CIT 213: ELEMENTARY DATA PROCESSING

1
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

COURSE CODE: CIT 213

COURSE TITLE: ELEMENTARY DATA PROCESSING

2
CO URSE
GUIDE

CIT 213

ELEMENTARY DATA PROCESSING

Course Developer: Dr. Ikhu-Omoregbe N. A.

Course Reviewer: Dr. Olufunke Rebecca Vincent

National Open University of Nigeria

3
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
91, Cadestral Zone,
Nnamdi Azikwe Express Way,
Jabi, Abuja.
Nigeria.

National Open University of Nigeria

Lagos Office
14/16AhmaduBelloWay
VictoriaIsland
Lagos

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

National Open University of Nigeria 2020

First Printed 2008

ISBN

All Rights Reserved

It was printed by.

National Open University of Nigeria

4
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction..............................................................................
What you will learn in this Course.....................................
Course Aims...............................................................................
Course Objectives......................................................................
Working through this Course....................................................
Course Materials...........................................................................
Study Units ...............................................................................
Textbooks and References ........................................................
Assignment File........................................................................
Presentation Schedule...............................................................
Assessment......................................................................
Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs) .......................................
Examination and Grading..................................................
Course Marking Scheme............................................................

Course Overview

How to Get the Best from This Course ............................

Tutors and Tutorials ..................................................................
Summary ................................................................................ -
11Fig ure 1

5
Introduction
CIT 213 Elementary Data Processing is a two (2) credit unit course of sixteen units. It deals with
the fundamentals concepts of data processing, essential components of computer systems, data
processing personnel, file access, and organization techniques. Also, it deals with the tools for
developing data processing applications and provides an overview of Visual Basic Language and
Structured Query Language. Sample programs and queries are provided to enable the students to
acquire the necessary skills for solving real-life problems. The study material provides adequate
background information that is relevant for students pursuing a career in data processing or related
disciplines. The course is divided into four modules:

Module 1 introduces the basic concepts of data processing, explains the meaning of data,
Information and data processing. A detailed description of the computer hardware and
software components required for data processing is covered. The various input and output
devices such as pointing devices, pen-based devices, optical character recognition, printers,
plotters, etc. and their suitability for data processing are explained.

Module 2 provides information on data storage devices and the parameters for disk performance.
File access and organization techniques - serial, sequential, indexed-sequential, and random file
organization are covered in this module. Besides, students will learn data processing techniques
such as Batch processing, online Processing, Transaction Processing, Real-time Systems, and
Distributed processing.

Module 3 begins with database processing, the meaning of database, components of a database, and
database models. For example, a relational database, hierarchical database, network database, an
object-oriented database, is explained. Data processing personnel are covered. Besides, tools for
developing data processing applications such as programming languages, report generators,
computer-aided software engineering, query languages, etc. are covered in this module.

Module 4 provides an overview of Visual Basic (VB) language and Structure Query Language
(SQL). The fundamental concepts of visual and event-driven programming are covered. The
student will learn how to write simple programs that respond to events Control structure, arrays, file
processing, and how to use the print statements are covered. Also, the students will learn how to
write simple SQL queries by using the CREATE, SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE
commands. This course aims to equip the learners with essential information and understanding of
data processing concepts as well as acquiring the relevant skills to manage and implement data
processing systems. At the end of the course, students would have gained the appropriate
knowledge and acquired the skills to manage the data processing department of any organization
effectively.

6
 This Course Guide gives a brief overview of the course content, course duration, and course
materials.

What will students learn in this course?

The primary purpose of this course is to provide the required knowledge and business
programming skills for the students to effectively data processing systems and manage the data
processing department of an organization. The basic concepts of data processing, computer
systems required for data processing, data processing personnel, tools for developing data
processing applications, and basic programming skills are covered in this study material. This,
we intend to achieve through the following:

Course Aims
The aims of this course are to:

(i) Explain the concepts, systems, personnel, tools for data processing
(ii) Describe data processing techniques
(iii) Acquire skills for developing, implementing and managing data processing systems or
department

Course Objectives

Specific objectives have been set out to ensure that the course achieves its aims. Apart from the
course objectives, every unit of this course has set objectives. In the course of the study at the end of
each unit, the objectives would have been met. By the end of this course students should be able to:

(i) Explain the meaning of data, information, and data processing;

(ii) Identify and describe the essential hardware components of a computer system;
(iii) Describe some software used for data processing;
(iv) Explain file access and organization techniques;
(v) Describe batch processing, real-time processing, transaction processing, etc.;
(vi) Explain the meaning of Database Management Systems and Database Model;
(vii) Describe various tools for developing data processing applications;
(viii) Explain the concept of visual and event-driven programming;
(ix) Write simple Visual Basic programs;
(x) Write SQL statements

Working through This Course

To have a thorough understanding of the course units, students will need to read and understand the
contents, practice what they have learnt by studying the network of the organization, or proposing
one if there is none in existence and be committed to learning and implementing the knowledge.

This course is designed to cover approximately sixteen weeks, and it will require a devoted
attention. Students should do the exercises in the Tutor-Marked Assignments and submit to the
tutors.

7
 Course Materials

These include:
1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Recommended Texts
4. A file for your assignments and for records to monitor your progress.

Study Units

There are sixteen study units in this course:

Module1

Unit 1 INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE OF DATA PROCESSING

Unit 2 BASIC HARDWARE COMPONENTS AND MEMORY CAPACITY MEASUREMENT
Unit 3 BASIC SOFTWARE FOR DATA PROCESSING
Unit 4 DATA CAPTURING AND REPORTING DEVICES

Module 2

Unit 1 DATA STORAGE DEVICES

Unit 2 FILE ORGANIZATION
Unit 3 DATA PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Unit 4 TRADITIONAL FILE SYSTEM PROCESSING

Module 3

Unit 1 DATABASE PROCESSING

Unit 2 DATA PROCESSING PERSONNEL
Unit 3 TOOLS FOR CREATING DATA PROCESSING APPLICATION
Unit 4 VISUAL AND EVENT PROGRAMMING

Module 4
Unit 1 CONTROL STRUCTURE AND STRING PROCESSING
Unit 2 ARRAYS AND PRINTING
Unit 3 FILE PROCESSING
Unit 4 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Make use of the course materials, do the exercises to enhance your learning.

Textbooks and References

Alexis Leon and Matthew Leon, Fundamental of Information Technology, L & L Consultancy Services Pvt.
Ltd, 1999

ITL Education Solutions Limited, Introduction to Information Technology, 2nd Edition, Pearson Education
India, 2012, ISBN: 9789332525146

Introduction to Computers and Information Technology, 2nd edition, Pearson, 2015, ISBN-13:
9781323237120

8
Brain K. Williams, and Stacey C. Sawyer, Using Information Technology, A practical Introduction to
Computers and Communications, McGraw Hill, 2005, N.Y

Eric Frick, Information Technology Essentials Volume 1: Introduction to Information Systems, Volume 1 of
Information Technology Essentials Series, Amazon Digital Services LLC - KDP Print US, 2019,
ISBN:1708175148, 9781708175146

Carl Hamacher, Zvonko Vranesic, Safwat Zaky, Computer Organization, Fifth Edition, McGraw-Hill
Higher Education, N.Y, 2002

David C. Kreines, Oracle SQL, O Reilly, USA, 2000

Gerald V. Post, Database Management Systems, Designing, and Building Business Applications, Third
Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2005

George Beekman, Eugene J. Rathswohl, Computer Confluence, Exploring Tomorrow’s Technology, IT

Edition, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 2003

Jan L. Harrington, SQL Clearly Explained, Morgan Kaumann Publisher, An Imprint of Elsevier
Science, 2003, USA

Steve Tale, SQL: The Ultimate Beginners Guide: Learn SQL Today, CreateSpace Independent
Publishing Platform, 2016, ISBN 1533604568, 9781533604569

Dusan Petkovic, Microsoft SQL Server 2016: A Beginner's Guide, Sixth Edition, 6th Edition, McGraw-
Hill 2016, ISBN: 9781259641800

Linda Null, Julia Lobur, The Essentials of Computer Organization and Architecture
Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2006 – Computers.

Jeffery L. Whitten, Lonnie D. Bentley, Kevin C. Dittman, Systems Analysis and Design Methods,
McGraw Hill, New York, 2004,

Julia Case Bradley, Anita C. Millspaugh, Programming in Visual Basic 6.O, McGraw-Hill Higher
Education, 2002

Management Information Systems, Organization, and Technology in the Kenneth C. Laudon, Jane P.
Laudon, Prentice Hall International, Inc, 2000

Greg Perry and Dean Miller, C Programming Absolute Beginner's Guide, 3rd Edition, Que Publishing
2014.

Yuksel Uckan, Problem Solving Using C, Structured Programming Techniques

McGraw-Hill International Editions, 1999

R. G. Anderson, Data Processing, Volume 1: Principles and Practice, Pitman Publishing, Singapore,
1990

http://computer.howstuffworks.com/hard-disk7.htm

9
Assignments File
These are of two types: the self-assessment exercises and the Tutor-Marked Assignments. The self-
assessment exercises will enable you to monitor your performance by yourself, while the Tutor-
Marked Assignment is supervised. The assignments take a certain percentage of your total score in
this course. Your tutor will assess the Tutor-Marked Assignments within a specified period. The
examination at the end of this course will aim at determining the level of mastery of the subject
matter. This course includes seventeen Tutor-Marked Assignments, and each must be done and
submitted accordingly. Your best scores, however, will be recorded for you. Be sure to send these
assignments to your tutor before the deadline to avoid the loss of marks.

Presentation Schedule

The Presentation Schedule included in the course materials contains the important dates for the
completion of tutor marked assignments and attending tutorials. Students are required to submit all
the assignments by the due date. Please guard against lagging behind in your work.

Assessment

There are two aspects to the assessment of the course. First are the tutor marked assignments;
second, is a written examination.

In tackling the assignments, you are expected to apply the information and knowledge acquired
during this course. The assignments must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment
following the deadlines stated in the Assignment File. The work you submit to your tutor for
assessment will count for 30% of your total course mark.

At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final three-hour examination. This will also count
for 70% of your total course mark.

Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAS)

There are seventeen tutors marked assignments in this course. You need to submit all the
assignments. The total marks for the best four (4) assignments will be 30% of your total course
mark.

Assignment questions for the units in this course are contained in the Assignment File. You should
be able to complete your assignments from the information and materials contained in your set
textbooks, reading, and study units. However, you may wish to use other references to broaden
your viewpoint and provide a deeper understanding of the subject.

When you have completed each assignment, send it together with the form to your tutor. Make sure
that each assignment reaches your tutor on or before the deadline given. If, however, you cannot
complete your work on time, contact your tutor before the assignment is done to discuss the
possibility of an extension.

Examination and Grading

The final examination for the course will carry 70% of the total marks available for this course.
The examination will cover every aspect of the course, so you are advised to revise all your
corrected assignments before the examination.

This course endows you with the status of a teacher and that of a learner. This means that you teach
yourself and that you learn, as your learning capabilities would allow. It also means that you are in
a better position to determine and to ascertain the what, the how, and the when of your course

10
learning. No teacher imposes any method of learning on you. The course units are similarly
designed with the introduction following the table of contents, then a set of objectives and then the
concepts and so on. The objectives guide you as you go through the units to ascertain your
knowledge of the required terms and expressions.

Course Marking Scheme

This table shows how the actual course marking is broken down.

Table 1: Course Marking Scheme

Assessment Marks
Assignment 1- 4 Four assignments, best three marks of the at
30% of course marks
Final Examination 70% of overall course marks
Total 100% of course marks

Table 2: Course Overview

Unit Title of Work Weeks Activity Assessment
(End of Unit)
Course Guide Week 1
Module 1
1 Introduction and Scope of Data Week 1 Assignment 1
Processing
2 Basic Hardware Components and Week 2 Assignment 2
Memory
3 Capacity Measurement Week 3 Assignment 3
4 Basic Software for Data Processing Week 4 Assignment 4
Module 2
1 Data Storage Devices Week 5 Assignment 5
2 File Organization Week 6 Assignment 6
3 Data Processing Techniques Week 7 Assignment 7
4 Traditional File System Processing Week 8 Assignment 8
Module 3
1 DataBase Processing Week 9 Assignment 9
2 Data Processing Personnel Week 10 Assignment 10
3 Tools for Creating Data Processing Week 11 Assignment 11
Application
4 Visual and Event Programming Week 12 Assignment 12
Module 4
1 Control Structure and String Week 13 Assignment 13
Processing
2 Array and Printing Week 14 Assignment 14
3 File Processing Week 15 Assignment 15
4 Structured Query Language (SQL) Week16 Assignment 16

Revision Week 16
Examination Week 17
TOTAL 17 weeks

11
How to get the best from this course

In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecturer. This is one of the great
advantages of distance learning; you can read and work through specially designed study materials
at your own pace and at a time and place that suits you best. Think of it as reading the lecture
instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way that a lecturer might set you some reading to do,
the study units tell you when to read your set books or other material. Just as a lecturer might give
you an in-class exercise, your study units provide exercises for you to do at appropriate points.
Each of the study units follows a standard format. The first item is an introduction to the subject
matter of the unit and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a
whole. Next is a set of learning objectives. These objectives enable you to know what you should
be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. You should use these objectives to guide
your study. When you have finished the units, you must go back and check whether you have
achieved the objectives. If you make a habit of doing this, you will significantly improve your
chances of passing the course.
Remember that your tutor’s job is to assist you. When you need help, don’t hesitate to call and ask
your tutor to provide it.
1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly.
2. Organize a study schedule. Refer to the Course Overview for more details. Note the time you
are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments relate to the units. Whatever method
you chose to use, you should decide on it and write in your dates for working on each unit.

3. Once you have created your study schedule, do everything you can to stick to it. The primary
reason that students fail is that they lag in their course work.

4. Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit.

5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a unit is given in the
overview at the beginning of each unit. You will almost always need both the study unit you are
working on and one of your sets of books on your desk at the same time.

6. Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been arranged to provide a sequence
for you to follow. As you work through the unit, you will be instructed to read sections from your
set books or other articles. Use the unit to guide your reading.

7. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have achieved them. If you feel
unsure about any of the objectives, review the study material, or consult your tutor.

8. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit s objectives, you can then start on the
next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you keep
yourself on schedule.

9. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not wait for its return
before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned, pay
particular attention to your tutor s comments, both on the tutor-marked assignment form and
also written on the assignment. Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you have any questions
or problems.

10. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the final
examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of
each unit) and the course objectives (listed in this Course Guide).

12
Tutors and Tutorials

There are 12 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You will be notified of the dates,
times, and location of these tutorials, together with the name and phone number of your tutor, as
soon as you are allocated a tutorial group.

Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your progress, and
on any difficulties you might encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You must
mail or submit your tutor-marked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least two
working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as
possible.

Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone or e-mail if you need help. The following might
be circumstances in which you would find the necessary support. Contact your tutor if:

• you do not understand any part of the study unit s or the assigned readings,
• you have difficulty with the self-tests or exercises,
• you have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutor s comments on
an assignment or with the grading of a project.

You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to have face to face contact
with your tutor and to ask questions which are answered instantly. You can raise any problem
encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course tutorials,
prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating in discussions
actively.

Summary

Elementary Data processing provides knowledge and skill for data processing. The skills you need
to manage and implement the data processing system are expected to be acquired in this course.
The content of the course material was planned and written to ensure that you receive the proper
knowledge and skills to solve real-life data processing problems. Fundamental programming
principles are taught. The sample programs provided are for you to develop your programming
skills.

13
Course CIT 213
Code

Course Title Elementary Data Processing

Course Developer: Dr. Olufunke R. Vincent

Course Editor

Course Co-ordinator :
National Open University of Nigeria
Lagos.

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

14
National Open University of Nigeria
Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Annex
245 Samuel Adesujo Ademulegun Street
Central Business District
Opposite Arewa Suites
Abuja

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

National Open University of Nigeria 2008

First Printed 2008

ISBN

All Rights Reserved

It was printed by
For
National Open University of Nigeria

15
 MODULE 1
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE OF DATA PROCESSING

Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Text
3.1 Data and Information
3.2 Electronic Data Processing Systems
3.3 The Scope of Data Processing System
3.4 Computer Systems
3.4.1 Computer Generation
3.4.2 Analog and Digital Computer
3.4.2.1 Analog Computers
3.4.2.2 Digital Computers
3.5 The Basic Operations of Computing
3.6 Benefits of Using Computer in Business
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction
The word data refers to raw facts about and object. Data is meaningless until it is subjected to
manual or electronic processing by a computer to produce information used for decision making.
Computers are used to process data because of their speed, reliability, and other functionalities
they offer. Their sizes, types can distinguish computers and generation.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Define and explain the terms; data and information
• Describe a computer system
• Explain the meaning of data processing
• Distinguish between the different types of computer
• Describe the basic operations of a computer
• List some benefits of using the computer in business

3.1 Data and Information

Data exist in a variety of forms, such as numbers or text on pieces of paper, as bytes in computer
memory or as facts stored in a person's mind. Data is the plural form of the word datum and refers
to basic facts about an object. An object refers to a person, place, or thing. Data consist of
numbers, words, images, etc. Data is meaningless until it undergoes some forms of processing.
The outcome of processed data is information. Although the word data and information are often
used interchangeably, there is an essential distinction between them. In the strictest sense, data
consist of the raw number that computers process to produce information. Data can be looked at as
facts out of context. Table 1 captures basic facts about an enrolled student of the National Open
University of Nigeria. The data items consisting of Matriculation Number, Name, School,
Department, Centre, Banker, Status, and e-Email are used to hold the student's details.

16
 Table 1: Student Registration

S/no Data item Actual Detail or value

1 Matriculation Number NOU050010999
2 Name Adebayo, Musa, Ada
3 School 14th April 1970
4 Department Nigerian
5 Centre Male
6 Status Student
7 Email National Open University
Similarly, a commercial bank may request the following data before the same student can operate
an account or enjoy some banking services.

Table 2: Students Account

S/no Data item Actual Detail or value
1 Matriculation Number NOU050010999
2 Name Adebayo, Musa, Ada
3 Date of Birth 14th April 1970
4 Nationality Nigerian
5 Sex Male
6 Occupation Student
7 School National Open University

The details of this student (Adebayo Musa, Ada), if treated independently, may not have specific
meanings until it is subjected to some manual or computerized processing. A human or input may
further process the raw data in the tables into a computer, stored, processed, and transmitted
(output) to another human or a computer. A typical data processing function will be to locate a
student record or data from a large file-based on matriculation numbers. If this is to be carried out
manually, a lot of time and effort will be required by the data processing personnel.

When the method of data processing is manual, it is called manual data processing. On the other
hand, when the method of processing is electronic, we refer to it as electronic data processing.
Computers are used to turn meaningless data by processing them into useful information, such as
spreadsheets, graphs, and reports. Information is defined as either a meaningful answer to a query
or a significant stimulus that can cascade into further queries. For example, with the data in
table1 and table 2, the bank official may be interested in the number of students from each
school that has subscribed to a particular service its offers. In which case, a query will be run on
the existing database. The result of the query will provide information that will help the
management of the bank to discontinue or continue with the service. Some characteristics of
information are relevance, accuracy, conciseness, timeliness, and completeness.

3.2 Electronic Data Processing Systems

Electronic Data Processing (EDP) is any computer automated process that converts raw facts.
Data into useful information through a well-defined procedure. Data becomes more useful only
when they have undergone some computer processing and well-presented to allow for decision
making. Data processing systems have become indispensable in managing information in modern-
day organizations. In recent times, data processing systems are often referred to as information
systems to highlight their practicality. All the same, both terms are more or less the same,
performing similar functions; data processing systems typically manipulate raw figures into
information, and likewise, information systems usually take raw statistics as input to generate

17
useful information as output. In many organizations, these systems exist as payroll systems, sales
and marketing systems, finance and accounting systems, manufacturing and production system,
human resources systems, University management systems, etc.

Also, the term data processing can apply to any process of transforming data into information
and also the converting of information back to data.

