

such configuration is that, on the one hand, electric motors offer improved operating

performance as brake actuators in terms of torque modulation in comparison to friction

brake systems; on the other hand, the ABS implies more complex control architecture

under simultaneous fulfillment of requirements to (i) braking performance, (ii)

regeneration efficiency and (iii) reliable and failsafe operation. The latter requirement

determines that the friction brake system remains on the electric vehicle and should

operate in parallel with the electric motors. Hence, the electric vehicle with individually

controlled wheel motors potentially has several brake modes: pure electric braking (with

the electric motors only); operation of the friction brakes only; combined / blended

braking. However, the analysis of research publications shows that pure electric braking

is rarely investigated, especially in context of serial production vehicles [15].

The listed arguments have motivated the study introduced in the next sections. In

particular, they illustrate the design process of advanced brake control systems for the

ground vehicle (i) operating on rough and deformable surfaces and on roads with

inhomogeneous friction properties and (ii) having four individually controlled electric

motors. The presented work shows both simulation and experimental results in order to

validate the feasibility and functionality of the new method of continuous wheel slip

control for a full electric vehicle with special attention given to the braking mode. The

objectives of the paper are: (i) introduction of the vehicle layout and the wheel slip

controller architecture; (ii) validation and verification of the controller functionality in a

braking mode with the use of model- and hardware in-the-loop (HIL) simulation; (iii)

analysis of experimental results obtained for the vehicle braking in real test conditions

on the proving ground.

2. Vehicle Configuration

The packaging features of a typical sports utility vehicle allows to implement various

configurations of electric powertrain architecture. However, several requirements were

of special importance by specifying the target powertrain discussed in the presented

study: to realize the all-wheel drive and to guarantee required performance both for on-

road and off-road mobility. As a result, individually controlled electric motors for each

wheel are considered for the target vehicle. The technical data of the vehicle and its

main components are:

 Total weight of 2250 kg;

 Four switched reluctance electric motors; peak torque / power (30 sec): 200 Nm

/ 100 kW; nominal torque / power: 135 Nm / 42kW; maximum speed: 15000

min-1;

 Motor transmission - 2-stage reducer with helical gears; gear ratio: 1:10,5; half-

shaft torsional stiffness: 6500 Nm/rad;

 Tyres 235/55R19.

A more detailed description of electric motors and drivetrain components is given in

[16]. Figure 1 shows the vehicle demonstrator and the packaging of powertrain

components.

Although the developed base brake and wheel slip controllers are mainly designed for

the actuation of the electric motors, the safety requirements specify that a conventional

brake system actuating the friction brakes must still be installed on the vehicle. For this

purpose the vehicle demonstrator is equipped with the decoupled electro-hydraulic

brake system based on the TRW Slip Control Boost (SCB) system. Its basic diagram is

depicted on Figure 2. The SCB is coupled with other vehicle subsystems through two

CAN connections. The Vehicle CAN enables embedding the SCB system into the

vehicle architecture. The Private CAN is mainly used for status signals as well as the

pedal travel and wheel speed signals. The single channel pressure control is applied

both for the pure hydraulic and combined regenerative operational modes. The

maximum hydraulic pressure, which can be realized by the SCB, is of 180 bar.

Figure 1: Vehicle demonstrator. Top left: overall view; top right: rear axle with electric

motors; bottom left: view on the front wheel mounting; bottom right: view on battery

pack and on-board control and measurement system.

Figure 2: Architecture of electro-hydraulic brake system [17]

Hence, the wheel slip controller of the vehicle demonstrator can operate in three basic

operational modes: pure electric, pure hydraulic and combined / blended braking.

Further variations are possible by applying the modes independently to the front or rear

axle of the vehicle (e.g. the pure electric braking on the front axle and the combined

braking on the rear axle). The corresponding controller architecture is discussed in next

section.
3. Wheel Slip Controller

3.1. General description

The described vehicle configuration has allowed to propose the following structure of

an integrated wheel slip controller, which is able to realize both traction control (TC),

Figure 3, and ABS, Figure 4, functions.