3.3 The Scope of Data Processing System

The conventional usage of the terms data processing and information systems restricts their use to
refer to the algorithmic derivations, logical deductions, and statistical calculations that recur
perennially in general business environments, rather than in the more expansive sense of all
conversions of real-world measurements into real-world information. In the real reason, although
data processing requires the use of computers, the level of computerizations is usually not too
computing-intensive, as may be expected in scientific and engineering applications. Computing is
a term restricted to number crunching that is arithmetical calculations. These include adding,
multiplying, subtracting and dividing, and exponentiation (raising numbers to specific powers),
etc. The primary data processing operations performed on business data include the following:
• Data Collection
• Data Capture
• Data Recording
• Data Entry
• Data Transmission
• Data Sorting
• Updating of Information
• Adding of Data
• Deletion of information
• Data Validation
• Data Verification
• Summarizing of data
• Printing of Results
• Summaries of data for management decision
• Calculating data
• Sorting data
• Classifying data
• Summarizing data
• Comparing data
• Statistical reports
• Data Mining

Thus, data processing consists of those activities concerned with the systematic recording, sorting,
computing, modifying, reporting displaying, and printing of details relating to business
transactions. At the same time, a data processing system can, therefore, be viewed as an
administrative system superimposed upon the physical business systems such as banking,
engineering, insurance, etc. The ultimate goal of data processing is to obtain information with
which to control the financial and administrative aspects of the business. Besides, managers and
administrators with up-to-date information can make the right decisions that will positively affect
the growth of the organization.

3.4 Computer Systems

A computer is a device which given a set of instructions or data can be used to perform given task
or tasks. Also, a computer can be referred to as a programmable, multi-user device that accepts

18
 data, raw facts and figures, and processes, or manipulates it into useful information Computers are
used primarily to speed up problem-solving and increase the overall productivity of its users. The
computer reads in data and instructions does some processing, and stores or outputs desired
results. The laptop is designed with an input mechanism for reading data into the computer,
internal storage facilities, and means for communicating with the outside world (output for writing
data out.) For data to be processed by a computer, the data needs first to be converted into a
machine-readable format. Once data is in digital format, various procedures can be applied to the
data to get useful information.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
Computers have certain definite characteristics that make them unique.
(a) Speed: ability to execute or carry out instructions at very great speed.
(b) Accuracy: Computers per se do not make errors i.e. there is accuracy of work. Any error is
usually caused by the human elements.
(c) Storage: store large volume of data/information on secondary storage, which can be retrieved
at a later time.
(d) Consistency: ability to consistently follow instructions without getting tired.
(e) Repetitiveness: ability to continue processing over an extended period.
(f) Complexity: carry out very complex operations that beats the best human ability.

Benefit of Computer Systems

Computer can be used in the following areas of life:-
 Engineering,
 Science,
 Health,
 Marketing,
 Security,
 Education,
 Management
 Agriculture
 Government,
 Aviation
 Production, etc.

3.4.1 Computer Generation

The history of computer development is often referred to as the different generations of computing
devices. These generations can distinguish the computer since each generation is characterized by
a significant technological innovation that fundamentally affected the way computers operate,
resulting in smaller sized, cheaper, more powerful and more reliable systems

First Generation 1940-1956

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and
were often enormous, taking up a large space. They were very expensive to operate and maintain.
In addition to using a great deal of electricity, they generated a lot of heat and were unreliable.
First-generation computers allowed programming in machine language to perform operations, and
they could only solve one problem at a time. The input was based on punched cards and paper
tape, and output was displayed on printouts. Typical examples are The UNIVAC and ENIAC.

Characteristics of the First Generation

- Used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory
- Very Big
- Very expensive
- Consumes electricity

19
 - Generate a lot of heat
- They relied on machine language for performance
- Solve one problem at a time
- Input was based on punched cards and paper tape

Second Generation 1956-1963

In this generation of computers, transistors were used in place of vacuum tubes. The transistor was
far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more
energy-efficient, and more reliable than their first-generation computers. This generation of
computers relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output. This generation of
computers supported the use of assembly, languages – this allowed programmers to specify
instructions in words.

Characteristics of the Second Generation

- They used Transistors
- Smaller, faster, cheaper and more energy efficient computers
- Still relied on punched cards for input and output
- Transition from binary machine language to symbolic or assembly language
- High level programming languages were also developed, such as BASIC, COBOL and
FORTRAN
- The first set of computer that stored their instruction on memory

Third Generation - 1964 -1971

Third-generation computers used integrated circuits. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on
silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of
computers. This invention led to the widespread use of computers today. Instead of punched cards
and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors
and interfaced with operating systems, which allowed the device to run many different
applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. High-level
programming languages such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN were used on these
systems.

Characteristics of the Third Generation

- Development of integrated circuit
- interactions were done through keyboards and monitors
- development of operating system
- Smaller and cheaper computers

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated
circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. Fourth-generation computers use microprocessor
chips, which are large-scale integrated circuits containing thousands of transistors. The
microprocessor led to the creation of the first personal computer. What is the first generation
filled an entire room could now fit in the palm? As these small computers became more
powerful, they could be connected to form networks, which eventually led to the development
of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of Graphical Users
Interface, the pointer devices such as mouse and personal digital assistants.

Characteristics of the Fourth Generation

Availability of microprocessor
- Thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip
- Intel 4004 chip and IBM computers introduced

20
 - Smaller computers were linked together to form networks
- This development led to Internet
- Development of Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth-generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development.
However, applications such as voice recognition are gradually coming into the market. The use of
parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. One of the
goals of the fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input.
Computers are available in different categories of size, type, and capabilities. Artificial Intelligence
(AI) is rapidly transforming every aspect of how we work. As data volumes steadily rise, AI allows
digital marketers to utilize the potential of available data fully. In digital marketing specifically, AI
can help process data from structured and unstructured sources (social media, emails, images, etc.) to
generate actionable insights. These actions can even be automated, enabling greater efficiency for
digital marketers.

Characteristics of the Fifth Generation (Still evolving)

- Based on Artificial Intelligence
- With the use of voice recognition, processing and super conductors
- Parallel processing and super conductors which is helping to make Artificial Intelligence a reality.
- Quantum computation, molecular technology will radically change the face of computers in years
to come.
- The goal is to develop devices that will respond to natural language and capable of learning.

3.4.2 Analog and Digital Computer

Early attempts at manufacturing computers used analog techniques, but accuracy, speed, and
reliability were not very acceptable. Data processed by the computer can be described in tow
forms: analog or digital. These two forms give an insight into a way of classifying computers
today. Computing devices are classified as Analog or Digital according to how they represent
data.

3.4.2.1 Analog Computers

Analog refers to non-digital (non-computer-based), continuous variable forms of data
transmission, including voice and video. An analog computer represents a datum as a voltage,
distance, position, or other physical quantity. Analog - continuously varying in strength and
quantity. For example, sound, light, temperature, and pressure values can fall anywhere along a
continuum or range. Examples of analog devices are a thermometer, a speedometer, a clock (with
hour, minute, and second hands that sweep around the dial), and a pressure sensor, which can
measure continuous fluctuation.

21
Figure 1: Analog Computer

3.4.2.2 Digital Computers

The term digital describes any system based on discontinuous data or events. For example,
electricity is either turned on or turned off. With a two-state on/off arrangement, one state can
represent a 1 digit, and the other a 0 digit. Because computers are based on/off or other two-state
conditions, they use the binary system, which can represent any number using only two digits 0
and 1. Binary means have two components, alternatives, or outcomes. With this kind of
arrangement, digital data then consists of data represented by on/off signal symbolized as 0s and
1s. A digital computer represents a datum as a sequence of symbols drawn from a fixed alphabet.
The most common digital computers use a binary alphabet, that is, an alphabet of two characters
typically denoted "0” and "1". Digital computers are more common than analog computers. Digital
computer exists in different categories of sizes such computes as mainframes, minicomputers,
microcomputers, workstations, and supercomputers

Figure 2: Digital Computer

Mainframe
A mainframe is the most extensive and relatively most powerful computer, a powerhouse with
ample storage and very rapid processing power and speed. It is used for a substantial amount of
business, scientific and engineering, military data. They are found in many data processing
centers, such as in Banks, military, airports, nuclear stations, universities, and other organizations
where large amounts of data are processed.

22
Figure 3: Mainframe Computer

Minicomputer
A minicomputer is a mid-range, multi-purpose computer about the size of an office desk produced
by several manufacturers, including Dell, Hewlett Packard, and IBMC, often used in universities,
factories, and research laboratories. Applications processed on minicomputers include Accounting
routines, banking, examination processing, hospital management systems, databases, geographical
information systems, and other management information systems. Some training or professional’s
certifications may be required to handle these systems compared to the operations of
microcomputers.

Figure 4: Mini Computer

Microcomputers
Microcomputers are sometimes referred to as personal computers (PCs). They are the computers
that can be placed on desktops or carried from room to room. Some manufacturers of
microcomputers include IBM, Dell, Hewlett Packard, Apple, and Compaq. As the names apply,
PCs are used and operated by end-users for their own particular processing needs such as
payroll, inventory control, asset management, result verification, patient medical records, and
other general accounting routines. Laptops and palmtops, in particular, are the portable types of

23
PCs built with a lot of mobility functionality. Not so much skill is required to operate
microcomputers as compared with mini and mainframe computers.

Figure 5: Micro Computer

Workstation
A workstation is so much like a PC except that it is more powerful and has more capabilities for
handling mathematical and graphics-processing than a PC. It can take more complicated tasks
than PC in the same amount of time. Workstations are used mainly in handling computing
(number crunching and algorithmic) applications such as in science, engineering, and design work
that requires powerful graphics or computational capabilities rather than data processing
applications where the arithmetic operation may be ideal.

Supercomputer
A supercomputer is a highly sophisticated and robust machine that is used for tasks requiring rapid
and complex calculations with hundreds of thousands of variable factors. Supercomputers
traditionally have been used in scientific and military work, but they are starting to be used in
business as well. A supercomputer is an incredibly sophisticated and powerful type of computer
that is used primarily for extremely rapid and complex computations with hundreds of thousands
of variable factors. Supercomputers traditionally have been used for classified weapons research,
weather forecasting, and petroleum and engineering applications, all of which use complex
mathematical models and simulation. Although extremely expensive, supercomputers are
beginning to be employed in the business for data mining and the manipulation of vast quantities
of data. Supercomputers can perform complex and massive computations almost instantaneously
because they can perform hundreds of billions of calculations per second-many times faster than
the most massive mainframes.

With advances in communications technologies, any of these categories of computers could be

linked in a network enabling users to share files, software, peripheral devices, such as high-speed
printers, sizeable external storage, or other network resources. Special Server computers designed
to support network, providing large memory and disk-storage capacity, increased communications
capabilities, and powerful CPUs.

As technology continues to advance, we expect that these distinctions will become less
pronounced.

24
 Figure 6: A Supercomputer

3.5 The Basic Operations of Computing

The computer processes data by performing the following five primary operations
1) Input
2) processing
3) Output
4) Storage
5) Communication

Input Operations:
At this stage, data or instructions are captured electronically or entered employing the available
input device. An input device is a hardware such as a keyboard that allows data from the external
environment to be entered into the computer for processing. The data after it has been captured is
transformed into a form in which the computer can process it.

Processing Operations:
At this stage, the already captured and transformed data is manipulated to generate the desired
result for the end-user other processing systems. The information is worked on by the instructions
in the form of programs or queries provided by the users. The instruction and the data determine
what output is received from the computer. The processing instructions may be to add, subtract,
multiply, find total, summarize, group, select some data based on some condition, etc.

Output Operations:
At the stage the result or information obtained from the data is produced in a
form acceptable by the user. An example of on output will be a list of all registered students in the
department of accounting who are in their second year at National Open University, Lagos Centre.
The output can be printed as printed text, played as sound, displayed as charts or graphs on the
computer screen. The output is usually governed by the need to communicate specific information
to a specific audience. The only limit to the different forms of output you can produce is the
different types of output devices currently available.

25
Secondary-storage operations:
At this stage of operations, data, information, and the instructions used for the processing of data
are stored temporarily or permanently in primary or secondary storage devices. Data and
instructions are stored in primary storage devices during processing to allow easy access and fast
processing. Secondary storage devices are used to store data or instructions more permanently. An
example of a primary or internal storage device is RAM (Read Only Memory). While an example
of a secondary or external storage device is a flash disk.

Communication Operation
There may be a need to transmit already processed data to an end-user or an output device in a
remote location. Similarly, data may be gathered from a remote location. The communication
operation of the computers performs these by using communication hardware. This facilitates the
connection between computers and between groups of connected computers called networks.
Computers linked together can share hardware, programs, and data. Though computers can
operate as standard alone machines, that is, they may not be connected to anything else. By
connecting them in a network, more benefits are realized.

The five basic operations of a computer system take place so fast that they seem to happen all at
the same time.

3.6. Current Contribution of Computer to Technology Advancement

There is, in recent times, outstanding development in how people chase time and wealth through
the use of technology. The computer system is not a simple tool. It is very modern and can be
complicated. It can perform lots of functions at a very high speed. It has changed the way we
realise and discover things in recent times. They are using its unique auto correcting tools, which
work with all languages, all logic, and all subjects. Organizations today have been able also to
innovate using computing tools to improve their processes with computers being given an integral
role to play. They can be seen being used not only at the office or at home, but in all kinds of
sectors and businesses. They are used at airports, restaurants, railway stations, banks, etc. slowly
and gradually, as computers are penetrating through the modern society, people are getting more
and more optimistic about the promises its invention made.

Computers have also drastically changed the way agricultural tasks and businesses are carried out
all over the world. In agriculture, computers are being used to find out the best possible kinds of
soil, plants and to check which match of these would result in the perfect crops. The use of
computers thus in this sector, along with the use of better agricultural practices and products in
several countries, like India, could help the agricultural industry reach soaring heights, directly
assuring the welfare of the economy. It is also wonderful to see that the invention of this
unbelievable machine has brought a ray of hope in the darkness of the sick citizens’ world.
Computers are very capable of bringing along a medical revolution. Where in health sectors,
computers are being used for research regarding blood groups, medical histories, etc. and helping
to improve medicine in a big way. The knowledge that computers are providing in this field may
lead to better use and purchase of medicinal drugs and ensure better health. This also leads to a
better diagnosing pattern and makes health care faster and more efficiently.

26
 3.7. Benefits of Using a Computer in Business

• It leads to improved customer relations due to its reliability, generation of more timely
reports, and speedier responses to inquiries regarding business operations
• Increases the productivity of staff, in general, be helping to handle boring and routine
operations leaving the staff to be engaged in decision making.
• Improved cash flows due to improved sales accounting systems particularly those relating
to credit control, invoicing and statement preparation
• It guarantees improved access to information through online and real-time access to
information systems.
• It allows for a more significant degree of systems integration on the basis that the output of
one part of the system (subsystem) provides the input to a related subsystem, which has the
effect of eliminating duplication and delay.
• Makes the presentation of information for decision making it easy to comprehend.
Information is presented in simplified formats such as graphs, charts, graphics images, etc.
• It helps in the simplification of problem-solving by the use of problem-solving software.
• Makes the supply of information for improving managerial decision readily available

4.0 Conclusion
There terms data and information are commonly used by many people as if they mean the same
thing. The differences between them have been made more evident. Data processing is not the
same as computing. Some basic operations that are involved in data processing include Data
Collection, Data Capture, Data Recording, Data Entry, Data Transmission, Data Sorting.
Electronic data processing requires the use of computers which their sizes, types or generation
distinguish ma y

5.0 Summary
In this unit, we have explained the fundamental Electronic Data Processing Concepts. This should
provide a good background for the easy comprehension of the contents in other units.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

Q1 Explain the term Data Processing
Q2. What is an Electronic Data Processing System?
Q3. Describe the different sizes of computer systems
Q4. What are the primary operations of computer systems?
Q5. Highlight 6 benefits of using a computer in business.
Q6. The computer has contributed maximally to global development: Discuss.
Q7. State five characteristics of each of all the five computer generations.

7.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction to Computers and Information Technology, 2nd edition, Pearson, 2015, ISBN-13:
9781323237120
A Balanced Introduction to Computer Science (3rd Edition by By David Reed
Introduction to Computer Science: A Textbook for Beginners in Informatics By Gilbert Brands

27
 MODULE 1
UNIT 2: BASIC HARDWARE COMPONENTS AND MEMORY CAPACITY
MEASUREMENT

Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Input Device
3.2 The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
3.3 The Control Unit
3.4 Arithmetic and Logic Unit
3.5 Memory
3.6 Measuring the Memory Capacity of Computer System
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction
To function properly, the computer needs both hardware and software. Thus a computer system is
made up of hardware and software. The hardware consists of the electronic and electromechanical
parts of the computer. This is the tangible or touchable part of the computer. These components
include input devices, central processing units, main memory, secondary memory, and output
devices. Two components handle processing in a computer: the central processing unit, or CPU,
and the memory. Both are located on the computer system board or motherboard, the circuit that
connects the CPU to all other hardware devices. The processor works hand in hand with other
circuits known as the main memory and registers to carry out the processing. The basic unit of
information representation in the computer is the bit.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, the student should be able to:
• Identify and describe the essential hardware components of a computer system
• Explain the units of measuring computer memory

3.1 Input Device

An input device is used to communicate data and instructions or programs to the computer. The
input device accepts the data and converts them into machine understandable forms that can be
processed by the computer. An input device is the main source by which computer receive
information. It is the Electro-mechanical system, which aids the transferring of data into the
computer, that is, it is the medium through which data can be supplied to the computer.
Examples of Input Devices are:
(a) Keyboard (b) Mouse (c ) Joystick (d) Trackball
(e) Light Pen and Stylus (f) Graphic Tablet or Digitizer (g) Touch Screen
(h) Scanner (i) Audio input units or Voice Data Entry (VDE)
(j) Magnetic Tapes and Cassettes Readers (k) Computer Disk and DVDs Readers
(l) Floppy and Hard Disk drives

28
 3.2 The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The CPU is the brain of the computer, and it is the place where data is manipulated within the
computer system. In a microcomputer, the entire CPU is contained on a tiny chip called a
microprocessor, which is usually mounted on a piece of plastic with metal wires attached to it.
The CPU is otherwise known as the heart of the computer. Where
- All manipulations are done,
- Main operation is being carried out. It is as important to computer as the heart is to the body.
- It stand between the input and output devices.
- It receives incoming data and instructions, works upon the data and sends to destination unit
- It consists of the arithmetic and logic unit, the control unit and the memory unit. processor
consists of two functional units: the control unit and the arithmetic-logic unit. The CPU
- It performs most of the calculations within the computer responsible for the smooth running of
your operating system (Microsoft Windows) as well as your application programs, such as
word processors, spreadsheets and databases.
- A small amount of memory associated with the CPU is used to perform these operations. It also
accesses and uses the main memory (RAM - Random Access Memory) within your computer.
- CPU is the single most important item within your computer that governs the overall speed of
your computer. The CPU's speed is measured in MHz.
- the higher the MHz rating of your CPU the faster your computer will run

3.3 The Control Unit

All the computer s resources are managed from the control unit. The control unit of the processor
coordinates all activities of the computer system. It directs the movement of electronic signals
between arithmetic-logic units and the main memory and also directs the electronic signals
between main memory and the input and output devices. The control unit coordinates and
supervises all activities within CPU.
(i) Receives instructions from the input unit and decode the instruction.
(ii) Fetches data from the main memory and generates signals that are required to act on and
execute the instruction.
(iii) Keeps constant touch with input equipment, coordinates and keeps tracks of the instructions
that have been executed.
(iv) It does not partake in the processing function or store data, rather directs the sequence of
operations in and outside the CPU.

3.4 Arithmetic and Logic Unit

The computer can perform only two types of operations: arithmetic operations and logical
operations. The arithmetic-logic unit is the electronic circuitry capable of performing these two
basic logical operations. Arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and exponentiation. The ALU is the unit where arithmetic and logical operations are
carried out. It perform arithmetic operation such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
logical operation (AND, OR, NOT) and relational operations (<, >, <=, >=, =, <>).
All data input into the computer system must first be converted into numbers (0 and 1) before
they are processed. In addition to arithmetic operations, the computer can perform logical
operations on two or more numbers. Logical operations are comparisons operations. The ALU
compares two pieces of data to see whether one is less than <, equal to =, greater than (>), the
other. Other comparison operations are greater than or equal to (>=), less than or equal to (<=) or
not equal to ( ).

3.5 Memory
The CPU's main job is to follow instructions encoded in programs, but it cannot store entire
programs or large sets of data permanently. However, the CPU has registers, which are devices

29
capable of holding a few bytes of data or instructions at a time. CPU needs to have millions of
bytes of space where it can hold programs and the data being manipulated while they are being
used. This area is called memory. Computers use two types of memory- primary and secondary
memory. The Primary Memory is an electronic device that stores the information necessary for a
program to run. This consists of the volatile memory (RAM) and the nonvolatile memory (ROM).

RAM
RAM is an acronym for Random Access Memory. It is used for short-term storage of data or
program instructions. RAM is volatile: Its contents will be lost when a power outage disrupts the
computer s electric supply or when the computer is turned off. The purpose of RAM is to hold
programs and data while they are in use. Physically, RAM consists of some chips on a small
circuit board. A computer does not have to search its entire memory each time it needs to find
data. Access to the data is usually direct using its memory address. The main functions of the
RAM chip include:
• It holds data for processing
• It holds instructions (the programs) for processing
• It holds data that has been processed (useful information) and is waiting to be sent to an
output device.
• main 'working' memory used by the computer
• modern computer can effectively house as much RAM as you can afford to buy.
• modern computers are supplied with over 128 MB of RAM.
• a Microsoft Windows based computer will operate faster if you install higher size RAM
• Data and programs stored in RAM are volatile (the information is lost when you switch off
the computer).

ROM
This is an acronym for Read-Only Memory. This is a nonvolatile type of memory. Nonvolatile
chips always hold the same data; the data in them can be read and used; it cannot be changed.
One crucial reason a computer needs ROM is so that it knows what to do when the power is first
turned on. Among other things, ROM contains a set of start-up instructions, which ensure that the
rest of the memory is functioning correctly, check for hardware devices, and check for an
operating system on the computer disks drives. Unlike the RAM, which is constantly being
written on an erased, ROM cannot be written on or erased by the computer user. Besides, ROM
chips remember, permanently, the information supplied by the manufacturers, such as the
information about the manufacturer. This unit is also known as Secondary storage, Auxiliary
storage, Backing storage or External storage. Data coming to the computer are received by the
memory and passed to a permanent storage device. This memory is used to store data not currently
being operated on but which will be transferred to the main storage when required. Secondary
storage is non-volatile and retains data even when the computer is turned off. There are many
kinds of secondary storage; the most common ones are magnetic tape, magnetic disk and compact
disk.

Table 3: Differences between RAM and ROM

Primary (RAM) Secondary (ROM)
1 Primary storage/memory is also Secondary storage or memory is also called
called Internal or main storage External or auxiliary storage

2 It has high speed It has low speed low

30
 3 It is very expensive It is not expensive

4 It holds data or programs It holds data or programs permanently

temporary
5 It holds programs and data in It holds program or data that will still be used in
current use in CPU primary storage
6 It is faster It is not fast (as primary)

7 It holds less data It holds large volume of data or files

Three variations of ROM chips are used in special situation-PROM, EPROM and EEPROM

PROM :
This is an acronym for programmable read-only memory. These are blank chips on which the
buyer, using special equipment, write the programs. Once the program is written, it cannot be
erased. Some microprocessor software packages come on PROM units. Manufacturers use PROM
chips as control devices in their products.

EP ROM
EPROM stands for electronically erasable read-only memory. They are like PROM chips except
that the contents can be erased, using special equipment and new materials can be written. PROM
chips are used for intelligent device control, such as in robots, where the program may have to be
modified regularly. Programs in the EPROM chip can be erased and reprogrammed.

EEPROM
This is an acronym for electronically erasable programmable read-only-memory. The memory
chips can be reprogrammed can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. The advantage of
EEPROM chips is that they need not be removed from the computer to be changed.

3.6 Registers
These are special, high-speed storage area within the CPU. All data must be represented in a
register before it can be processed. For example, the control unit might load two numbers from
memory into the registers in the ALU. Then it might tell the ALU to multiply the two numbers
(arithmetic operations) or to see whether the number is equal (a logical process). The number of
registers that a CPU has and the size of each help determine the power and speed of a CPU. For
example, a 64-bit CPU is one in which each register is 64 bits wide. Therefore, each CPU instruction
can manipulate 64 bits of data.

3.7 The System Mother Board

The Mother board is contained within the CPU of a desktop Personal Computer
• All vital computer part are plugged directly to the system board.
• Other items such as the hard disk are attached to the system board, either directly or via cables.
These boards are getting smaller and smaller as the components become more integrated

31
Figure 7 The System Mother Board

3.6 Measuring the Memory Capacity of Computer System

Bits
The term bit is a short form of binary digit. A bit is the smallest possible unit of data. To represent
anything meaningful, the computer needs groups of bits.

Bytes
A group of eight bits is called a byte. It is the next larger unit of data representation within a
computer system. With one byte, the computer can represent up to 256 different values because it
is possible to count from 0 to 255 with eight binary digits. A byte is a basic unit because it can be
adequately used to represent any character on the keyboard, including all the letters (uppercase
and lowercase), number, punctuation marks, and other symbols.

Kilobyte
A kilobyte abbreviated K or KB represents approximately 1000 bytes (or characters). The actual
value of I Kilobyte is 1024 (210) bytes

Megabyte:
A megabyte abbreviated M or MB and sometimes called meg is used to refer to about 1 million
bytes of data.

Gigabytes:
A gigabyte, G or GB, often pronounced gig-a-bite, is used to refer to about 1 billion bytes of
data.

Terabyte:
A terabyte, T or TB, is used to refer to about 1 trillion bytes or 1000 gigabytes of data.

Petabyte:
This is a new measurement which accommodates the substantial storage capacities of the modern
database- It is used to refer to about 1 million gigabyte data

32
4.0 Conclusion

Computers require the hardware components and software to process data. Computer hardware
consists of input devices, central processing units, memory, and output devices. A bit is the
smallest possible unit of data. More considerable amounts of data are measured in Bytes,
Kilobyte, Megabyte, etc.

5.0 Summary
This unit has provided you with adequate information on the different hardware components. This
unit also discussed in details some major computer hardware components. The units of measuring
the memory capacity of computers are also covered.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

Q1 What are the main functions of the RAM chip?
Q2. Explain what is meant by “RAM is volatile.”
Q3. Describe three variations of ROM
Q4. Explain the functions of a Register
Q5. State five different measuring capacities of the computer system
Q6. State six differences between RAM and ROM. Tabulate your answers.

7.0 References/Further Readings

Brain K. Williams, and Stacey C. Sawyer, Using Information Technology, A practical

Introduction to Computers and Communications, McGraw Hill, 2005, N.Y

Eric Frick, Information Technology Essentials Volume 1: Introduction to Information Systems,

Volume 1 of Information Technology Essentials Series, Amazon Digital Services LLC - KDP
Print US, 2019, ISBN:1708175148, 9781708175146

Introduction to Computers and Information Technology, 2nd edition, Pearson, 2015, ISBN-13:
9781323237120

33
 MODULE 1
UNIT 3: BASIC SOFTWARE FOR DATA PROCESSING

Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Software systems
3.1.1 Systems Software
3.1.2 Application Software
3.2 Software for Data Processing
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction
Apart from the hardware of a computer discussed in Unit 2, a computer system requires
software to make the best use of its capability in solving problems. Computers do not have the
intelligence of their own; they rely on the instructions and data supplied by a user to perform a
task. These instructions are called software. The software consists of a group of related
programs written in a specific code called programming language. The software can be
purchased as Commercial, off-the-shelf (COTS), or developed in house for data processing
purposes. Software purchased to perform general business functions is often referred to as a
software package.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, the student should be able to:

• Explain what is meant by a computer software

• Describe some essential software for data processing.

3.1 The Computer Software

Software can be defined as the sets of instruction and procedures passed to the computer to
perform certain activities or tasks. That is, it is the set of instruction directed to a computer
system to perform a specific task. It is often called computer program. It is the program, which
direct the operations of computer systems. It is the invisible part of the computer system.
Without the software, the computer system is useless. The software consists of a group of
related programs written in a specific code called programming language. Software is created
by a professional software programmer and comes on disk, CD-ROM, or downloadable online
across the Internet. The software can generally be divided into two categories.

• System software
• Application Software

3.1.1 Systems Software

This is software designed to allow the computer to manage its resources and run the hardware
and basic operations. They may be complex to develop and are provided by the manufacturers
of computer systems to complement computer hardware. However, others may be purchased
from vendors. This software runs the basic operations; it lets the CPU communicate with the

34
 keyboard, the screen, the printer, and the disk drive. However, it does not solve specific
problems relating to a business or a profession as application software. Some examples of
system software are operating systems and Language translators
System software is sets of one or more programs designed to control and supervise the
operation and performance of a computer system. They are the software that acts as interface
between the hardware and the user or computer resources. The overall control of the hardware
operations and the user self-written programs is done by the system software.
The systems software may be divided into the following:
(i) Operating systems
(ii) Utilities and service programs
(iii) Translators
(iv) Database Management System
(i) Operating System
Operating System is a software that manages the resources of the computer. The workings of
all hardware components as well as execution of application programs are controlled by the
operating systems (OS). Those programs are concerned with the internal control and co-
ordination of all aspects of the computer system. An operating system is essential software for
a computer. It is made up of many component programs and manages the overall operations of
a computer system. Some of the tasks performed by the operating system are:

• It controls various input and output devices and coordinates input and output
operations.
• It manages the systems resources such as available memory space in the primary
and secondary storage devices.
• It allocates memory and processor time to programs.
• It validates users and ensures that the resources a user is requesting are made
available
Some popular operating systems are Windows, Operating System 2, Macintosh Operating
System, Novell Netware, UNIX, and Linux.

(ii) Utilities and service programs: are used for general housekeeping on the computer. They are
system programs that provides useful service to the user of the computer by providing facilities
for performing common tasks in a routine nature. These tasks are: Formatting a disk, copying
of files, sorting, printing, editing, back-up etc. These services include translators for any
languages supported by the system and utility programs such as program editors and other aids
to programming. These are programs that are often required by many application programs.
Examples include programs for formatting or defragmenting a disk. Also, we have the
sort/merge utilities which are used for sorting and merging large volumes of data.

(iii) Language Translator

This is software that translates a computer program written in a high-level programming
language or assembly language to a machine-understandable form. If you write a program say
in BASIC language, it cannot be executed directly without a translator. A program that is
written in a high level language is a source program. A source program in its translated form
made up of machine codes is called object program. High-level languages are either translated
from source code to object code by an Interpreter or a compiler. An interpreter translates one
line of a high-level instruction and immediately execute the code, proceeding to the next until
the entire program is executed. A compile, on the other hand, scans program as the whole first
and then translate it into machine (object) code.

3.1.2 Application Software

35
 Application software includes programs that are developed using systems software to achieve
some tasks. There are two types of application software: application programs that you
purchase for solving particular classes of problems and application programs that you write to
solve your problems. Some commercially available end-user programs (application software)
which are developed by professional programmer teams can be used with little or no
additional programming skills. Examples of application software include word processing and
desktop publishing software; spreadsheet; database programs; graphics programs;
communication software; and special-purpose programs suitable for accounting, scientific and
engineering application, education, and entertainment and so on.

Application software or program is a computer program designed to help users perform a certain
kind of activity. Depending on the task(s) for which it was designed, an application program can
manipulate text, numbers, graphics or a combination of these elements.

3.2 Software for Data Processing

The computers in a data processing environment would run one or more of the following
software to facilitate data processing activities.

(a) Word processing software

This allows you to use computers to create, edit, sore and print documents. You can easily
insert, delete, move words, sentences, and paragraphs without ever using the eraser. Of all
computer applications, word processors are the most common. Word processing also offers
several features for dressing up documents with variable margins, type sizes, and style. The
user can do all these manipulations on a document or report on the screen before printing it.
For example, if you make a typing mistake, you simply move the cursor to the position and
correct the error. You can move a section of your document to another easily and apply a
different kind of formatting on your document. Word processing software also features for
spelling and grammar, Insert, delete, copy, pastes, find, replace, search, cut, copy, format, and
printing. Some commonly used word processor is Microsoft Word, WordPerfect, AmiPro, etc.

Figure 8: Microsoft Word Interface

(b) Spreadsheet Software

36
 Traditionally, the spreadsheet was simply a grid of rows and columns on special paper that
was used by the accountant and others to produce financial projections and reports. Electronic
spreadsheets application allows users to enter data in rows and column, calculate means
perform statistical analyses, create tables, and make other financial schedules. Spreadsheet
software also has features that allow the creation of analytical graphics. When viewed on a
monitor or printed out, analytical pictures, or business graphics, help make data and the
generated report easily to comprehend and analyzed for decision making by management.
Electronic spreadsheets have features that allow charts and graphs to be created from a table of
numbers to show the significance of a selection of data, which can be displayed in several
ways: bar graphs, line graphs, and pie charts, etc. A spreadsheet document is called a
worksheet. Some commonly used Spreadsheet software are VisiCalc, Lotus 1-2-3, and
Microsoft Excel, etc.

Figure 9: Microsoft Excel Chart

(c) Database Software

A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of programs that allows you to store
and modify extract information from a database. A database is a collection of interrelated files
in a computer system. With a DBMS, activities such as updating, deleting, adding, and
amending of records are easily performed. Databases can also be seen as electronic filing
cabinets that allow systematic storage of data for easy access, reporting, and retrieval of
documents. Some commonly used database software are MS Access, Informix, Sybase,
Oracle, DB3.

Figure 10: Microsoft Access Database

37
 Figure 11: Oracle Database Management Platform

(d) Presentation Graphics

Presentation graphics enable users to create highly stylized graphics for slide shows and
reports. Presentations software may make use of some analytical graphics (bar, line, pie chart)
and also allow you to use electronic painting and drawing tools for creating lines, rectangles,
and other forms of shape. Most presentation software has features that will enable you to add
text, animated sequences, and sound to your report. Your report or presentation can be sent to
the screen or printed on transparency acetates. Some presentation software packages provide
artwork called clip art that can be electronically cut and pasted into the graphics. Some
commonly used presentation graphics are Examples of well-known presentation packages are
Microsoft PowerPoint, Aldus Persuasion, Lotus Freelance Graphics, and SPC Harvard
Graphics.

Figure 12: Microsoft Power Point Presentation

4.0 Conclusion

38
The data processing requirements of an organization is a significant factor in determining
which software to acquire or use. Software development could be one of the functions of a
data processing department.

5.0 Summary
In a data processing center, different computer hardware and software are usually
required for the manipulation of data. Some of the commonly used software are a word
processor, database, presentation graphic, spreadsheets, operating system, etc.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

Q1. State four main tasks of operating systems
Q2. State some advantages of in-house developed software over COTS
Q3. List two (2) functions of the utility Programs
Q4 why do Operating Systems come with Language Translator?

7.0 References/Further Readings

Carl Hamacher, Zvonko Vranesic, Safwat Zaky, Computer Organization, Fifth Edition,
McGraw-Hill Higher Education, N.Y, 2002

Brain K. Williams, and Stacey C. Sawyer, Using Information Technology, A

practical Introduction to Computers and Communications, McGraw Hill, N.Y, 2005

Introduction to Computers and Information Technology, 2nd edition, Pearson, 2015, ISBN-
13: 9781323237120

39
 MODULE 1
UNIT 4: DATA CAPTURING AND REPORTING DEVICES

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Input Devices
3.1.1 Keyboard
3.1.2 Pointing Devices
3.1.3 Pen-Based Devices
3.1.4 Source-Data Entry
3.2 Other input devices
3.3 Output Devices
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction
Computers interact with their external environment and users via the Input / Output devices.
Inputs are the signals or data sent to the system, and outputs are the signals or results received
from the design to the outside. Input devices are hardware equipment by which a computer
system receives data, while output devices are hardware equipment by which outputs are
communicated to the outside world.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, the student should be able to:
• Identify and describe data capturing devices
• Identify and describe data reporting/output device

3.1 Input Devices

For data to be processed, they are first to be captured via input devices and translated to
computer understandable form. Input devices are used to capture and translate data into a form
the computer can process. Though the data may be captured in the forms of text, characters,
letters, images, sound, pictures, and video, the translated data will be in the form of 0s and 1s,
or off and on signals which can be easily processed by the computer.
Input devices exist in the following categories:

3.1.1 Keyboard
The keyboard is used for entering text and numeric values into the computer. It is the most
popular means of data entry in microcomputers. The keyboard may look like a typewriter but
with some special keys added. The keyboard has facilities for converting letters, numbers, and
other characters into electrical signals that are machine-readable the processor of computers.
Data entry functionality is also available via keys on a bank's automatic teller machine or the
keypad of a personal digital assistant or a cell phone.

40
Figure 13: Keyboard

3.1.2 Pointing Devices

These constitute the second category of input hardware. These devices control the position of
the cursor or pointer on the screen. Pointing devices include:

a.) Mouse
A mouse is an input device that is popularly used with microcomputers. When used with
desktop computers, it is rolled about on a desktop to direct a pointer and select commands on a
computer display screen. The point-and-click actions of the computer mouse are fast, making
it an alternative to the keyboard and text-based commands since most of the commands
executed with a keyboard can almost be done with a mouse. Besides, the mouse can be used to
draw images on the screen.

Figure 14: Mouse

b.) Trackball
This is a variant of the mouse. It can be moved on a stationary device that is rotated with the
fingers or palm. The trackball is commonly used with handheld devices.

41
Figure 15: A trackball

c.) Touchpad
Touchpads allow a user to control the cursor/point on the computer display screen with his
fingers. It is about the same size as a mouse but is usually rectangular and flat devices that are
used in the very weak electrical field to be activated.

Figure 16: Touchpad

d.) Joysticks
A joystick is a pointing device that consists of a vertical handle like a gearshift lever
mounted on a base with one or two buttons. Joysticks are used principally in video games, in
some computer-aided design systems, and computerized robot systems.

42
Figure 17: Touchpad

3.1.3 Pen-Based Devices

Pen-based computer devices use a pen-like stylus to capture a user s handwriting and marks
into a computer. This is one of how data is entered into small handheld computers, such as
personal digital assistants (PDAs).

(e) Light Pen

This is a light-sensitive stylus, pen-like device that can be connected by a wire to the computer
system. A stylus is a pen-like device with which a user sketches an image. When used to
capture data, the user brings the pen to the desired point on the display screen and presses the
pen button, which identifies that screen location to the computer.

(f) Digitizing Tablets

A digitizing tablet consists of a tablet linked by a wire to a stylus or puck. A puck is a
copying device with which the user copies, or traces, an image. Digitizing tablets are used to
capture data directly into the computer for processing.

3.1.4 Source-Data Entry

Keyboard entry requires typing; the operator could introduce errors during data entry. Non-
keyboard source-data entry devices such as scanner are used to minimize data entry errors.
The following categories of devices are used:

Scanning Devices
Scanners use laser beams and reflected light to capture and translate hardcopy images of text,
drawings, photos, and the like into computer understandable form for processing. Scanning
devices include Mark and character recognition devices, Fax machines, and imaging systems.
Specifically, the Mark and character recognition devices are usually referred to by their
abbreviation OCR, OMR, and MICR,

43
(a) Optical mark recognition
Optical mark recognition (OMR) uses a device that reads pencil marks and converts them into
computer-understandable form. This technology is widely accepted by many examination
bodies such as Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB), West African Examination
Council (WAEC), NECO (National Examination Council Organization), and other Scholastic
Examination bodies across the world as a convenient way of processing their candidates’
results.

(b) Optical Character Recognition

Optical character recognition (OCR) devices are used to translate designed marks character
and code into digital form for processing by the system. The most widely used optical code is
the bar code, which is used in point-of-sale systems in supermarkets, shopping malls,
hospitals, libraries, military operations, utility bills, and price tags on departmental-stores
merchandise and transportation facilities. The code can include time, date, location, and
identification data for deriving appropriate information for decision making. It is usually more
convenient and faster to use OCR than retyping a document into the computer.

(c) Magnetic ink Character Recognition (MICR)

This Technology is used in cheques processing by most banks and other financial institutions.
A MICR device has facilities to interpret and translates magnetic ink character on Bank
cheque, which contains characters identifying the bank, cheques number, etc. into computer
understandable form.

(d) Fax Machine

A fax machine, also referred to as a facsimile transmission machine, has facilities that scan an
image on paper into electrical signals, transmit the same over telephone lines, and re-creates
the image to a receiving fax machine on paper.

3.2 Other input devices

Sensors are devices that collect data directly from the environment for input into a computer
system. For instance, atmospheric data can be captured and transmitted via sensor network to a
data processing center for weather forecasting.
(a) Voice input
These devices convert spoken words into computer understandable digital form for processing.
When voice recognition systems are used to capture data for processing, the user documents
can be created by speaking words into a computer rather than keying them in. The system will
have audio facilities such as sound card, microphone, and speakers.

The physical component or materials in which data is stored are called storage media. The
hardware components that write data to, and read it from, storage media are called storage
devices. For example, a diskette is a storage medium, whereas a diskette drive is a storage
device. Storage media and derives have evolved dramatically since computers were in their
infancy, and this pace has accelerated since the introduction and growing popularity of PCs.