Figure 3: Wheel slip controller - TC mode

Figure 4: Wheel slip controller - ABS mode

Both for the ABS and TC mode, the controller consists in general from feedforward

(predictive) and feedback (reactive) control parts. In accordance with Figures 3 and 4,

the feedforward part defines firstly the overall wheel torque demand Tdem based on (i)

dynamics of the driver actuation Fdriver on the acceleration or brake pedal and (ii)

estimated values of the wheel load Fz and the tyre-road friction coefficient µ max_est. Then

the Tdem value is saturated resulting in the predictive torque Tpred:

Tdem  µmax Fz r  k pred  µmax Fz r  , (1)

min Tdem _ prim,Tdem  if Tdem _ prim  0


max Tdem _ prim,Tdem  if Tdem _ prim  0
Tpred   , (2)
where µ max is the estimated value of maximum friction coefficient, Fz is the estimated

normal wheel load, r is the tyre rolling radius, kpred is the correction coefficient. The

correction coefficient kpred is individually defined for each axle of the vehicle and

required to prevent insufficient acceleration or deceleration level in the traction or

braking modes respectively. The preliminary torque demand Tdem_prim is calculated from

a lookup table composed from experimental data of the vehicle testing.

The feedback part includes the reactive torque controller computed in accordance with

the proportional-integral control law:

 react   PI  driver _ dem , (3)

where PI is the proportional-integral control demand, driver_dem is the correction factor.

The correction factor is required to saturate the reactive torque in order to track the

driver demand and to prevent generation of wrong torques. The proportional part of the

controller is the function of the vehicle velocity:

 P  K P Vx  min  0, e  , (4)

and the integral part is computed as:

 I  K I Vx , mode  min  0, e   Tdem _ wheel sat  e  I , (5)

where the coefficient  is the modification factor to define the changing rate of the

integral part, Tdem_wheel is the torque demand for the controlled wheel. The variable e in

Eqs. (4) and (5) defines the control error. The saturation of the control error is effected

in the following way:

1, max(0, e)   e
sat  e   
e, max(0, e)   e
, (6)

where e is a saturation variable. The variable e was set to 0.02 in most of test cases

introduced in next sections.

On the next step, the predictive Tpred and reactive Treact torques are combined. For

traction mode, the controller block "Torque Limitations" generates the torque demand

for electric motors Tem_dem with consideration of velocity-related, thermal and other

operational boundaries. For a braking mode, the torque demand is produced for electric

motors Tem_dem and friction brakes Tbr_dem in the control block "Torque Blending". The

corresponding brake blending algorithm takes into account the demanded deceleration

level, safety limitations, road friction, and is based on the methodology explained in

[17]. The output torques of the electric motors Tem and the friction brakes Tbr are then

applied to the wheels of the vehicle in order to realize individual wheel torque control.

The individual wheel torques Tw together with the longitudinal vehicle acceleration ax

and wheels' velocities Vw measured by on-board sensors are used in the observers of the

actual slip ratio  for each wheel and the longitudinal vehicle velocity Vx which is

required for the reactive torque controller.

Several other inherent parts of the wheel slip controller like slip target adaptation or the

procedure of gain scheduling are not discussed here but given in the previous work of

authors [18]. However, it is important to introduce the modification of the control

process for the case of driving on uneven, rough or substantially inhomogeneous

surface.

3.2. Controller modification for off-road conditions

The wheel slip control in off-road conditions, especially in the braking mode, belongs to

a rarely investigated area. Most of the known solutions for industrial ABS as well as

relevant patent documents propose to deactivate the ABS functions when the system

detects considerable road unevenness. This can be considered as a measure to avoid a

wrong ABS operation caused mainly by difficulties in the calculation of correct wheel

slip values because the wheel velocity sensors can produce critical oscillatory signals in

such road conditions. The developed wheel slip controller proposes an alternative

approach utilizing the ABS functionality even during the off-road driving. This

approach is based on the desensitization technique introduced in the following part of

this paper.