3.3 Output Devices

Outputs are the outcome of processed data. An output device is any piece of computer
hardware equipment used to communicate the results of data processing carried out by a

44
computer to the outside world. Some standard output devices include Visual display unit A
visual display unit (also called VDU, monitor, or screen), Printers and Plotters.

(a) Monitors
The first is the typical monitor that looks like the television screen and uses a large vacuum
tube called a cathode ray tube (CRT). Its operation is very similar to that of a television picture
tube, with an electronic gun shooting a beam of electrons to illuminate the pixels (picture
elements) on the screen. The number of pixel per screen determines the resolution. The
resolution of a monitor indicates how densely the pixels are packed. The second type, known
as the flat-panel display, is used with laptops or notebook computers. While the earlier
monitors could only display one color, that is, black, grayscale, etc. modern monitors have
good support for color and graphics show though this may require more memory.

(b) Projector
A projector or image projector is an optical device that projects an image (or moving images)
onto a surface, commonly a projection screen. The images created from most projectors
happen by shining a light through a small transparent lens, but some newer types of projectors
can project the image directly, by using lasers. A virtual retinal display, or retinal projector, is
a projector that displays an image directly on the retina instead of an external screen. A video
projector is the most common type. Video projectors are digital replacements for earlier types
of projectors such as slide projectors and overhead projectors.

(c) Printers
The printer is a device that prints text or illustration on paper and, in many cases, on
transparencies and other media. They are the most popular output devices besides monitors.
The speed of early printers was measured in units of characters per second, while that of
modern printers is measured in pages per minute. There are different types of printers based on
the technology they use. We shall only describe a few that you will find in a data processing
center:

(i) Dot-Matrix Printer

This operates by striking pins against an ink ribbon to create the required characters. Each pin
makes a dot, and a combination of dots form characters and illustrations. Dot-matrix printers
are cheap, relatively fast, but they do not produce high-quality output.

(ii) Line Printer

This type of printer can print an entire line at one time with as much speed as 3,000 lines per
minute. The print quality is relatively low, and they are very noisy.

(iii) Thermal Printers

This type of printer produces images by pushing electrically heated pins against special heat-
sensitive paper. Thermal printers are economical and are used in most calculators and many
fax machines. They make low-quality print and form require special handling of documents.

(iv) Ink-jet Printer

This works by spraying ionized ink at a sheet of paper. Magnetized plates in the ink s path
direct the ink onto the paper in the desired shapes. They are popular with portable printers
because they could exist in small sizes. Ink-jet printers require a particular type of ink that
may smudge on low-cost copier paper. They provide an economical way of the way to print
full-color documents.

(v) Laser Printers

45
 The laser printer utilizes a laser beam to produce an image on a drum. The light of the laser
alters the electrical signal on the drum wherever it makes a hit. The drum is made to roll
through a reservoir of toner, which is picked up by the charged portion of the drum. After this,
the toner is transferred to the paper through a combination of heat and pressure. LaserJet
printer produces very high-quality output. This is as a result of the resolution, that is, how
many dots per inch (dpi) they lay down. The available resolutions range from 300 dpi at the
low end to 1,200 dpi at the high end. The color laser printers can produce colored outputs
though they are usually more expensive because of the addition toners required. Laser printers
are non-impact printers; they are not as noisy as dot-matrix or line printers. They are relatively
fast, although not as fast as some dot-matrix printers. Their speed ranges from 4 to 20 pages of
text.

(d) Plotter
A Plotter, though mainly used for engineering applications, uses the drawn pictures or
lines on paper based on commands from a computer. The can produce continuous lines,
whereas printers can only simulate lines by printing a closely spaced series of dots. Plotters are
not as fast as printers but are useful introducing a large-size chart, maps, or drawings even in
color.

(e) Speaker
A voice output device such as a speaker converts digital output data back into intelligible
speech. They are used to deliver audio output from animation, multimedia applications from
the web, and music to the user.

(f) Microfilms and Microfiche

Microfilm and microfiche were used to store large quantities of output as the microscopic
filmed documents, but they are now being replaced by optical disk technology.

4.0 Conclusion
The communication of Input/Output refers to the communication between a data processing
system such as a computer, and the outside world. Users interact majorly with computer
systems through input and output devices.

5.0 Summary
This unit covers a wide range of devices that can be used for capturing data. The choice of
input device will depend on the type of source. For example, in capturing bank transaction
data from a cheque, a MICR device will be most suitable. Also, we covered various output
devices, such as printers, plotters, and speakers.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments

Q1. List the input and output devices you would expect to see in an examination processing
IT center?
Q2. List three (3) input devices and two (2) output devices that are nbe needed for data
processing in a supermarket.
Q3 Why does mouse generally preferable to Joystick?

7.0 References/Further Readings

Eric Frick, Information Technology Essentials Volume 1: Introduction to Information Systems,
Volume 1 of Information Technology Essentials Series, Amazon Digital Services LLC - KDP
Print US, 2019, ISBN:1708175148, 9781708175146..
Computer Service and Repair Fifth Edition, Revised, Lab Manual by Richard M. Roberts
(Author), Dr. Adam Beatty.

46
 MODULE 2
UNIT 1: DATA STORAGE DEVICES

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Diskette
3.2 Hard disks
3.3 Removable hard disks
3.4 Magnetic tape
3.5 Optical Storage
3.6 Accessing Data from Disk
3.7 Disk Performance
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction
The computer primary memory is limited in the amount of information it can store at a time. In
addition, the content of the RAM is temporary i.e., once the power of the computer is turned off,
all the data and program within it simply vanishes. This is why data must be stored on
secondary storage devices which are able to hold data and programs on a more permanent basis.
External storage devices consist of large-capacity, slow-access data storage attached to a digital
computer and used to store information that exceeds the capacity of main storage. Two main
technologies are used to store data today: magnetic and optical storage. Although devices that
store data typically employ one or the other, some combine both technologies. The primary
types of magnetic storage are:

2.0 Objectives
The objectives of the unit are to:

• Identify and describe data storage devices

• Parameters for disk performance

3.1 Diskette
A Diskette or floppy disk is a data storage medium that is composed of a disk of thin, flexible
magnetic storage medium encased in a square or rectangular piece of mylar plastic. Floppy
disks are read and written by a floppy disk drive or FDD, the initials of which should not be
confused with "fixed disk drive," which is another term for a hard disk drive. Floppy disk exists
in the following sizes; 8-inch (200 mm), 5¼-inch (133 mm), and the most common 3½-inch (90
mm). Though floppy disks are still used in some data processing environment, they are now
superseded mainly by flash and optical storage devices. At the same time, some users consider
emails as a convenient way of exchanging small to medium size digital files. Floppy optical
drives combine magnetic and optical technologies to store about 21MB of data on a media
similar to 3½-inch floppy disks. The name is a portmanteau of the words 'floppy' and 'optical.'
This device was introduced in 1989 by Insite Peripherals of San Jose but did not become
popular because of the limited storage capacity it offers. Similar technology was used in the
Laser Servo-120 drive introduced in 1996 with 120MB capacity.

47
 Figure 18: Floppy Disk

3.2 Hard disks

In a data processing environment, a hard disk drive (HDD), commonly referred to as a hard
drive, hard disk or fixed disk drive, serve as a permanent storage device for a large amount of
data. Originally, the term "hard" was temporary slang, substituting "hard" for "rigid," before
these drives had an established and universally-agreed-upon name. The hard disk drive (often
shortened to "hard drive") and the hard disk are not the same things, they are packaged as a unit,
and so either term is sometimes used to refer to the whole unit. A hard disk is a set of stacked
"disks,” each of which, like phonograph records, has data recorded electromagnetically in
concentric circles or “tracks” on the disk. A “head” (something like a phonograph arm but in a
relatively fixed position) records (writes) or reads the information on the tracks. Two heads, one
on each side of a disk, read or write the data as the disk spins. Each read or write operation
requires that data be located, which is an operation called a "seek." (Data already in a disk
cache, however, will be located more quickly.) Modern computers come with a hard disk that
contains several billion bytes (gigabytes) of storage.

Figure 19: Hard Disk

3.3 Removable hard disks

This is a variation of the hard disk in which hard disks enclosed in plastic or metal cartridges are
easily removable like floppy disks. It combines the best features of hard and floppy disks. They
are used to provide large economic, high, fast, and portable storage facilities for data
processing.

3.4 Magnetic tape

Magnetic tape has historically been found more convenient means of large data storage over disk
where media portability or removability is required for backup. Magnetic Tape uses the same
read/write techniques as disks. Data is stored on flexible mylar tape covered with magnetic
oxide. Data is stored in parallel tracks of 9, 18, or 36. Data on tapes are accessed sequentially.
Tapes provide slow, very cheap, large capacity backup for data. The rapid advances in disk
storage technologies resulting in and the improvement in disk storage density, and reduced-
price, coupled with arguably declining innovation in tape storage technology, has reduced the

48
market share of tape storage devices.

Figure 20: Tape

3.5 Optical Storage
The optical storage devices such as CDs and DVDs are means in which data is written and read
with a laser for archival or backup purposes. The optical storage devices are fast replacing both
hard drives in computers and tape backup in mass storage. This is because optical media are
more durable than tape and less vulnerable to environmental conditions lasting up to seven
times as long as traditional storage media. However, at present optical media are slower than
typical hard drive speeds and offer lower storage capacities. Optical disk capacity ranges up to 6
gigabytes (6,000,000 bytes), which is far more compared to the 1.44 megabytes (MB), that is,
1,440,000 bytes offered by a floppy disk. A newer technology, the digital versatile disc DVD,
has about 4.7-gigabyte storage capacity on a single-sided, one-layered disk compared with 65
gigabyte of storage for a CD-ROM disk. Invariably, they can be used to hold large amount of
data.

Figure 21: Optical Storage

3.6 Accessing Data from Disk

Bits of data (0 s and 1 s) are stored on circular magnetic platters called disks and rotates rapidly
(& never stops). A disk head reads and writes bits of data as under the head. Often, several
platters are organized into a disk pack (or disk drive). A disk contains concentric tracks. Tracks
are divided into sectors. A sector is the smallest addressable unit in a disk.

Figure 22: Disk Organization

49
When a program reads a byte from the disk, the operating system locates the surface, track, and
sector containing that byte, and reads the entire sector into a particular area in main memory
called buffer. The bottleneck of disk access is moving the read/write arm. So it makes sense to
store a file in tracks that are below/above each other on different surfaces rather than in several
tracks on the same surface.

Cylinder
A cylinder is the set of tracks at a given radius of a disk pack. i.e. a cylinder is the set of tracks
that can be accessed without moving the disk arm. All the information on a cylinder can be
accessed without moving the read/write arm.

3.6.1 Disk Performance

In measuring the performance of a storage device, we may consider the following three
parameters.

(a) Rotational delay/Latency

This is the time it takes to position the proper sector under the read/write head. In general, it is
used to refer to the period of time that one component in a system is spinning its wheels waiting
for another component. Latency, therefore, is wasted time. It makes sense to separate read
latency and write latency, and in case of sequential access storage, minimum, maximum and
average latency. Consider a hard disk which rotates at about 5000 rpm i.e. one revolution per 12
msec. The average latency can be calculated as follows:

Min latency = 0
Max latency = Time for one disk revolution
Average latency (r) = (min + max) / 2
= max / 2
= time for ½ disk revolution
Typically, 68 ms average.

(b) Throughput
This is the rate at which information can be read from or written to the storage. It is expressed in
terms of megabytes per second or MB/s. A media accessed sequentially, as opposed to
randomly, typically yield maximum throughput.

(c) Seek time

This is the amount of time between when the CPU requests a file and when the first byte of the
file is sent to the CPU. Seek times between 10 and 20 milliseconds are common.

3.7 A USB Flash Drive

This is a NAND-type flash memory data storage device integrated with a USB (universal serial
bus) connector. USB flash drives are typically removable and rewritable, much shorter than a
floppy disk (1-4 inches or 25-102 mm), and weigh less than 56g. Their storage capacities
typically range from 64MB to 32GB or more. They have 10-year data retention. USB flash
drives offer potential advantages over other portable storage devices, particularly the floppy
disk. They are more compact, faster, hold more data, are more reliable for lack of moving parts,
and have a more durable design.

50
 Figure 23: A Flash

3.8 Secure Digital Card (SD Card)

A common type of memory card, SD cards are used in multiple electronic devices, including
digital cameras and mobile phones. Although there are different sizes, classes, and capacities
available, they all use a rectangular design with one side "chipped off" to prevent the card from
being inserted into the camera or other device the wrong way.

3.9 Solid State Drive (SSD)

A solid state drive uses flash memory to store data and is sometimes used in devices such as
netbooks, laptop, and desktop computers instead of a traditional hard disk drive. The advantages
of an SSD over a HDD include a faster read/write speed, noiseless operation, greater reliability,
and lower power consumption. The biggest downside is cost, with an SSD offering lower
capacity than an equivalently priced HDD.

3.10 Cloud Storage

With users increasingly operating multiple devices in multiple places, many are adopting online
and cloud computing solutions. Cloud computing basically involves accessing services over a
network via a collection of remote servers. Although the idea of a "cloud of computers" may
sound rather abstract to those unfamiliar with this metaphorical concept, in practice it can
provide powerful storage solutions for devices that are connected to the internet.

3.11 Punch Card

Punch cards (or punched cards) were a common method of data storage used in the early
computers. Basically, they consisted of a paper card with punched or perforated holes that have
been created by hand or machine. The cards were entered into the computer to enable the
storage and accessing of information. This form of data storage media pretty much disappeared
as new and better technologies were developed.

4.0 Conclusion
Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, refers to computer components, devices,
and recording media that retain digital data used for data processing. Secondary storage differs
from primary storage in that it is not directly accessible by the Central processing unit.
Secondary storage does not lose the data when power suddenly goes down i.e. it is non-volatile.
Secondary storage is not as expensive as primary storage consequently, a higher magnitude of
data are stored in secondary storage than primary storage in data processing centers.

5.0 Summary
This unit covered computer data storage devices and their performance
measurement.
The knowledge acquired will be useful in the following units.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

Q1. When do you require a Secondary storage?
Q2. Explain the meaning of the term Latency

51
 Q3. Highlight and write short note on 8 kinds of storage devices.

7.0 References/Further Readings

ITL Education Solutions Limited, Introduction to Information Technology, 2nd Edition, Pearson
Education India, 2012, ISBN: 9789332525146

Computer Service and Repair Fifth Edition, Revised, Lab Manualby Richard M. Roberts (Author),
Dr. Adam Beatty.

52
 MODULE 2
UNIT 2: FILE ORGANIZATION

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 What is a Computer file?
3.2 File Organization
3.3 Classification of Storage Devices
3.4 Types of data files
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction

It is not enough to acquire excellent computer system; hardware and software. Files within the
system must be well maintained, managed and organized. Good file organization leads to
productivity. When files are well arranged and maintained, users can easily access and retrieve
the information they need in good time. Different ways of file organization are: Serial File
Organization, Serial File Organization, Sequential File Organization, Indexed Sequential
Organization, Direct or Random File Organization.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, the student should be able to:
• Explain the meaning of a computer file
• Identify and describe file organization techniques
• Describe the type of data files used in a Data Processing Environment

3.1 What is a Computer file?

A file is collection of data or information that has a name called the filename. Most of the
information stored in computer system is stored as files. A file is often stored with a user’s given
name and a system supplied extension. The name of the file should reflect the content of the
data stored in the file. For example, payroll or result File. The extension of the file should
reflect either the type of file (i.e. program file, image file, audio file etc.) or the software used to
create the file (e.g. MS WORD document, MS EXCEL Worksheet, BASIC Compiler). For
example;
Table 5: Computer Files

S/No Type of File / Software Extension

1 Microsoft Word Document .doc
2 Audio file / Video .wav , avi, .mp3
3 BASIC compiler .bas
4 Text .txt
5 Microsoft Excel .xls

(a) Program File

53
These are files that store sets of instructions written in a programming language. A source program file,
for example, contains the instructions written in a high-level language such as BASIC or FORTRAN
programming language by a programmer. In contrast, the object file is the translated form of the source
file in machine code after. The files that contain the machine code are called executable files (or binary
files)

(b) ASCII File

ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. ASCII files are text-based files.
The characters are represented in ASCII code (without formatting such as underline, italics, boldface, or
graphics). Files stored in this format are used to transfer documents between incompatible computer
platforms, such as IBM and Macintosh.

(c) Image File

Documents containing digitized graphics or images are stored in this format.

Image files: Image files contain digitized graphics.

Audio and video files: Audio files contain digitized sound, while video files contain digitized video
images and animation.

(d) Audio and Video File

This is a file that is used to store digitized sound or digitized video images and animation.

(e) Data File

This refers to document files, contain data, not programs. Their contents are using application software.

3.2 File Organization

The file is created, arranged, and maintained in data processing systems to retrieve quickly. Computer
systems store files permanently on secondary storage devices. Records or files are arranged in several
ways on the storage media, and the arrangement determines how individual records can be accessed or
retrieved. Four common ways of file organization and access are:

(a) Serial File Organization

In this method of the file, organization records are not arranged in any specific order. If magnetic tapes
are used to store data, it would be necessary to wind the tape forward and backward to access a given
record since access can only be made in the sequence in which the records were physically stored on the
tape, i.e., serially. Moreover, if records are stored on disk, a full index will be required to access any
given record. This method of file organization is, therefore, inefficient.

(b) Sequential File Organization

In this type of file organization, data records are typically stored in ascending order of required fields.
Data must be retrieved in the same physical sequence in which they are stored. It is the only file
organization method that can be used on magnetic tapes. Magnetic tape is a sequential storage device.
That is, records and files are stored in magnetic tape in sequential order. They are also read in sequential
order. Note that records may also be stored sequentially on disk if desired. Serial and sequential file
access means the same thing regarding files stored on tapes when stored in sequence, but this may not be
the same case with disk files as the records accessed serially may not be defined in a critical sequence.
This sequential file organization method is no longer a popular storage or access records in a file.

54
(c) Indexed Sequential Organization
This technique of file organization uses both the sequential and direct access methods. It is widely
applied to the storage of records on the magnetic disk. It allows the sequential file to be manipulated
serially as the record is stored in ascending order of key field. Also, it will enable direct access to storage
devices to be accessed directly using the indexed sequential access method (ISAM). This access method
relies on an index or key fields to locate individual records. An index to a file is similar to how a book
can be used to find its physical position //on a library shelf. The method requires that data are stored in a
magnetic or optical disk. For example, a university could index specific ranges of students’ matriculation
numbers from 0000 to 1000, 1001 to 2000, and so on. For the computer to find the record with the key
field 8888, it would go first to the index, which would give the location of the range in which the key
field appears (for example, 8001 to 9000). The computer would then search sequentially (from 8001) to
find area 8888

(d) Director Random File Organization

This file organization is utilized with magnetic disk technology. Most computer applications today use
this approach for storing records in computer files. In this approach, individual records are kept in a
particular sequence of key fields. Thus, users can access records in a sequence they desire, without
regard to actual physical order on magnetic tapes or disk. With this approach, every record has an
address that makes it possible to locate it independently of other storage media records. To allow easy
access and retrieval of information, an index or table of the key is maintained with the record's relative
record number in storage. The actual key is looked up in the index with the corresponding record
number of the record that matches the key to retrieve a record. Once this is found, the address in storage
is worked out, and the recoded accessed. Records stored with the technique are much faster to be
accessed than records store with the sequential file organization. However, they may be more expensive
because optic or magnetic disks may be involved in their storage.

3.3 Classification of Storage Devices

Storage devices can be classified generally as sequential access or random access. For example, a tape
drive is a sequential-access device because to get to record five (5) on the tape, and the drive needs to
pass through points 1, 2, 3, and 4. A disk drive, on the other hand, is a random-access device because it
allows the record at any position on the disk to be accessed without passing through all intervening
positions

Figure 24: Storage Device Access

3.4 Types of data files

Data stored in a data processing center could be considered as a transaction file and master file.

(a) Transaction file

55
This refers to a collection of transaction records. The transaction file is a temporary holding file that
stores records that generally have a limited useful lifetime. For an employee file for payroll processing, a
transaction file would hold, the name, contact information, hour worked, pay rate, tax, utility bills, etc.
for staff for a particular month. At the end of every month or so, there will be a need to compute the
staff's salaries from the information in the transaction file. After the transactions are successfully carried
out, the transaction file's information will be used to update the master file. In a data processing system,
transaction records may be retained online for some period and later achieved on permanent storage
devices. Transaction files can serve as audit trails and history for the organization.

(b) Master File

The master file is a collection of records that are relatively permanent records that are updated
periodically. Thus once a record has been added to a master file, it remains in the system indefinitely.
The value of the record fields will change over its lifetime, but the individual records are retained
indefinitely. Master files contain descriptive data, such as name and address, and summary information,
such as students Cumulative, Grade Point Average in an examination processing system or total net pay,
total tax deductions in a payroll system. The changes to be made to a master file could be the addition of
records, deletion of a record, or update of a record. This will occur in an organization when new staff
joins the workforce or when a staff resigns his appointment.

In addition, the master file of a payroll system may be composed of discrete pieces of information (such
as a name, address, or employee number, called data elements. Data are keyed into the system, updating
the data elements periodically. The master file features are combined in different ways to make up
periodic reports of interest to management and government agencies or to generate paychecks sent to the
staff at the end of the month. Other examples of master files include Customer, Product, Result, or
Supplier file.

4.0 Conclusion

An effective data processing system is that one provides users with timely, accurate, and relevant
information. The type and size of devices used for data storage determine how fast information can be
retrieved. Two types of data files are described: Transaction and master file -The data in transaction files
are regularly used for generating information, while data that require periodic updates are moved to the
master file.

5.0 Summary

In this unit, we explained the meaning of a computer file, described the different types of file
organization, and explain the importance of the terms, transaction, and master file. These details are vital
for the comprehension of the contents in the subsequent units.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

Q1. Define the term a computer file
Q2. Explain three main techniques of file organization
Q3. List and explain the two types of files.

7.0 References/Further Readings

Jeffery L. Whitten, Lonnie D. Bentley, Kevin C. Dittman, Systems Analysis and

Design Methods, McGraw Hill, New York, 2004,

Introduction to Computers and Information Technology, 2nd edition, Pearson, 2015, ISBN-13:
9781323237120

56
 MODULE 2
UNIT 3: DATA PROCESSING TECHNIQUES

Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Meaning of Data Communication
3.2 Batch Processing
3.3 Online processing
3.4 Transaction Processing:
3.5 Real-time Systems
3.6 Distributed Processing
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction

The processing of data need not be restricted to a particular environment. Data processed in remote
locations can be accessed via telecommunications infrastructure. Different kinds of processing
techniques are made possible by telecommunications. The methods are discussed in this unit.

2.0 Objectives

At the end of this unit, the student should be able to:

• Definition and explanation of the terms; data and information

• Describe a computer system

• Identify the types of computer

• Describe the basic operations of a computer

3.1 Meaning of Data Communication

Data communication refers to the process of transmitting data/information from a source via a
telecommunications system in coded forms to a destination to interchange details of the business
transactions. The transfer of data requires some forms of electromagnetic energy such as electricity,
light, radio, or waves transmitted through a physical medium such as the atmosphere, cable, or wire. A
telecommunication system refers to a collection of compatible hardware and software required to
exchange information from one location to another. A telecommunication system can transmit text,
graphic images, voice, or video information. The major components of a telecommunication system are:

• A Computer System: This is required for data processing

• Terminals: These are any input/output device that sends or receive data
• Communication channel: This is the link by which data, graphic images, voice, or video are transmitted
between sending and receiving devices in a network. Communication channels use various
communications media, such as telephone lines, cable, coaxial cable, fiber-optics and wireless
transmission

57
• Communications software: This controls input and output activities and manages other functions of the
communication network

3.2 Batch Processing

This used to be the dominant form of data processing. It is a data processing method, in which
transaction data such as data from time card is collected over a period say, a month for payroll
processing, and then processed all at once as a batch to update the master file. A payroll system keeps
tracks of the money paid to employees. With this kind of processing, a user may not receive a reliable
response from the data processing system until the batch is processed. For instance, if the pay of staff is
computed at the end of the month, it will not be possible to know precisely how much the team will earn
until all the data elements for calculating his pay are collated and processed.

Another example is a banking system where accounts' reconciliation is done only after the close of day
operations, and the entire transactions are processed as a batch. Any queries performed before the batch
is processed will certainly not be accurate. However, many banks in Nigeria have begun to integrate
real-time modules into their application.

Figure 25: Example of Batch Processing and Online Processing

58
3.3 Online processing

This is a method of data processing method whereby data about a single transaction is processed
immediately. It is captured. This processing method allows transactions to be entered directly to the
system via terminals, PCs, or workstations as they occur, thereby updating the master file immediately
as the transactions occur. The point of entry may be remote from the location at which the update his
made. For example, when you withdraw cash from an automated teller machine, your withdrawal is
instantly processed, and your account balance is updated. Other online processing systems include:

• Visa processing

• Result checking

• Banking (account inquiry)

• Air seat reservation

• Application processing

• Examination

Because of the prevalence of PC in data processing, we rarely hear the term online processing. The term
client/server computing is more prevalent where the PC is the client.

3.4 Transaction Processing:

The transaction processing system (TPS) is an automated system that performs and records the daily or
routine transactions necessary to conduct business. A transaction may include order or payment
confirmation. Transaction processing entails updating appropriate database records as soon as a
transaction is captured into the computer. The processing of a transaction may require that confirmation
be sent to the user or a customer immediately.
Transaction processing systems are the backbone of an organization because they update frequently. The
instant update is a requirement because, at any given moment, a customer may need an inventory
balance, an account balance, or the result of an examination Transaction professing is also referred to as
"online transaction processing" (OLTP). This means that the system should be available 24x7 on reliable
computers and networks. Common examples of transaction processing systems include Sales order
entry, hotel reservation systems, payroll, examination processing systems, and shopping systems.

3.5 Real-time Systems

These are systems designed to deal with dynamic situations to control a critical operation such as an
airline reservation system, which must be continually updated as events occur. Seat reservation in-flight
operations require communication-oriented Server computers supported by a network of terminals or
PCs serving as clients. These facilitate response to inquiries on seat reservations and ensure that the
master file is updated as soon as transactions are completed. The systems provide that inquiries on the
available seat respond to instantaneously and prevent double, or overbooking of a seat in the aircraft.

3.6 Distributed Processing

Many organizations that were used to centralized systems for data processing can now adopt Distributed
data processing because of advances in computing technologies. A centralized system consists of a
central multi-user computer (usually mainframe) that hosts a data processing system. The users interact
with this host via terminals or PCs serving as a client, but virtually all of the actual processing and work
is done on the host computer. All the devices in the centralized system such as PCs, terminals, network
devices, and printer converge on one central computer, even though the users may work from remote
locations via terminals. All processing and storage take place in the central area.

59
On the other hand, a distributed system allows the components of the data processing system to be made
available at multiple locations in a computer network, which means that the processing workload
required for supporting the elements is also distributed across multiple computers on the network.
Besides, the computers, storage devices, and even some computer personnel may need to be distributed
to separate locations throughout the organization for the system's efficiency. Distributed data processing
allows data processing and storage to occur at several locations in the computer system. There are
advantages and disadvantages associated with adopting distributed data processing in an organization.
Moreover, these are as follow:

Advantages of Distributed Data Processing

• Modularity
• Easy Integration
• Better response time
• Data processing is closer to the end-user.
• Ability to share data
• Greater reliability
• Local control of data
• Lower cost
• Direct Users interaction

Disadvantages of Distributed Data Processing

• The technical problem of connecting and maintaining dissimilar systems

• Need for a sophisticated communication system may incur an additional cost
• Data integrity and security problem resulting from possible duplication of data on several systems
along with the network
• Interoperability issues- the technical problem of connecting dissimilar machines
• Lack of skilled professional for systems support

4.0 Conclusion

Some of the processing techniques studied in this unit are closely related but with a little meaning. For
example, an on-line system needs not to be a real-time system, but a real-time system must be an online
system.

5.0 Summary
An essential feature in modern organizations is the need for users to access and use data from different
computers. Timely availability of information enhances decision making. In this unit, we studied central
data processing techniques.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

Q1. What do you understand by Data Communication?
Q2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the Distributed Data Process?
Q3. Describe the essential components of a telecommunication system
Q4. Explain the following terms: (i.) Batch Processing (ii) Online processing
(iii) Transaction Processing (iv) Real-time Systems

7.0 References/Further Readings

Dusan Petkovic, Microsoft SQL Server 2016: A Beginner's Guide, Sixth Edition, 6th Edition, McGraw-
Hill 2016, ISBN: 9781259641800
Networking for Beginners: Easy Guide to Learn Basic/Advanced Computer Network, Hardware,
Wireless, and Cabling. LTE, Internet and Cyber Security Paperback – November 28, 2019

60
 MODULE 2
UNIT 4: TRADITIONAL FILE SYSTEM PROCESSING

Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Traditional File Systems / Processing
3.2 Problem with the Traditional File Environment
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction

File systems were an early attempt to computerize the manual systems prevalent in the early days of data
processing. The manual system works well while there are not many items, but it breaks down when we
have many items, and we want to cross-reference them. So the file-based system was a response to
industry needs for more efficient data access. However, rather than have everything centralized, each
department would have its own set of files. File system, which is also referred to as a traditional file
processing approach, is inadequate for many organizations because it involves creating, organizing,
storing, manipulating, and maintaining records within an organization that leads to each functional area
or department creating and maintaining its data files and programs.

2.0 Objectives

At the end of this unit, the student should be able to:

• Explain the concept file system
• Identify and explain the problems with the file system

3.1 Traditional File Systems /Processing

As an organization grows, computer systems and applications become more complex. For example, a
University s computer system that handles student s information if the data of students is to be kept
independently by the units that each student interacts with, for example, Registration, Hostel, Accounts,
Examination, and Records, Students Affairs, Health Centre, etc. Worse still, each department is allowed
to keep students' information independently in their application. A time comes when multiple files
containing the same records of students will exist in the different units.

61
 Figure 26: A File System

Figure 26 shows two departments: registration and exams and records with each department having its
own set of files and programs written for them. As this process goes on for more than five years,
depending on the number of students’ enrollment, the university is saddled with hundreds of programs
and applications without adequate control of the data. The University will be collecting the same
information in more than one file. Some of the resulting problems are data redundancy, lack of data
integrity, and lack of program-data dependence, inflexibility, and inability to share data.

3.2 Problem with the Traditional File System

Some problems with the traditional file environment are Data Dependence, Program-Data Dependence,
and Difficulty of Data-Sharing. These are discussed as follow:

(a) Data Redundancy:

This means the presence of duplicate data in multiple data files and often in different formats. This is
often the result when different departments are allowed to collect the same piece of information about an
object. For instance, within the university environment, the hostels and student registration department
might collect the same student’s information (Name, Mat No, Level, and Address). Because it is
collected and maintained in so many different places, the same data items may be repeated in different
departments. When data fields are repeated in different files, storage spaces are wasted, and much time is
spent trying to update the records.

(b) Program-Data Dependence

Program-Data Dependence is the tight relationship between data stored in files and the specific programs
that process the files' information. Computer programs become so data specific; any changes in data
would also mean any modification of the program's processes. Such changes could be costly in terms of
the time and cost of re-programming

62
(c) Difficulty of Data-Sharing
It is difficult to share data in a file environment because it may be challenging to relate the data in one
file with that of another within one or several departments were files are kept. Besides, there is no
control over the access to data, which makes it difficult to retrieve the desired information.

(d) Access Time in a Traditional File Environment

One of the primary disadvantages of the traditional file environment is the time it takes to access data. It
takes lots of time to locate a few files in an extensive paper filing system, depending on their location.
Electronic databases allow for almost instantaneous access to information. Having a faster data access
approach increases managers, analysts, accountants, and other workers who use data regularly.

(f) Editing and Communication

A traditional file system is cumbersome in that it does not allow users to edit files or send information to
others easily. Paper files often cannot be edited directly, forcing users to make new copies to update old
files. To distribute data on paper files, users must mail, fax, or scan the data. Databases allow users to
edit information fields directly, and because the information is stored digitally, it is already in a form that
can be easily transmitted.

(g) Order of Data

Data can get out of order in traditional filing systems. If someone accidentally puts a file in the wrong
place, or takes a file out of a cabinet and forgets to put it back, it can lead to lost data or the creation of
additional copies of files. Electronic filing systems allow users to quickly check whether information
already exists somewhere in the system, which helps avoid redundant files and data loss problems.

4.0 Conclusion
The file systems lead to a situation where an organization collects the same information in far too many
files. Some of the resulting problems are Data Dependence, Program-Data Dependence, and Difficulty
of Data-Sharing amongst several others.

5.0 Summary
In a data processing center, there is a need to plan for the data will be managed from the onset. Most
organizations began information processing on a small scale, automating one application at a time until
there is no more control over the data. Understanding the problems of file-based systems may prevent us
from repeating these problems.

Traditional file-based systems are the predecessor of database systems. We shall discuss
the database systems in the next unit.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

Q1. What do you understand by Traditional File System?
Q2. Explain five main problems with the Traditional File System
Q3. With the aid of a diagram, describe the system of file allocation.

7.0 References/Further Readings

Dominic Giampaolo, Practical File System Design with the Be File System, Morgan Kaufmann;
Kindle edition (August 29, 2013), ISBN-13: 9781558604971

63
 MODULE 3
UNIT 1: DATABASE PROCESSING

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Database Management System
3.2 Components of a Database Management System
3.3 Database Model
3.4. Demerits of DBMS
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction
The database technology is an answer to the traditional file system. It helps to solve many of the
problems associated with the traditional file organization. A database is a collection of more than one
related files which are usually integrated. A database can also be seen as a collection of data organized to
serve many applications efficiently by centralizing the data and minimizing redundant data. So, instead
of storing data in separate files for each application, data are stored physically to appear to users as if
they are stored in only one location. In this way, a single database would be made to service multiple
applications. Database technology has a lot to offer in managing an organization s data though not
without some demerits.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, the student should be able to:

• Explain the meaning of the term database

• Meaning of the term Database Management System (DBMS)
• Components of the DBMS environment.
• Identify the merits and demerits of DBMS

3.1 Database Management System

A database is a collection of data stored in a standardized format, designed to be shared by multiple

users. A database management system (DBMS) is software that defines a database, stores the data,
supports a query language, produces reports, and create a data entry screen. Some of the most
challenging problems in building applications arise in storing and retrieving data.
The problem includes conserving space, retrieving data rapidly, sharing data with multiple users
simultaneously, and providing backup and recovery of the data. A Database Management System is a
complex set of software programs that controls the organization, storage, management, and retrieval of
data in a database that helps resolve the challenges of building data processing applications. The DBMS
acts as an interface between application programs and the physical data files.

Let take the student information system; instead of storing data in a separate system and separate files
for medical, hostel, finance, exams and records, registration, the university would only need to create a
database. In the figure below, a single database is created to process students' results and the handling of
registration information.

64
Figure 27: A Database Management System

When the application programs call for a data item such as Matric no, the DBMS finds the item
in the database and presents, it sends the information to the application program. With the data files, the
programmer would need to provide adequate information in the program of a database on how the
computer would locate a data item that has already been defined. With a DBMS, most of the data
definition statements found in traditional programs would not be necessary. DMBS makes it possible to
do many routine tasks. DMBS provides a convenient interface to create and maintain a database and
enable individual business applications to extract the data they need without having to create separate
files or data definitions in their computer programs. Examples of common DBMSs include: Oracle,
DB2, Sybase Adaptive Server Enterprise, Data was, FileMaker, Firebird, Ingress, Informix, Microsoft
Access, Microsoft SQL Server, Microsoft Visual FoxPro, MySQL, PostgreSQL, Progress, SQLite.

3.2 Components of a Database Management System

A database management system has three components; A data definition language, Data manipulation
language, and A dictionary.
(a) A data definition language is the component of a database management system that defines each data
as it appears in the database. A data definition language is a formal language used by the programmer to
specify the database's content and structure. The data definition language defines each element as it
appears in the database before the data element is translated into the forms required by application
programs.

(b) A data manipulation language is a language associated with a database management system
employed by end-users and programmers to manipulate data in the database. Most DBMS has a
specialized language called a data manipulation language used in conjunction with some conventional
third or fourth-generation programming language to manipulate the data in the database. The language
contains commands that permit end users and programming specialists to extract data from the database
to satisfy information requests and develop applications. The most prominent data manipulation

65
language today is Structured Query Language or SQL. Complex programming tasks cannot be
performed efficiently with specific data manipulation language. Most mainframe DBMS are compatible
with COBOL, FORTRAN, and other modern programming languages, permitting greater processing
efficiency and flexibility.

(c) Data dictionary: This is an automated or manual file that stores definitions of data elements and data
characteristics such as usage, physical representation, ownership (who is responsible for maintaining the
data authorization, and security. It is the third element of a DBMS. Many data dictionaries can produce
lists and reports of data utilization, groupings, program location, etc.

3.3 Database Model

We shall examine four major database models:

(a.) Relational Database

The relational database model is the most recent of the three database models and overcomes some of
the other two models' limitations. In a relational database, files are organized in tables called a relation, a
two-dimensional table of data consisting of columns and rows. A relation is also called an entity or
record. A record is made up of related fields uniquely identified by field name, also referred to as data
elements or attributes. The fields are used to store data containing values relating to a particular relation,
an employee, or a student registration record. Table 6 shows a student record database that holds details
of students Matriculation number, Name, department, and level.

Figure 28: A Relational Database

66
Table 6: A Relational Database

Fields
Matric_No Name Department Level
Records NOU050010456 Sonekan Tunde Accounting 400
NOU050010457 Daramola Kemi Mathematics 400
NOU050010459 Akinlabi Oluwafemi Economics 400

(b) Hierarchical Database

In a hierarchical database, records are organized in a treelike structure by type. The relationship between
records types is said to be a parent-child relationship, in which any child type relates only to a single
parent type. A record is subdivided into segments that are connected in a one-to-many parent-child
relationship. The most common hierarchical DMBS is IBM S IMS (Information Management System).

Figure 29: Hierarchical Database Model

(c) Network Database

The network model is a database model conceived as a flexible way of representing objects and their
relationships. It is similar to the hierarchical structure except that anyone record type can relate to any
number of other record types. The network data model presents a logical database model that is useful
for depicting a many-to-many relationship. Like the hierarchical structure, the network database
structure is used in the older mainframe system.

67
Figure 30: Network Database

(d) Object-Oriented Database

An object-oriented database is a newer structure that has recently been generating a great deal of interest.
This structure groups data items and their associated characteristics, attributes, and procedures into
complex objects. Physically, an object can be anything: a product, an event, a house, an appliance, a
textile, an art piece, a toy, or a customer complaint. An object is defined by its characteristics, attributes,
and procedures. Objects characteristics can be text, sound, graphics, and video. Examples of attributes
might be color, size, style, quantity, and price. A procedure refers to the processing or handling that can
be associated with the object.

Figure 31: Object-Oriented Database Model

3.3 Advantages of a Database Management System

The following are the advantages of Database Management Systems

• Encourages strategic use of corporate data
• Reduced complexity of the organization s information systems environment
• Reduced data redundancy and inconsistency
• Application-data independence
• Reduced application development and maintenance costs
• Improved flexibility of information systems

68
• Avoids duplicate data
• Increased access and availability of data and information
• Logical & Physical data independence Control of data redundancy
• Data consistency
• Sharing of data
• Improved data integrity
• Improved maintenance through data independence.
• Minimal data redundancy
• Integration of data
• Improved integrity
• Consistent security
• Increased productivity

3.4. Problems and Challenges of Database Management Systems

The following are the problems associated with Database Management Systems
• Complexity
• Cost of DBMS
• Cost of conversion
• Higher impact of a failure
• Additional Hardware Costs
• Take a long time to design and implement
• Performance
• Experts -Specialized Personnel
• Potential organizational Conflict

4.0 Conclusion

In an ideal database management system, the data in the database are defined only once and used for all
data processing applications whose data reside in the database, thereby eliminating data redundancy and
inconsistency. As data processing applications request data elements from the database, the data
elements called for by the application are found and delivered by the DBMS. This enhances both the
productivity of the application developer and the end-user.