The idea behind the desensitization mechanism is to reduce gradually the generated

reactive torque for the wheel that is driving in off-road conditions or over the rough

surface. It is done to prevent a failure activation and improper operation of TC and

ABS. The desensitization factor Kdesens is calculated individually for four wheels each

and applied to the reactive torque Treact as follows:

 TTC _ i K desens _ i , Tpred _ i  0

Treact _ i  
TABS _ i K desens _ i , Tpred _ i  0
, (7)

where the index i corresponds to the wheel position, the indices TC and ABS relate to the

traction or braking operational modes correspondingly.

The proposed approach covers different road conditions and implies desensitization of

several types. The simplest controller modification consists of the road roughness

identification and the desensitization of the wheel slip control functions in accordance to

the switch algorithm. The desensitization factor can be calculated as follows:

 , I r _ i  thdesens
K desens _ i  
1
 K desens _ ctrl , I r _ i  thdesens
, (8)

where Ir_i is the road roughness index, thdesens is the activation threshold , Kdesens_act is the

value of the desensitization factor after activation. In such a case the recognition of the

rough road through calculation of the roughness index Ir_i and its comparison with the

activation threshold thdesens system can reduce the reactive torque and provide better

traction and braking performance. In particular, drivability characteristics can be also

improved through the reduction of wheel oscillations.

As soon as the cruise control at low velocities can be involved in the off-road

conditions, it is proposed to consider velocity tracking error errorVx by the calculation of

the desensitization factor, which is derived in this particular case as:

Kdesens _ i    errorVx  (9)

The effectiveness of the presented control approaches will be demonstrated further for

rough road conditions and for the terrapod maneuver consisting of three specific road

sections.

4. Functional Validation of Wheel Slip Controller using MIL and HIL Technique

4.1. Off-line simulation of wheel slip controller

The procedure of the functional validation of the wheel slip controller before its

hardware implementation on the vehicle includes two preliminary stages, namely, the

model-in-the-loop (MIL) off-line simulation and the hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) real-

time tests. The target of initial MIL off-line simulation is the choice of proportional and

integral gains of the reactive torque controller and implementation of the gain

scheduling mechanism to the system considering the noise and delays in signals from

the wheel speed sensors. For this purpose, the vehicle simulator was developed in the

IPG CarMaker software and subjected to the virtual braking tests. The tyre model is

represented by Pacejka’s Magic Formula 5.2 and is available in the IPG CarMaker. The
transient tyre model for longitudinal dynamics has been also considered. The model was

parameterized according to the experimental data for the target vehicle.

The proportional and integral gains were initially defined from analysis of the

modelling results and corrected using optimization procedures. The cost function for the

optimization of gains in a braking mode of the controller is defined as

J  0.6  0.3  0.1

max  sdist  max  ITAE  max  RMSE 
sdist ITAE RMSE
, (10)

where sdist is the braking distance, ITAE is the integral of time-weighted-absolute-error

of longitudinal slip, and RMSE is the recursive mean square error of longitudinal slip.

The variables ITAE and RMSE are calculated as

ITAE   t ref   dt ,
T
(11)
0

RMSE    ref    dt , (12)

T
1 2

T0

where T is the duration time of a maneuver.

The optimization of the gains for the traction control mode involves the already

mentioned parameters ITAE and RMSE in combination with the total variance of the

control demand, settling time for the front and rear wheels tst, the maximum slip during
acceleration maneuver max, and the maximum velocity during acceleration maneuver

Vmax.

For the simulation studies several test scenarios have been applied including surfaces

with different friction conditions, µ-transition tests on the flat surface, uphill and

downhill sections with variable friction condition areas as well as the terrapod sections.

Both different vehicle velocities and longitudinal acceleration values have been applied

during the modelling in order to find an optimal controller setup and to evaluate the

control functionality.

4.2. Investigations on off-road functionality of wheel slip controller using HIL tests

An important step between simulation and road experiments is the preliminary

functional validation of the controller using the hardware-in-the-loop test procedure.

The dSPACE HIL setup [17] was used for this purpose. It consists of real hardware

components of the friction brakes and the brake system from Figure 2, which are

connected with the software vehicle simulator in IPG CarMaker. Figure 5 shows the

main component of the experimental setup. The core HIL test rig is based on dSPACE

modular platform with several components responsible for the data acquisition, control

of the brake system and communication with the vehicle simulator in IPG CarMaker.

The hardware part of the test rig includes also a decoupled electro-hydraulic brake

system. A set of pressure sensors enables the measurement of the brake pressure in the

master cylinder and at four brake calipers each. Other vehicle subsystems, the multi-
body vehicle model, the road profile model, and the vehicle dynamics controller are

modelled in MATLAB/Simulink and implemented in IPG CarMaker.

Figure 5: Hardware-in-the-loop test rig architecture

To give an illustrative example, Figure 6 introduces the results obtained for the HIL

tests of the vehicle braking from 60 km/h on low-friction road with the reference slip

value ref=0.04. It can be seen that both precise tracking of the reference slip and proper

distribution of the total torque between the friction and electric brakes were achieved

with taking into account the real-time actuator dynamics. In general, the HIL tests

confirmed that the selected controller gains ensure the required functionality of the
wheel slip controller and were used as a baseline for the further road tests with the

vehicle demonstrator.

Figure 6: Example of HIL test plots for braking on low-friction surface from 60 km/h
Further HIL tests were required to verify the desensitization algorithm on the rough

road and in off-road conditions. For this purpose, a specific rough road profile was

emulated in IPG Car Maker, Figure 7, and used for the HIL brake tests. It is assumed

that the rough road has to be recognized by the system from the initial time point of the

maneuver. The desensitization factor Kdesens from Eqs. (7)-(9) is set in the range from

0.1 to 1.0 with the step of 0.1 for every HIL test. From definition of the desensitization

factor, "0" corresponds to the deactivation of the wheel slip control functions and "1"

corresponds to the full use of the reactive torque. Figure 8 shows wheel speed profiles

received from the simulation of the braking on the rough surface. It can be seen that the

stopping time, Figure 9, is significantly influenced by the wheels vibration due to the

interference of the road profile oscillations and operation of the slip controller. Here

shorter braking distances correspond to the desensitization factor values up to 0.4.

Therefore, it was confirmed that the application of the desensitization factor in the

wheel slip controller can simultaneously enhance the braking performance and reduce

wheel oscillations.

Of special interest is the benchmarking of the desensitization factor generation variants

in accordance with Eq. (8) and (9). To this end, additional HIL tests were performed for

the complex terrapod maneuver composed from three sections. In accordance with

Figure 10, section "A" consists of walking holes and allows to assess the slip controller

ability to transfer torque to the wheels in better friction conditions. Section "B" has a

side slope and allows to evaluate the vehicle stability on a surface with certain degree of

inclination. Finally, section "C" has so-called up and over segments with initial grade of

25° and is required to evaluate the vehicle ability to cope with up- and downhill motion.
Figure 7: Specific rough road profile in IPG CarMaker environment

Figure 8: Wheel speed profile at different desensitization factors

Figure 9: Braking time at different desensitization factors

Figure 10: Terrapod proving ground. Sections: A – walking holes; B – side slope; C –

up and over.

In addition, the terrapod maneuver obligates the system to keep very low vehicle

velocity. For the HIL test cases, the reference speed value is set to 7 km/h and the

driving in these conditions is consecutively simulated for (i) the constant desensitization
factor, (ii) the desensitization factor scheduled by the vehicle velocity (see Eq. (9)), and

(iii) the standard slip controller configuration without desensitization. It should be

emphasized that the wheel slip controller operation both in traction and braking mode is

required for the terrapod maneuver depending on the test section and slip conditions of

individual wheels. Performance of the controller is assessed through the ability of the

vehicle to track the reference velocity and expressed as the velocity-related root mean

square error. For the first set of tests, ABS is switched off to evaluate the performance

of TC with different desensitization strategies. As depicted in Figure 11, the best results

in terms of velocity tracking are achieved when the desensitization factor is scheduled

by the velocity error. The application of desensitization factor in the braking mode is

investigated in a similar way. In this case the traction controller is used as for the

normal driving mode. Figure 12 indicates that the variant with scheduled ABS

desensitization factor shows the best performance in terms of the velocity tracking.