5.0 Summary
The use of a suitable Database Management System for data processing can reduce program-data
dependence along with program development and maintenance costs. Access and availability of
information can be increased because users and programmers can perform impromptu queries of data in
the database. However, the use of DBMS may lead to additional hardware costs, a higher impact on
failure, and some complexities among other demerits.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

Q1. What do you consider as the significant differences between hierarchical database and network
database?
Q2. Highlight 10 merits of DBMS
Q3. Highlight 5 demerits of DBMS

7.0 References/Further Readings

Gerald V. Post, Database Management Systems, Designing and Building Business
Applications, Third Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2005.
Dusan Petkovic, Microsoft SQL Server 2016: A Beginner's Guide, Sixth Edition, 6th Edition,
McGraw-Hill 2016, ISBN: 9781259641800

69
 MODULE 3
UNIT 2: DATA P ROCESSING PERSONNEL

Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Data Processing Manager
3.2 Systems Analyst
3.3 Computer Programmers
3.4 Operation Manager
3.5 Database Administrator
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction
The categories and number of staff found in a data processing center will largely depend on the
organization's size and the volume of work handled by the department. In any typical data processing
center, the following categories of staff will be found performing various duties:

Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Identify and outline the duties of various data processing personnel

3.1 Data Processing Manager

The head of a data processing department: A data processing manager's duties are summarized as
follows:

• Interprets and executes the data processing policy as defined by management

• Controls immediate subordinate in the attainment of project objectives
• Participates in the formulation of data processing policy
• Ensures that security policies are enforced
• Coordinates all data processing operations and ensures the workflow is smooth.
• Ensures that computer operating instructions are modified when the need arises
• Assess and review the effectiveness of all data processing procedures
• Ensures that the right software and hardware are purchased and used
• Monitoring test runs;
• Supervises post-implementation evaluation
• Ensures than training policy is implemented for staff
• Assesses the performance of staff for salary review and promotion
• Resolves between subordinates
• Provides leadership on data processing problems
• Develops and implements data processing standard s

3.2 Systems Analyst

The duties of System Analyst are summarized as follows:

· Liaises with the user departments to ensure their requirements and problem are fully captured before
systems design and implementation occur.

70
· Interprets terms of reference before embarking upon systems projects
· Studies the feasibility report before embarking on a systems development project
· Supervises, Organizes and coordinates the activities of subordinate staff
· Reviewing Performance of subordinates for appropriate recommendations to the Data processing
manager
· Organizes and reviews systems documentations to ensure its compliance with data processing
standards
· Studies, reviews and report progress on projects to the data processing manager
· Coordinates the development and implementation of alternative systems
· Reviewing performance of implemented systems and assessing the need for amendments or additional
training of staff
· Discusses project proposal with subordinates such as the chief programmer

3.3 Computer Programmers

The principal duties of computer programmers are summarized as follow:

• Liaise with system analyst to determine the philosophy of proposed systems and establish the type of
programming language to use a high level or assembly code
• Reviews systems specification to establish the details of system requirements before actual
implementation(coding)
• Converts systems specification and design documents to actual products
• Develops, implements and maintains computer software
• Deploys and configures software in the specified environments
• Handles integration and interoperability associated issues
• Develops user-friendly software
• Chooses test cases and monitor test runs
• Reviews the performances of subordinates
• Reports status of program development to systems analyst

3.4 Operation Manager

The principal duties of the operations manager are summarized as follow:

• Controls all operations activities such as data preparation, capture, and control, processing of data,
report generation, storing of data, preservation of backup devices, etc.
• Develops the operating schedule for all jobs to be run on the computer
• Ensures that data is received on time from the user’s department
• Maintains records on equipment utilizations
• Implements standard procedures to improve the efficiency of operations
• Keeps the inventory of data processing hardware supplies such as tapes, disk, hard drive, Monitors, etc.
• Maintains log of computer operations for audit trails
• Reports to superior when system problems and other operational matters arise

3.5 Database Administrator

The principal duties of database administrators are summarized as follows:

• Implements specific policies and procedures through which data can be managed as an organizational
resource.
• Plans for data usage
• Oversees the logical and physical database design and data dictionary development.
• Formulate information policy that specifies its rules for sharing, disseminating, acquiring,
standardizing, classifying, and inventorying information in an organization
• Specifies rules governing the maintenance, distribution, and use of information in an organization
• Define and organizes database structure and content

71
• Develops security procedure to safeguard the database
• Develops database documentation
• Maintains the database management software

4.0 Conclusion

In modern days, the data processing department may be referred to as the Information Technology
department. Thus, the staff may be known with different nomenclatures, such as Information Analyst for
Systems Analyst, Software Engineer for Programmer, System Support Manager for Operation Manager,
etc.

5.0 Summary
In this unit, the primary duties of data processing personnel were covered. In the next unit, we shall
discuss the tools for creating data processing applications.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

What are the duties of a systems analyst?

7.0 References/Further Readings

John W. Satzinger, Robert B. Jackson, Stephen D. Burd, Systems Analysis and Design in
a Changing World,7th Edition, Cengage Learning, 2016

72
 MODULE 3
UNIT 3: TOOLS FOR CREATING DATA PROCESSING APPLICATION

Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Machine languages:
3.2 Assembler Language
3.3 High-Level Language
3.3 Other Tools
3.4 Approaches to Programming
3.5 Limitation of Structured Programming
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction

No matter the computer infrastructure in place for data processing - a standalone PC, a small peer-to-peer
network, or a wide area network, having the right software is an essential requirement for good
productivity. Depending on the organization, one or more of the following software would be required for
data processing:

 Accounting software
 Bank management software
 retail point-of-sale software
 Financial planning software
 Legal and medical office Management systems
 Medical diagnostic software
 Insurance claims processing system
 Report Generator Application

Software is developed by using programming languages or other software development tools. The
following section explains how software programs function and describes the processes and tools
developers use to create software.

Programming is a way of communicating with the computer via instructions to perform some tasks.
Though hundreds of computer programming languages are now used, they are broadly classified into
machine languages, assembly languages, and high-level languages.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, the student should be able to:

• List some data processing software

• Describe some programming languages
• Explain the term structured programming
• Explain the term object-oriented programming

73
3.1 Machine language

Machine Languages are the most basic languages for computer systems. Machine languages consist of
strings of numbers defined by hardware design. Each type of CPU has its machine language. Thus
machine language programs vary from computer to computer; that is, they are machine-dependent. For
example, the Intel Pentium and Motorola PowerPC understand different machine languages. The
instructions in Machine language are written in 0 and 1. These binary digits, which correspond to the
computer, is on and off electrical states, clearly are not convenient for people to read, write, or use. Thus
to provide the machine-language instructions to accomplish a simple task such as finding the sum of 2
numbers, the program may look like:

101100101001 1001011111

111011011101 0101001011
100001010010 1010010010

3.2 Assemble Language

Assembly languages were developed by using English-like mnemonics for commonly used strings of
machine language. Instead of writing programs as a sequence of bits, assembly language allows
programmers to write programs using abbreviations or quickly remembered words instead of numbers.
This is just a level above machine language. Assembly language makes use of specific mnemonics (e.g.,
LOAD, ADD) and assigns address and storage locations automatically. We may use ADD to add value to
the content of a memory cell into a register. A program written in assembly language may

look like this:

Load A

Add B

Store C

A programmer can write instructions in assembly language more quickly and much more comfortable than
in machine language. Although assembly language gives programmers some level of control, it is still
costly in terms of programmer s time and effort: it is also difficult to read, debug, and learn. Assembly
language is used primarily today in system software. Another drawback is that, like machine language,
assembly language varies from computer to computer. That is, it is machine-dependent. Instructions
written in assembly language require an assembly to be translated into machine-language equivalents.

3.3 High-Level Language

High-level languages were developed to make programming easier. These languages are called high-level
languages because their syntax is closer to human language than assembler or machine language code.
They use familiar words instead of communicating in machine codes, which are not general and
challenging to comprehend. In writing instructions in these languages, familiar arithmetic operators, such
as the plus (+) or minus (-) sign, are used. This makes reading, writing, and understanding computer
programs much more comfortable with a high level of language. Please, note that instructions in high-
level languages must be translated to machine code equivalents before the computer can execute them. In
the early days of computing, the most commonly known and well used High-Level Languages are
discussed as follows.

(a) Beginners All-Purpose Symbolic Instructions Code (BASIC)

This language was developed by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz at Dartmouth College in mid-1960 as
an easy-to-learn, interactive alternative to FORTRAN, especially for beginning programmers. It was a

74
suitable tool for teaching programming to students. It was the first high-level language to be implemented
on PCs because of its simplicity. This further led to its popularity amongst developers, hobbyists, and
students. Several versions of BASIC language exist today, including Visual BASIC (VB) - the most
popular programming language ever created. We shall deal more extensively on VB later in this course.

(a) FORmula TRANslator (FORTRAN)

This is one of the first languages developed in the 1950s to allow programmers to write codes faster than
assembly languages. It was invented primarily for the development of scientific and engineering
applications. It is a programming language intended for mathematical computation and allows
programmers to express numerical equations directly. The language, which enjoyed immediate and
widespread acceptance, has been enhanced several times. FORTRAN has not been widely used with
personal computers. Instead, FORTRAN remains a common language on mainframe systems, especially
those used for research and education. A mathematical expression in FORTRAN can be written as C=
A+B

(b) Common Business Oriented Language (COBOL)

This language was developed in 1960 by a government-appointed committee under the leadership of
retired Navy Commodore and Mathematician Grace Hopper. The committee was set out to address the
problem of incompatibilities among computer manufactures. The committee came up with a platform-
independent language called COBO L. The language was intended for business data processing
applications. It gained extensive acceptance partly because of the support from the government. A
COBOL program is made up of four divisions Identification, Environment, Data, and Procedure. In turn,
the divisions are broken down into sections, which are divided into paragraphs, which are further divided
into sentences.

The Identification Division is used to provide some documentation on the program's name, what the
program does, and the author (programmer), and perhaps some other helpful comments. The Environment
Division describes the computer on which the program will be compiled and executed. The Data Division
provides information that describes what data will be processed. The actual instructions or commands that
the computer should follow in accomplishing given tasks are written in the Procedure Division COBOL is
machine-independent and can handle many files and records.

The capability of COBOL for file processing makes it suitable for developing data processing
applications. However, the advent of Database Management Systems with Languages that can easily
manipulate them has made COBOL unpopular for data processing.

In this Days of advanced computing technologies. There are new well robust and technical accepted high
level languages. Some of these Programming languages include:
(i) C:- C is especially important for the development of Operating Systems and other foundational
software. Many compilers and interpreters for other languages are written in C. See: C Developer
Resources.

(ii) C++:- C++ is, in many ways, simply a more advanced successor to C; though the situation is a lot
more complicated than that. C++ was developed to add high-level programming paradigms to C,
while retaining the low-level hardware-manipulation capabilities. Many of these additions have
been added to C over the years, and the languages are more like two dialects of a single language.
(iii) C#:- Used as the primary language for .NET programming, and much like C++, it is an
extension of the C programming language with the major addition being object-oriented
capabilities. See C# Resources.
(iv) Lisp:- Lisp is one of the earliest high-level programming languages and is still actively use. It
is a general-purpose language, but is most associated with work in artificial intelligence.
(v) Pascal:-Pascal is a language much loved by programming purists.

75
(vi) Python:- Python is a high-level programming language. It is an interpreted (not compiled)
language, also known as a “scripting language.” It is mostly used as a tool for performing ad hoc
programming tasks such as task automation and data analysis. It has a strong set of tools for
mathematical and scientific computing, and is frequently used by researchers.
(vii) JAVA:- Java is a high-level language designed to be used by the Java Virtual Machine. It has
very few external dependencies, and was intended to be able to run on any physical machine.
It is used a lot in network architecture and also in embedded devices, kiosks, and other in
situ computing applications.

3.3 OTHER TOOLS

There are a good number of tools that are much users-oriented and allow programmers to develop
applications with fewer commands, although they also require more computing power. These consist of
report generators, query languages, and application generators.

(a) Report Generators:

These are also called reports writes. They are programs for end-user which are used to produce reports.
They allow reports to be generated directly to as printout or a screen display. The items to be generated
may be the outcomes of database queries. You can specify the format such as header, footers, column,
heading, etc. in advance. The report generator will produce data in the specified format.

(b) Query Language:

A query language is a user-friendly language for retrieving information from a database management
system. It serves as a database user interface, hiding the intricacies of the database from the user. The
query may be expressed in the form of a sentence or near English-like statements. They can also be
obtained as choices from a menu-driven application. Common examples of a Query language is SQL
(Structured Query Language), INTELLECT, QBE, DATATRIEVE, PDQ, and INQUIRE

(c) Application generator:

Application generator is a programming tool capable of generating applications program from problem
description rather than traditional programming. With application generators, parts of the codes required
by a programmer are easily created. This reduces the programming time and efforts required for software
development. For example, routine for capturing data, generating reports, and accessing the database can
easily be generated by the application generator. This routine can be used at some points in the
development of current or other applications. Where your application is unique, the application generator
will provide a module that permits you to enter the program code that will attend to those unique parts.
Some examples of application generators are SAS, MATISS, PACBASE, NATURAL, UFO, etc.

(d) CASE (Computer-Aided Software Engineering)

CASE is an acronym for Computer-aided software engineering or Computer-aided systems engineering. It
is the automation of the step-by-step methodologies for software and system development to enhance the
developer s productivity. CASE tools provide automated graphics facilities for producing graphs, charts,
and reports, data dictionaries, analysis and checking tools, code and documentation generators for easy
software production

3.4 Approaches to Programming

It was only in from the early 1960s, that structure was imposed on how programmers wrote codes. Two
popular approaches to programming are Structured Programming and Object-Oriented Programming

76
(a) Structured Programming
Structured programming was developed in an attempt to overcome the use of GOTO statements in
programming. Structured programming is a technique to make the programming process more
comfortable and more productive. A structured program does not depend on the GOTO statement to
control the logical flow. Instead, it is built from a smaller program called module, or subprograms, which
are, in turn, made up of even smaller modules. The programmer combines the module using the three
basic control structures: sequence, repetition, and selection. Structured Programming evolved in the 1960
and 1970s.

(i) Sequence Construct

This executes statements in the order in which they appear, with control passing unconditionally from one
statement to the next. The program will execute statement X and proceed to statement Y. See Figure 1.

Figure 32: Sequence Construct

(ii) Selection Construct

This tests a condition and executes one of two alternatives instructions based on the results of the
test. A test is performed. If the result is true, Statement X is executed. If the
result is false, statement Y is executed. Control then passes to the next statement (Z). See Figure 2

77
 Figure 33: Selection Construct

(iii) Iteration construct

The Iteration construct repeats a segment of code as long as a conditional test remains true. A
test is performed. If the result is true, statement X is executed and control returns to the test. If
the result is false, control passes to the next statement.

Figure 34: Iteration Construct

3.5 Limitation of Structured Programming

Software developers have found that using structured programming results in improved efficiency, but
there had been some challenges with building software quickly and correctly. As applications become
larger and more complex, the application's complexity increases, so do the number of persons-years
required to complete the project. One proven approach to handling this increase in complexity is object-
oriented programming. Object-oriented programming allows the reuse of code. Reusing code allows
programs to be built quickly and correctly. OOP builds on and enhances structured programming.

3.6 Object-Oriented Programming:

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming approach that combines data and instructions for
processing that data into a self-contained object that can be used in other programs. An object is a block of
preassembled programming code that is a self-contained module. The module contains, or encapsulates,
both (1) a chunk of data, (2) the processing instructions that may be performed on that data. An object can

78
be used several times in different applications and by different programmers, thereby leading to improved
software developers' productivity. Examples of OOP languages; Smalltalk, C++, Eiffel, C#, Java, etc.

3.6.1 Concepts of Object-Oriented Programming

(i) Abstraction
One of the most fundamental concepts of OOPs is Abstraction. Abstraction is a process where you show
only “relevant” data and “hide” unnecessary details of an object from the user. For example, when you log
in to your Amazon account online, you enter your user_id and password and press login. What happens
when you press login, how the input data sent to the amazon server, how it gets verified is all abstracted
away from you. Another example of abstraction: A car in itself is a well-defined object, which is
composed of several other smaller objects like a gearing system, steering mechanism, engine, which again
has their subsystems. Nevertheless, a human’s car is a single object, which can be managed by its
subsystems, even if their inner details are unknown.
(ii) Encapsulation
This post provides the theoretical explanation of Encapsulation with real-life examples. For a detailed
explanation on this topic with java programs, refer encapsulation in java with example.
Encapsulation is:
· Binding the data with the code that manipulates it.
· It keeps the data and the code safe from external interference
Looking at the example of a power steering mechanism of a car. The power steering of a car is a complex
system that internally has lots of components tightly coupled together; they work synchronously to turn
the car in the desired direction. It even controls the power delivered by the engine to the steering wheel.
However, there is only one interface available to the external world, and the rest of the complexity is
hidden. Moreover, the steering unit in itself is complete and independent. It does not affect the functioning
of any other mechanism.
Similarly, the same concept of encapsulation can be applied to code. Encapsulated code should have the
following characteristics:
· Everyone knows how to access it.
· Can be easily used regardless of implementation details.
· There should not consider any side effects of the code to the rest of the application.
The idea of encapsulation is to keep classes separated and prevent them from having tightly coupled with
each other. An example of encapsulation is the class of java.util.Hashtable. The user only knows that he
can store data in the form of a key/value pair in a Hashtable and retrieve that data in various ways.
Nevertheless, the actual implementation like, how and where this data is stored, is hidden from the user.
Users can use Hashtable wherever he wants to store Key/Value pairs without bothering about its
implementation.
(iii) Inheritance
This post provides the theoretical explanation of inheritance with real-life examples. For a detailed
explanation of this topic with java programs, refer inheritance with examples and inheritance types in java.
· Inheritance is the mechanism by which an object acquires some/all properties of another object.
· It supports the concept of hierarchical classification.
For example, Car is a four-wheeled vehicle, so assume that we have a class FourWheeler and a subclass of
it named Car. Here Car acquires the properties of a class FourWheeler. Other classifications could be a
jeep, tempo, van, etc. FourWheeler defines a class of vehicles with four wheels, a specific range of engine
power, load-carrying capacity, etc. Car (termed as a sub-class) acquires these properties from
FourWheeler. It has some specific properties, which are different from other classifications of
FourWheeler, such as luxury, comfort, shape, size, usage, etc.
A car can have further classification such as an open car, small car, big car, etc., which will acquire the
properties from both Four Wheeler and Car but will still have some specific properties. This way, the level
of the hierarchy can be extended to any level.
Java Swing and Awt classes represent the best examples of inheritance.
(iv) Polymorphism
This post provides the theoretical explanation of polymorphism with real-life examples. For a detailed
explanation on this topic with java programs, refer polymorphism in java and runtime & compile-time
polymorphism.

79
· Polymorphism means to process objects differently based on their data type.
· In other words, it means one method with multiple implementations for a particular class of action. And
which implementation to be used is decided at runtime depending upon the situation (i.e., the data type of
the object)
· This can be implemented by designing a generic interface that provides generic methods for a particular
class of action. There can be multiple classes, which provides the implementation of these generic
methods.
Lets us look at the same example of a car. A car has a gear transmission system. It has four front gears and
one backward gear. When the engine is accelerated, depending upon which gear is engaged, a different
amount of power and movement is delivered to the car. The action is the same applying gear, but based on
the type of gear, the action behaves differently, or you can say that it shows many forms (polymorphism
means many forms). Polymorphism could be static and dynamic both. Method Overloading is static
polymorphism, while Method overriding is dynamic polymorphism.
(v) Overloading, in simple words, means more than one method having the same method name that
behaves differently based on the arguments passed while calling the method. This called static
because which method to be invoked is decided at the time of compilation
(vi) Overriding means a derived class is implementing a method of its superclass. The call to an
overridden method is resolved at runtime, thus called runtime polymorphism. Examples of Object-
oriented programming are a discussed as follows.

(a) JAVA
Java is a general-purpose programming language that is class-based, object-oriented, and designed to have
as few implementation dependencies possible. It is intended to let application developers write once and
run anywhere, meaning that compiled Java code can run on all platforms that support Java without
compiling again. Java applications are typically compiled to bytecode, which can run on any Java virtual
machine (JVM) regardless of the underlying computer architecture. It has a syntax that appears the same
as C and C++, but it has fewer low-level facilities than either. Java was one of the most popular
programming languages in 2019 used according to GitHub, particularly for client-server web applications,
with a reported 9 million developers.

(b) C++
C++ is a general-purpose programming language created by Bjarne Stroustrup as an extension of the C
programming language, or "C with Classes." The language has expanded significantly over time, and
modern C++ now has object-oriented, generic, and functional features and facilities for low-level memory
manipulation. It is almost always implemented as a compiled language. Many vendors provide C++
compilers, including the Free Software Foundation, LLVM, Microsoft, Intel, Oracle, and IBM, so it is
available on many platforms. C++ was designed with a bias toward system programming and embedded,
resource-constrained software and large systems, with performance, efficiency, and flexibility of use as its
design highlights. C++ has also been found useful in many other contexts, with key strengths being
software infrastructure and resource-constrained applications, including desktop applications, video
games, servers (e.g., e-commerce, Web search, or SQL servers), and performance-critical applications
(e.g., telephone switches or space probes).