Comparing the proposed desensitization strategy with the cases of the regular wheel slip

control functions, it can be seen that the best performance is achieved with operated TC

and ABS parts of the wheel slip controller and activated velocity scheduling, Figure 13.

Hence, the HIL tests with different desensitization strategies have confirmed the initial

hypothesis that the velocity-scheduled reduction of the reactive torque can effectively

minimize the wheel oscillations and the vehicle stopping distance by driving on the

rough surface. Generally, all the conducted HIL tests allowed to perform a final

parameter adjustment of the wheel slip controller before its implementation on the

vehicle demonstrator.
Figure 11: Traction control desensitization factor scheduling

Figure 12: Anti-lock braking system desensitization factor scheduling

Figure 13: Traction control and anti-lock braking system desensitization factor

scheduling. FWD - front wheel drive configuration; AWD - all-wheel drive

configuration; VC - velocity control

5. Experimental Investigations of Wheel Slip Controller Functionality

The results of simulation and HIL procedures, described in previous sections, allowed

to proceed with experimental tests on the vehicle demonstrator in proving ground

conditions, Figure 14. Within the framework of the presented paper, experimental

testing of the wheel slip controller in the ABS mode for several particular maneuvers is

discussed. Additional results are described in previous works of authors and illustrate

the wheel slip control operation for different brake system configurations [19], for

maneuvers with the variation of tyre inflation pressure [20], and for transient processes

[21], confirming required system robustness.

Figure 14: Vehicle demonstrator

The discussed test procedure includes braking on low-friction surface with pure electric

ABS on the front axle. The low-friction surface is constituted by basalt tiles, which are

continuously moistened by the sprinkler system during the vehicle trials. The surface is

inhomogeneous and has the friction coefficient µ~0.2 [20]. As it can be seen on Figure

15, the pure electric ABS with the developed wheel slip controller guarantees accurate

tracking of the desired reference slip ratio ref during the whole braking maneuver (ref

is set up as 0.05 based on experimental data for the inhomogeneous test surface). It

means that the wheels are working in the area of maximum tyre-surface friction forces

and the braking distance can be reduced.

Another advantage of the presented approach consists in realization of the maximum

possible deceleration level during the braking maneuver. It leads to the significant

reduction of jerk and as consequence improves the driver perception of the vehicle. The

vehicle deceleration has reached a level of 0.14g at the end of the maneuver. It is

correlating to present road friction conditions, especially taking into consideration an

inhomogeneous character of the surface and inactive brakes on the rear axle.

Figure 15: ABS braking on inhomogeneous low-friction road from 40 km/h

Hence, the functionality of the developed wheel slip controller has been successfully

proven for braking on an inhomogeneous, rough surface. The derived results

demonstrate huge potential in utilization of the developed system and algorithm in off-
road conditions. In particular, it can reduce the stopping distance and increase the

energy efficiency for such functionalities.

6. Conclusions

The results of the presented simulation and experimental investigations have

demonstrated the feasibility of efficient wheel slip control for the off-road electric

vehicle, where the continuous ABS and TC functions are realized through the individual

control of drivetrain / motor torques for each wheel. Another important conclusion

relates to the fact that the enhanced dynamic properties of on-board electric motors

allows the implementation of continuous wheel torque control enabling effective

tracking of the reference wheel slip at a less oscillatory vehicle acceleration/deceleration

profile in comparison to conventional ABS/TC systems.

Acknowledgement

The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union

Seventh Framework Program FP7/2007-2013 under grant agreement no. 284708.

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