(c ) C#
C# is a general-purpose programming language with multi-paradigm encompassing strong typing, scoped
lexically, imperative, declarative, functional, generic, object-oriented (class-based), and component-
oriented programming disciplines. It was developed around 2000 by Microsoft as part of its .NET
initiative and later approved as an international standard by Ecma (ECMA-334) in 2002 and ISO
(ISO/IEC 23270) in 2003. Mono is the free and open-source project's name to develop a compiler and
runtime for the language. C# is one of the programming languages designed for the Common Language
Infrastructure (CLI).

80
4.0 Conclusion

A computer program collects instructions or statements (also called codes) carried out by the computer’s
CPU to perform a task. To ensure that the computer and programmers can understand themselves,
standard computer languages such as FORTRAN, COBOL, ADA, etc. are used. Apart from programming
with standard languages, simplified tools such as report generators, query languages, and application
generators are also widely used for software development.

5.0 Summary

Object-oriented software development models a system as a series of reusable objects that combine both
data and procedure. This leads to a reduction in the time and cost of
writing software and also makes maintenance easier.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

Q1. Explain the meaning of the following terms;

a) Structured Programming

b) Object-Oriented Programming

Q2. What is the meaning of the term CASE?

Q3. State three advantages of Object-oriented Programming.

Q4. Highlight and write a short note on any three examples of Object-Oriented Programming.
Q5. There are three major approaches to structured programming. Briefly explain.

7.0 References/Further Readings

Greg Perry and Dean Miller, C Programming Absolute Beginner's Guide, 3rd Edition, Que
Publishing 2014.

Yuksel Uckan, Problem Solving Using C, Structured Programming Techniques

81
 MODULE 3
UNIT 4: VISUAL AND EVENT PROGRAMMING

Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Visual and Event-Driven Programming
3.2 Visual Basic Development Environment
3.3 Working with control
3.4 Working with Properties, Methods, and Events
3.5 Writing Procedure for Events
3.6 Using Data Types, Constants, and Variables
3.7 Assignment Statements and Assignment Expressions
3.8 Sample Program in VB
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction

Visual BASIC, developed by Microsoft in the early 1990s, is one of the most popular visual programming
languages. It offers a visual environment for program construction, allowing users to build various
applications components using a drag-and-drop tool, buttons, scroll bars, and menu. It is a very suitable
language for developing user-friendly data processing applications. In this unit, we shall provide an
overview of the language and explain the relevant features /statements that will enable you to develop
useful data processing applications.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Explain the term visual program and event-driven programming
• Identify the elements in the Visual Basic environment
• Explain the concept of an object, properties, and method
• Define the term data types and explain the terms variable and constants
• Use simple assignment statements and expression
• Describe and use mathematical operators
• Write sample program in Visual Basic

3.1 Visual and Event-Driven Programming

The increasing use of Windows environments in the 90s led to the development of Visual programming
languages such as Visual Basic and Visual C++, which support features for developing Graphical User
Interface (GUI) based systems. These programming languages also support event-driven programming
and integrate easily with relational database systems to develop complex user interface systems.

Visual programming is a method of creating programs by manipulating program elements graphically

rather than specifying them textually. The programmer makes connections between objects by drawing,
pointing, and clicking on diagrams.

VB is termed an event-driven programming language because, with it, you can write program code that
responds to events that are controlled by the system or users. Examples of the event include:

• Clicking a button or menu.

82
• Opening or Closing a form.

• Moving the mouse over the top of an object such as a text box.

• Moving from one text box to another.

Before we proceed with learning the VB language, we shall define some terms required for us to have a
good understanding of the language.

Object
An object is a thing like a noun in English. Examples include Forms and Controls on forms such as
Buttons, Text boxes, and Icons.

Property
Objects have properties like adjectives in English. Properties describe objects. Examples of properties
include Text, Name, BackColor, Font, and Size.

Method
A method is like a verb in English. It is an action word that objects exhibit. Examples include methods to
Show and Hide Forms and methods to Print Forms.

Event
An event occurs when users take action, such as clicking a button, pressing a key, scrolling, or closing a
Window. Actions of other objects can also trigger events.

Form
A Form is the window and dialog box where you put all the things that people interact with as they use
your program. Forms are the foundations you generally use to build programs. Forms are containers for
Controls.

Controls
Controls are the elements; you place inside a Form, such as Text boxes, Command buttons, and List
boxes. Those things you put on the form are controls, which enable the people who use your program to
do things, such as enter text and click buttons.

3.2 Visual Basic Development Environment

The development environment in Visual Basic looks like the environment you have in any other Microsoft
product such as Word, Excel, Powerpoint, MS Access, etc. It allows you to create and test your programs.
The screenshot in Figure 13.1 shows a VB development environment.

Figure 35: VB IDE

83
The Tool Box holds the tools you use to place control on the form. All of the controls that appear See
Figure xx for detail description of the Control. You may have more or different tools in your toolbox,
depending on the edition of Visual Basic you are working with.

Figure 36: Tool Box

Table 7: The Visual Basic 6 Intrinsic Controls
Control Purpose
Label To displays text on a form
Frame Serves as a container for other controls
CheckBox Allow users to select or deselect an option
ComboBox When used it allows a user to select from a list of items or add a new value
HscrollBar Allows users to scroll horizontally through a list fo data in another control
Timer Lets your program perform actions in real time, without user interaction
DirListBox Allows users to select a directory of folder
Shape Used to display a shape on a form
Image Used to display graphics (images) on a form
OLE Container Allow you to add the functionality of another Control program to your
program
PictureBox Used to display graphics (images) on a form and can serve as a container
TextBox Used to display text but also enables users to enter or edit new or existing
text
TextBox Used to display text but also enables users to enter or edit new or existing
text
CommandButton Allows users to initiate actions
OptionButton Allows users select one choice from a group; must be used in groups of more
than one
ListBox Allows users to select from a list of items
VscrollBar Use to scroll vertically through a list of data in another control
DriveListBox Allows users select a disk drive
FileListBox Allows users select a file
Line Used to display a line on a form
Data Used to connect a database to a program

3.3 Working with control

Two ways to add control to a form are:
1) By double-clicking
2) By drawing

Steps to draw a control on a form

i. Click the control's Toolbox icon.

84
 ii. Move the mouse pointer over your form. Notice that your pointer is now shaped as a
crosshair instead of an arrow. Click (and hold) the mouse button where you want the
control to go.
iii. Drag the mouse down slightly and to the left. As you move the mouse, notice that a box
starts to appear.
iv. When the box is the proper size, let go of the mouse button. The control you selected
now appears on the form.

Steps to remove a control from a form

i. Select the control you want to delete by clicking it.
ii. and Press the Delete key.

You can also remove a control by right-clicking it. From the context menu that appears, select

Figure 37: Deleting a Control

3.4 Working with Properties, Methods, and Events

Every object, such as a form or control, has a set of properties that describes it. The set of
properties are not the same for all objects though some properties such as those listed in Table 8
are common to most controls. To see the properties for a given control, check the Properties
window in the IDE.

Table 8: Common Properties of Visual Basic Controls

Property Description
Left The position of the left side of a control with respect to its container
Top The position of the top of a control with respect to its container
Height The height value of a control
Width The width value of a control
Name The string value used to refer to a control
A Boolean (True/False) value that determines whether users can manipulate the
Enabled control or not
The Boolean (True/False) value that determines whether users can see control or
Visible not

Methods are blocks of code designed into a control that tells the control how to do things, such as
move to another location on a form. Just as with properties, not all controls have the same methods,
although some common methods do exist, as shown in Table 9.

85
 Table 9: Common Methods of Visual Basic Controls
Method Use
Move Changes an object's position in response to a code request
Drag Handles the execution of a drag-and-drop operation by the user
SetFocus Gives focus to the object specified in the method call
ZOrder Determines the order in which multiple objects appear
onscreen

Not all controls in VB have the same events, but some events are shared controls. These are
represented in Table 10.

Table 10: Common Events of Visual Basic Controls

Event Occurrence
Change The user modifies text in a combo box or textbox.
Click The user clicks the primary mouse button on an object.
DblClick The user double-clicks the primary mouse button on an object
DragDrop The user drags an object to another location.
DragOver The user drags an object over another control.
GotFocus An object receives focus.
KeyDown The user presses a keyboard key while an object has focus.
KeyPress The user presses and releases a ke yboard key while an object has focus.
KeyUp The user releases a keyboard key while an object has focus.
Event Occurrence
LostFocus An object loses focus.
The user presses any mouse button while the mouse pointer is over an
MouseDown object.
MouseMove The user moves the mouse pointer over an object.
The user releases any mouse button while the mouse pointer is over an
MouseUp object.

3.5 Writing Procedure for Events

Writing codes VB is an interesting one. Your major task is event-driven programming. VB codes
are written to handle events as they occur. The codes are contained within a procedure defined as
any block of code that can be called from within your application.

The syntax for a procedure is:

[Public|Private] [Static] Sub|Function|Property _

functionname (arguments) [As Datatype]
{...Your procedure code...}
End Sub|Function|Property

An event procedure is a place in your project where you put the code that will run when an event occurs.
To write an event procedure, you must access the Code window for your object by doing one of the
following:

· Double-clicking the object

· Selecting the object with the mouse and pressing F7

86
· Selecting the object and choosing Code from the View menu

· Selecting the object's form in the Project Explorer, clicking the View Code button, and choosing the
object from the Code window

3.6 Using Data Types, Constants, and Variables

Working with variable

A variable is a temporary storage location for data. Variables are used for representing data of certain
types. To use a variable, you will have to declare it. By declaring a variable, you ask the compiler to
allocate appropriate memory space for the variable based on its data type. The different types of variables
in VB are Boolean, Byte, Currency, Date, Double, Integer, Long, and String. Boolean data types have to
do with logical values that provide a true or false outcome to programming instruction. A byte is used for
whole numbers. Double is used to declare decimal number values. An integer is used for whole number
declarations. The string is used for text information. Comments are non-executable statements that are
included in a program for documentation and clarifications. When used in a program, they describe
the purpose of a program, functions, or statement. They do not have any effects on the program. They
are represented by REM or in program. For examples:

REM Program to Compute Simple Interest

Naming a variable
To make your code easy to read and understood your variable names should describe their task
but, to make your code easy to type, they should be short as possible. To enhance the
understanding of code many programmers prefer to use some standard prefixes on their variables
to indicate the type of data of the variable. See Table 11.

Table 11: EVariable and Control Prefixes

Variable/Control Prefix Example

Boolean Bln blnLightsOff
Currency Cur curAmountPaid
Double Dbl dblNairaPerGallon
Date+time Dtm dtmDateDue
Integer Int intQuantitySold
Long lng lngPopulation
String Str strAddress
ComboBox cbo cboMyFavourite
Check box chk chkDoctorIn
Command button cmd cmdCalculate
Form frm frmMain
Frame Fra fraTeams
Horizontal scroll hsb hsbText
bar
Image img imgMain
Label lbl lblLastName
ListBox Lst lstDaysOfWeek
Shape shp shpCircle
TextBox txt txtAddress

87
Variable Declaration
There are many ways to declare a variable in VB. The most common way is to use the
Dim statement. The syntax of the DIM view is:

Dim Variablename [ As Datatype]

The Datatype is optional, and when it is not specified, the default type Variant is assumed.

Examples of variable declaration statements:

Dim intTotalNumberSold AS Integer

Dim curTotalAmount AS Currency
Dim strCustomerAddress AS String
Dim intChanging

Constants

There are occasions where data items in a program have values that do not change. Such values
are referred to as constants. In Visual Basic, there are two main types of constant Intrinsic and
Named constant.

Intrinsic Constants
These are built in constants or systems defined constants. They are usually stored as library files
and available for use by the programmer when they are called: Common examples are color
definition constants such as vbRed, vbBlue and Message statements such as vbOKOnly,
vbCritical, vbInformation etc

Named Constant:
These are programmer defined constants.

The syntax for Constant declaration is:

Const variablename [As Datatype] = value

Const is a reserved word i.e word with a special meaning to the Visual Basic interpreter.

Const strCoursetille AS String = Data Processing

Const strDept = Computer Science
Const curDiscountRate = 0.05

Notice that String values are enclosed in quotation marks while numeric values are not
so retained.

88
3.7 Assignment Statements and Assignment Expressions

It is not enough to just declare variables, and you need to be able to assign data to variables, manipulate
the data, and use the content of the variable. To do this, you must write some code statements. A
statement is a line of code that makes a computer achieves a task. An assignment statement, for
example, is used to assign a value to a variable. The syntax for assignment statement
is as follows:

Variable = expression

Examples:

int Num1 = 5
frm Main.Visible = False
fAvgScore = nTotal / nNumberofPapers

Mathematic Operations
The primary reason for using a computer in data processing is for the processing of numerical data.
Mathematical operations can be used to determine the total deductions or net pay to be paid to an
employee when the payroll is processed. Similarly, customer’s bill, interest due, account balance, and
the total score of students in an examination would need some mathematical operation to be performed
by the computer. Mathematical operators perform mathematical functions. A list of the available
mathematical operator and their corresponding VB operator are provided in Table 12.

Table 12: VB Mathematical Operators

Operation VB Operator Symbol

Addition +
Subtraction -
Multiplication *
Division /
Integer division \
Modulus Mod
Exponentiation

3.8 Sample Program in VB

Now that we have learnt some basics of VB, we will illustrate with a Sample Program.
Question: Develop an application in VB to calculate the Total and Average scores of students in
Four papers in an Examination

Solution
To develop this application, you need to go through the following steps:

1. Plan and define your user's interface (Create your forms and add the appropriate
controls).
2. Plan and set the properties (Assign names to your objects. See Figure 5)
3. Plan and Write the Basic codes (Write codes to handle the events. Also see
Figure5)

Source Code for the command (Process)

89
Private Sub cmdProcess_Click()
lbltotal.caption = Val(txtPaper1.Text) + Val(txtPaper2.Text) + Val(txtPaper2.Text)+
Val(txtPaper4.Text)
lblavg.Caption = Val(lbltotal.caption) / 4
End Sub

Figure 38: Users Interface Design and Codes

Figure 39: VB Application for Result Processing

Exercise:

Develop the same application by repeating steps 1-4

4.0 Conclusion
Visual Basic is one of the most popular visual languages and very easy to learn. However, to be able to
practice some of the topics covered in this unit, you will need to install Visual Basic 6.0 or Visual
Studio.NET Professional edition on your computer.

90
5.0 Summary
This unit covers the Visual Basic Development Environment, and explains the fundamental concepts of
event driven and visual programming. Applications written in Visual Basic are very users friendly. The
concepts learnt in this unit will be very useful in your programming career and the understanding of the
remaining parts of this study material.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

Q1. Develop a Visual Basic Application that allows a user to input the cost of items of three products
purchased by a named customer from WAZOBIA Nigeria Ltd. When the user clicks on calculate, the
system will display the total and average costs of the items. Use appropriate controls to make your
program users friendly. Hint: See Figure 1 of this unit.

7.0 References/Further Readings

Tony Gaddis, Starting With Visual BASIC - With Access - 7th edition, Pearson 2017,
ISBN13: 978013440015

Julia Case Bradley, Anita C. Millspaugh, Programming in Visual Basic 6.O, McGraw-Hill Higher
Education, 2002

Jan L. Harrington, SQL Clearly Explained, Morgan Kaumann Publisher, An Imprint of Elsevier Science,
2003, USA

91
 MODULE 4
UNIT 1: CONTROL STRUCTURE AND STRING PROCESSING

Table of Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Control Structures/Statement
3.2 Selection
3.3 Iteration
3.4 String Processing
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction
A piece of Visual BASIC code executes from the first line of code and proceed line by line until the end of the
statement is reached if no control statements are used. Control statements are used to transfer control to a
particular section of the program. They may also be used when a particular segment of a program needs to be
repeated. This unit describes the various control statements and operators that are required in a control structure.
Also, string manipulation is covered in this unit.

2.0 Objectives

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Describes the control structure

• Describes relational and Logical Operators

• Use block statements

• String processing

3.1 Control Structure

Control statements are used to introduce some branch or iteration (repetition) into our codes. Controls can be
implemented in our programs by using any of the three fundamental Control Constructs:

• Sequence: statements are executed in sequence

• Selection: one instruction or group of instructions is executed or another

• Iteration: statement or statements are repeated

Before we consider the various control structure in VB, we shall examine the relational and logical operators.
Relational and logical operators are often used to implement selection and Iteration. Conditional expressions are
formed using relation and logical operators.

92
Relational Operators
Relational operators are used to forming statements that allow values to be compared. Every
relational statement evaluates to True or False. Study Table13.
Table 13: Relational Operators
Symbol Meaning Example Result
= Equal 3=4 False
> Greater Than 3>4 False
< Less Thank 3<4 True
>= Greater than or 3>=3 True
equal to
<= Less than or 2<=2 True
equal to
<> Not equal to 2<>3 True

Logical Operator
In writing your program, you may want to test two or more relations. For example, you
may want to test that the age of a student is more than 15 years, and his examination score
is more significant than 260 before he can be considered for admission into the university.
Logical operators are used to combine the two relations. The VB logical operators are:

Table 14: Logical Operator

Operator Meaning Examples Result
Not Provides the logical negative of the input Not (3>2) False
Combines two expressions. The resulting
value is true only when the two (8>5) And (5>2)
And expressions evaluate to True (6<5) And (3>2) False
Combines two expressions. If either of
the expressions is true, the result will be (6<5) Or (3>2) True
Or true (8>5) Or (5>2) True
Combines two expressions. If only one is
true, it evaluates to true. Otherwise, it (6<5) Xor (3>2) True
Xor evaluates to false (8>5) Xor (3>2) False

Notice that logical expression like relation expression (statement) must always evaluate to True or
False.

The VB expression for the combined relation for the student admission into the university can be
expressed as
intAge > 15 And intScore >260

Where intAge and intScore would have been earlier declared.

3.2 Selection

i) If Statement
VB language has two statements for implementing the selection control: if and Case. For many decisions
you may want to execute a statement (or group of the statement) if a particular condition is true. Two
forms of the if statement handles True conditions: The single-line if statement and the multiple-line if
statement. Each uses the if statement to check a condition and execute the corresponding code when the
condition is true. See the examples

93
Single line If

If a > 10 Then Label1.Caption = "A is greater than 10"

Multi-line If

If a > 10 Then
Label1.Caption = "A is greater than 10"
Label2.Caption = "B is less than 20"
End If

Handling True and False Conditions

The else statement is used with the If statement to handle false condition.

If and Else

If a > 10 and b < 20 Then

Label1.Caption = A is greater than 10
Label2.Caption = B is less than 20
Else
Label1.Caption = means than A is less than or equal to 10 or
Label2.Caption = B is greater than or equal to 20
End If
Please note the use of the AND operator to combine the two expression (a>10) and
(b<20). An If...Then...Else must always conclude with End if. The word Then must appear on the same
line as the if with nothing following Then (expect a remark). Else and End if (if used) must appear alone
on a line.

ii.) Select Case Statement

The Select Case structure is similar to a series of If/Then/ElseIf statements. Thus program decisions that
can be code with a Case structure can also be coded with nested if statement, but usually, the Case
structure is simpler and more straightforward. The Select Case structure allows you to conditionally
execute a series of statement groups based on the value of a test expression, which can be a single
variable or an arithmetic expression.

The syntax of the select Case Statement is:

Select case expression

Case constant list
[statement(s)]
[Case constant list
[statement (s)]]
.
.
[Case Else]
[Statement(s)]
End Select

94
 The expression in a Case structure is usually a variable or property you wish to test. The constant list is
the value that you want to match; it ma y be numeric or string constant or variable, a range of value, a
relational condition, or a combination of these.

There is no limit to the number of statement that can follow a Case statement.

Example 1
Select Case intExamscore
Case 70 To 100
lblMessage.Caption = A
Case 60 To 69
lblMessage.Caption = B
Case 50 To 59
lblMessage.Caption = C
Case 40 To 49
lblMessage.Caption = D
Case Else
lblMessage.Caption = F
End Select

Example 2

Select Case strCurrentMonth

Case 1
strMonthName = January
Case 2
strMonthName = February
...
Case 12
strMonthName = December
End Select

End Select statement defines the end of the Case block. To trap any values not picked up by earlier
cases use the Case Else construct:

Case 12
strMonthName = December
Case Else
MsgBox Cannot be a Month, 12 Month in a year
End Select

The elements used for the constant list may have any of the forms. The following example is used to
test for a string

Example 3
Select Case txt.SchoolName.Text
Case Science_and_Technology
(Code for the school of science and technology)
Case Education

95
 (Code for school of Education)
Case Humanities
(Code for school of Humanities)
Case Law
(Code for school of law)
Case Else
(code for others)
End Select

3.3 Iteration

i.) Do Loop statement

In a program, you may want the computer to execute a group of instructions many times until a
particular task is accomplished. The process of repeating a series of instructions is called looping. The
group of repeated instructions is called a loop. Iteration is a single execution of the statement(s) in the
loop. The repetition is controlled by a condition that is associated with the repetition statement.

There are two types of repetition statement

(a) Pretest repetition statement
(b) Posttest repetition statement

A pretest repetition statement computes a value for the condition expression before entering the loop.
The loop may never be executed if the terminating condition is true the first time it is tested.

A posttest repetition statement first executes the loop body and then computes a value for the condition
expression. If the value satisfies a true condition, the loop body is executed again; otherwise, the repetition
is terminated. The statements in the loop will always be performed at least once.

A DO/Loop terminates based on a condition that you specify. Execution of a DO/Loop continues while
a condition is True or until a condition is True. The DO/loop command is used in two forms:

(Syntax):

Do [{While | Until} condition]

[statements]
Loop

Example:
month = 1
Do While month <= 12
month = month + 1
Loop

Do while tests the loop condition at the beginning of the loop. With this type of loop, the statements
inside the loop may never be executed if the condition for running them is not satisfied.

ii.) Loop While Statement

This tests the completion at the bottom of the loop, which means that the statement within the loop will
be executed at least once.

(Syntax):

96
Do
[statements]
Loop [{While | Until} condition]

Example:
intTemp = 0
Do
intTemp = intTemp + 1
Loop While inTemp < 10

iii.) For Loop Statement

This construct uses the FOR … NEXT and a counter index to repeat the statement(s) in a loop for a
given number of times. The value of the counter variable is tested to determine the number of times the
statements within the loop should be executed. A counter-controlled loop generally has three elements:

1. Initialize the counter

2 Increment/Decrement the counter
3 Test the counter to determine when it is time to terminate the loop

The syntax for the For loop is:

For counter = start To end [Step increment]

Statements
Next [counter]

Example 1

curTotal = 0
For intConter = 1 To 10
curTotal = curTotal + intCounter
Next intCounter

Example 2
curTotal = 0
For intConter = 10 To 1 step -1
curTotal = curTotal + intCounter
Next intCounter

Note the use of steps in this example to indicate a decrement. When it is not used, an increment is
assumed. as in example 2

3.4 String Processing

Apart from manipulating numbers, VB has features that make string processing easy for a programmer.
You may need to know how many characters are in a string; convert the case of a string data; work with
part of a string. VB provides some functions that will help you to achieve your desired task. A Visual
Basic function acts and returns a value. The expressions named in parentheses are called arguments.

The Syntax of the Left function:

i.) Left (String Expression, no_of_characters_to_extract)

97
This is used to extract the leftmost characters of a string up to a specified position. The String
expression may be a string variable, string literal, or text property.

Example

Dim strCoursetitle As String

strCoursetitle= Data Processing

Left (strCoursetitle, 3) this expression will return the string Data

Left (strCoursetitle, 12) this expression will return the string Data Process
Left (strCoursetitle, 4) this expression will return the string Data

ii.) Right (String Expression, no_of_characters_to_extract)

This is used to extract the rightmost characters of a string up to a specified position. The String
expression may be a string variable, string literal, or text property.

Example

Dim strCoursetitle As String

strCoursetitle= Data Processing

Right (strCoursetitle, 3) this expression will return the string ing

Right (strCoursetitle, 12) this expression will return the string a Processing
Right (strCoursetitle, 4) this expression will return the string sing

iii.) Mid (StringExpression, Startposition, [noofcharacterstoextract])

This is used to extract the rightmost characters of a string up to a specified position. The String
expression may be a string variable, string literal, or text property.

Example

Dim strCoursetitle As String

strCoursetitle= Data Processing

Mid (strCoursetitle, 3) this expression will return the string a Processing

Mid (strCoursetitle, 7) this expression will return the string processing
Mid (strCoursetitle, 6,12) this expression will return the string Processing

This is used to determine the length of a string expression Syntax

iv.) Len(String Expression)

Example
Len (strCoursetitle). This expression will return the value 15

Note that spaces are also countered as part of the characters

98
 4.0 Conclusion
The ability of computers to process data such as numbers and strings make them very suitable tool for
data processing. For you to be able to practice programming in VB you must have a computer

5.0 Summary
As your lines of codes continue to increase, your certainly would need to execute or repeat the execution
of a section of the codes before proceeding to another. The control statements covered in this unit help
you to accomplish just what you need.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

Q1. Develop an interactive application in VB that allows a user to input the scores of students in an
examination while the system displays the student s grade. Assume that: Scores 70-100 = A , Score 60
69 = B , Score 50-59 = C , Score 40-49= D , Score 0-48 = F

7.0 References/Further Readings

Julia Case Bradley, Anita C. Millspaugh, Programming in Visual Basic 6.O, McGraw-Hill Higher
Education, 2002

Jan L. Harrington, SQL Clearly Explained, Morgan Kaumann Publisher, An Imprint of Elsevier Science,
2003, USA

99
 MODULE 4
UNIT 2: ARRAYS AND PRINTING

Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Working with Arrays
3.2 Declaration of Array
3.3 Looping through the Elements of an Array
3.5 The MsgBox Statement
3.7 Sending Information to the Printer
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction
We can use arrays to introduce some efficiency to the use of variables names. An arra y is
a series of variables with the same name. Sometimes array are referred to as table, or subscripted
variable. The individual value is referred to as elements, and each element is accessed by its subscript,
which is a position number.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Describe and explain the meaning of array

• Types of array
• Describe and use the MsgBox statement
• Explain how to print in VB

3.1 Working with Arrays

Consider an array of Student name:
strStdudentName:
[0] Adebayo
[1] Ayodele
[2] Musa
[3] Jeremiah
[4] Okereke
[5] Anthony

100
 [6] Isaac
[7] Ronke
[8] Osarobo
[9] Yobo

When you use a control array, the individual controls are referenced as strStudentName (0),
strStudentName (1), strStudentName (2), etc. Each individual variable is called an element of the
array. The subscript inside the parenthesis is the position of the element within the array. For
example, strStudentname (2) = Musa while strStudentname (7) = Ronke

3.2 Declaration of Array

When array are declared, the number of elements in the array must be specified so that the
computer system will be able to reserve the required storage for the processing of the array.
For example the following statements allocate storage for the arrays specified.
Dim strStudentName (0 to 9) As String
Dim curPrice(10) As Currency
Dim intScore As Integer

The dimension of an array may have an empty parenthesis as in the following statement

Public strSchool ( ) as String

The array declared above without a specification of its dimension is a dynamic array because the
number of elements ma y change during the execution of the program. A static array is one with a
fixed size. Any attempt to change the size while the program is running would result in an error
message.

3.3 Looping Through the Elements of an Array

To loop through the element of an array you use the For/Next or FOR Each and Next statement. The
For / Next works well to traverse the elements in the array. With the For Each/Next you wouldn’t
need to manipulate the subscript of the array. The general syntax of the For/ Each Next

Statement is:
For Each ElementName In ArrayName
Statements(s) in loop
Next [ElementName]

The statement above allows a Visual Basic program to automaticall y loop through each element of
the array, assign value to ElementName, and makes one pass through the loop. If the array has say,
10 elements, the loop will execute 10 times. ElementName must be declared as type Variant.

Example

Dim strStudentName (0 to 9) As String

Dim vnt1Nme As Variant
For Each vnt1Nme in strStudentName

101
Printer.Print vnt1Nme
Next vnt1Nme
(statement(s))

When the loop has finished execution depending on the numbers of elements in the array, the
statement(s) following the Next statement will be executed. However, an EXIT For statement may
be used within the loop to exit early.

3.4 Multidimensional Arrays

A one-dimensional array is a one-row collection of variables. In Visual Basic, however, you can
create arrays that have up to 60 dimensions. Usually, two-dimensional arrays will suffice for most
introductory programming projects, and you won’t likely need to work with more than more than
three dimensions.
A two-dimensional array is made up of columns and rows that intersect to form a grid. Each grid cell
has a location defined as ColumnNumber, RowNumber. Notice that each element is defined by the
coordinates of the column position and the row position. For example, the array element intScores (0,
0) is 59 and the element intScores (2,2) is 79.

Table 15: Two Dimensional Arrays

59 69 56
70 45 78
23 77 79
45 67 56

To define a two dimensional array table, the Dim statement specifies the number of rows and
columns in the array. The row is horizontal and the column is vertical. The following table has four
rows and three columns

To create a two-dimensional array, use the following syntax:

Dim|Public|Private ArrayName(SubscriptOfCols, _
SubscriptOfRows) As DataType

In this syntax,

• Dim, Public, and Private are Visual Basic keywords that declare the array and its scope. If you use
Dim, the array is private to the procedure in which it is declared. Public makes the array visible
from anywhere in the program, and Private makes the array visible only to the form or module in
which it is declared. Using Dim within a module automatically makes the array available
anywhere in the program, as if the Public keyword were used.
• ArrayName is the name of the array.
• SubscriptOfCols is the number of the highest column in the array.
• SubscriptOfRows is the number of the highest row in the array.
• DataT ype is any valid Visual Basic data type.

Therefore, to declare the array, you would use this syntax we will have:

Dim intScores (1 To 4, 1 To 3) as Integer

102
 Whereas you can consider a two-dimensional array to be a rectangle, you can consider a three-
dimensional array to be a rectangular block.

3.5 The MsgBox Statement

The message box is a simple form that displays a message and at least one command button. You can
display a message, an optional icon, a title bar caption, and command button(s) in a message box

The MsgBox Statement

MsgBox Message string [, Buttons/icon][, Caption of title bar ]

The message string is the message you want to appear in the message box. The button portion is
optional; it determines the command buttons that will display and any icons that will appear. If you
omit the Caption of title bar, the project name will appear in the message box title bar.

E.g

If txtAddress.Text = Then
MsgBox Please Enter your address. , vbOKOnly, Address required Endif

3.6 Retrieving a Value from the MsgBox() Function

The MsgBox statement works fine for informing users of problems or prompting them to take an
action. If you need to obtain a decision from users, however, you must return a value by using the
MsgBox() function.

• OK--Displays a single button with the caption OK.

• OK, Cancel--Displays two buttons in the message box, let ting users choose
between accepting the message and requesting a cancellation of the operation.
• Abort, Retry , Ignore--Displays three buttons, usually al ong with an
error message.
• Yes, No, Cancel--Displays three buttons, typically with a q uestion.
• Yes, No--Displays two buttons for a simple yes-or-no choice.
• Retry, Cancel--Displays the two buttons that allow user s to retry the operation
or cancel it.

Figure 30: The generated message box

3.7 Sending Information to the Printer

When you print using PrintForm all output is sent as a graphics. The Printer.Print is used to set up
output to a printer. When the statement Printer.Print is encountered, you desired output will be added

103
to the Printer object. VB only sends the contents of the Printer.object when it encounters an EndDoc
or NewPage method.

i.) Formatting Line

To enhance the presentation of your output there is the need to format you object texts or objects. The
comma, semicolon, Tab function and Spc functions are used to format text in VB

The print page takes five columns per line. Each of the columns is referred to as a print zone. A
comma is use to advance the position of printed output to the next print zone within a page.

Example
Printer.Print , Processing

This prints Processing in the next print zone.

Printer.Print Data , Processing
Prints Data in print zone 1 and Processing is placed in print zone 2
The output will look like
Data Processing

ii.) Semicolon:
Semi colon is used if you need to separate printed items without advancing to the nest print zone.
Printer. Print Department: ; Computer Science

The output will look like

Department: Computer Science

Compare this output with the one generated with the use of a comma

Printer. Print Department: , Computer Science

The output will look like

Department: Computer Science

Please note that if the last character of a line of output is a semicolon or a comma, the next Print
command will continue on the same line without moving to the next line provided the printer has not
reach the last print zone for that page.

For example:

Printer.Print Department: ;
Printer.Print Computer Science

Will output as

Department: Computer Science

To print a blank line use the Printer method without any items to print

104
Example:

Printer.Print

Thus the statements

Printer.Print Department: ;
Printer.Print Computer Science
Printer.Print
Printer.Print Level: ;
Printer.Print 300

Will output as

Department: Computer Science

Level: 300

iii.) The Tab Function

Syntax
Tab (Columnposition) : This is used to place a the printing of an item in as specified position on a printed
line. The column position specified in the Tab function is a absolute one that is, position 1 1 means
column 1 while position 30 means column 30 on the line

Example

Printer.print Tab (30) School of Science and Technology Printer.Print

Tab (10) Department: ; Tab (22) Computer Science

Will output as

School of Science and Technology Department: Computer Science

Notice that since column position in a tab function is relative, the Tab function for the Computer science
print item could only start from position 22 to create room for the
Department: starting from column position 10.

The Spc Function

Syntax
Spc(Noofspacesadvance)

This function is used to advance a number of spaces from the last item in a printed line

Example

Printer.Print Department: ; Spc(5) Computer Science

Will output as

105
Department: Computer Science

iv.) The NewPage and EndDoc Statement

The NewPage is used to send the current page to the printer and clears the printers object in memory
so that a fresh page can begin. The EndDoc method sends tha current page to the printers and
terminates the current printing process.

Example

Private Sub PrintDetails()

Printer.Print "Department", Level
Printer.Print "Mathematics , 300
Printer.Print "Economics , 400
Printer.Print "Accounting , 100
Printer.Print "Nursing , 400
Printer.EndDoc 'This will tell the printer it has finished.
End Sub

Everything that appears in position will get printed by the default printer The printer enddoc is used
to tell the printer the job is finished.

Will output as

Department Level
Mathematics 300
Economics 400
Accounting 100
Nursing 400

4.0 Conclusion

As programming become more complex, it may be necessary to work with variables that hold more
than one value. In the case, arrays can be used to streamline your code by allowing you create shorter
and more efficient variables.

5.0 Summary

In this unit we covered arrays and described how to display messages using the MessageBox
command, and how to send documents to a printer. Printed copies of documents are also referred to
as hardcopies.

106
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
Q1. Write a VB program sending your name, address and other personal details to a printer?
Q2. Write a VB program that enables user to input their name, date of birth and prints out their
current age.
Q3. Write a VB program using the array function to allow user input a number of names and
searching them using an index. This program will get the item in a particular array set by requesting
the position before displaying.

7.0 References/Further Readings

Julia Case Bradley, Anita C. Millspaugh, Programming in Visual Basic 6.O, McGraw-Hill Higher
Education, 2002

Jan L. Harrington, SQL Clearly Explained, Morgan Kaumann Publisher, An Imprint of Elsevier
Science, 2003, USA

Greg Perry and Dean Miller, C Programming Absolute Beginner's Guide, 3rd Edition, Que
Publishing 2014.

107
 MO DULE 4
UNIT 3: FILE PROCESSING

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Working with Files
3.2 Working with Sequential Files
3.3 Working with Random Files
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction
A data file is a named collection of related records normally kept in external storage. Data stored in
files are permanent until you decide to delete them. Data files once they have been created can be
used as input for the same program for as many program run as you want without having to retype
data. Data files facilitate the sharing of data by many applications. Each record is broken down
into fields.

For example, in the Student registration file, information on Matriculation Number, Name, School,
Department, and Level, make up a record.

Table 16: Students record

Matriculation Name School Department Level

Number

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Explain why data are stored in files

• Use various VB statements to implement file processing
• Provide sample codes in VB to demonstrate file processing

3.1 Working with Files

This refers to the manner in which data are organized, stored and retrieved. Two major ways of
file organization are sequential and random

The three main steps used for processing files are as follow:
1. Open the file: A file must be open for data to be read or written to it.
2. Read or Write records to a file
3. Close the file

108
 i.) The Open Statement

The Open statement makes a file ready for use. The syntax of the Open statement is

Open Filename For mode As #Filenumber [Len = Recordlength]

• Filename is the name of the file to be open and may include the drive and the path if
not in the current directory

The mode is used to indicate the way that the file is accessed and could be INPUT, OUTPUT,
APPEND or RANDOM

Table 17: File Structure

File Description
Mode
Input This is used to read data already stored in a disk
Used when data are output from a program and written on the disk.
New data are written at the beginning of the file, overwriting any
Output existing data.
Append Used when data are to be added to the end of an existing file.
Random Allows input and output of data and records to be accessed in any order
Table 2: File modes

• Filenumber is a number associated with the open ed file. It value can be from 1 to 511.

• The Recordlength is the number of characters in a record and can be up to 32,767

characters. This is usually associated with Random files.

Examples of Open Statement

Open Studrec.dat For Input As #1

This opens a file named Studrec as an Input file in the current directory calling it file #1

Open A:\library.dat For Output As #2

This opens a file named library.dat as an Output file in drive A calling it file #2

Open A:\Inventory.dat For Random As #3 len = 30

This opens a file named Inventory.dat as a Random file in drive A calling it file #3 with record
length of 30.

ii.) Close Statement

The close statement is used to close the opened file(s) and terminates the processing of a disk file.
The syntax of the close statement is

Close #Filenumber

Filenumber is the number associated with file opened.

109
Examples

a) Close #1

This closes file #!

b) Close #1, #2, #3

This Closes file #!, #2 and #3

c) Close

This closes all opened files

iii.) Using FreeFile F unction

For a small project it may be easy for you to assign file number 1, 2 3 as so on to your files as
they occur without conflict. However, for large projects this ma y not be feasible in which case
you can use the Freefile function to assign the next available file number to your file as they
occur.

3.2 Working with Sequentia l Files

Sequential files contains data elements stored one after the other according to a particular order.
Data are read from a sequential device in the same sequence that they were written. To locate a
record in a sequential file you must start from the beginning, and move from one record to the
other until the record is found or you get to the end of the file.

i.) Reading Data in a Sequential File

To read data in a sequential file, the file must be opened first in a Input mode. Then use the
input statement. The Syntax for the Input Statement is:

Input #Filenumber, listoffields

Example

Input #1, lblMatricno.Caption, lblName.Caption,

lblSchool.Caption, lblDepartment.Caption, lblLevel.Caption
Input #2, intScore1, intScore2, intTotalscore

ii.) The EOF Statement

This statement is used to mark the end of file. The general Syntax is:
EOF (filenumber)

iii.) Writing Data to a Sequential File

Before data can be placed in a sequential fill it must be opened first in either Output or

110
 Append mode. The write statement is used to place data in a sequential file. The general
syntax of the Write statement is

Write #Filenumb er, listoffields

Examples

Write #1, txtMatricno.Text, txtName.Text, txtSchool.Text,

txtDepartment.Text, txtLevel.Text
Write #2, intScore1; intScore2; intTotalscore

3.3 Working with Random Files

Random files allow data to be read in any order unlike a sequential file. Random files allow
data to be accessed directly without starting from the beginning and moving from one record
to the other until the data is found or one gets to the end of the file.

Before a record can be used as a random file you need to set up its structure with a Type
statement and then dimension a record variable of the data type. The following code uses the
Type statement to declare Student record type:

Private Type Student

Matricnum As String *12
Name As String *20
School As String * 20
Dept As String * 20
Level As Integer
End Type

To access a custom record type use the dot notation. This is similar to accessing object properties

Dim Stud1 As Student

Stud1.Matricnum = NOU050010456
Stud1.Name = Sonekan Tunde
Stud1.School = Social Sciences
Stud1.Dept= Accounting
Stud1.Level =400

{i) Reading and Writing a Random file

The Put and Get statement are used to access random files.

(ii.) Using the Put Statement

The put statement is used to add or store record into a random file. The syntax of the put
statement is as follow:

Put filenumber, [recnumber], listoffields.

Put #2, intScore1, intScore2
Examples

111
(iii.) Using the Get Statement
The get statement is used to retrieve record from a random file. The syntax of the get statement is
as follow

Get filenumber, [recnumber], listoffields.

Examples
Get #1, intScore1, intScore2, intTotalscore

(iv.) Using the Seek statement

The seek statement is used to move from record to record. The seek statement has two
parameters which are the file number and the record number.

Example
Seek #1, 5

This causes the next Put or Get to access record number 5.

4.0 Conclusion
One of the features of a computer that makes it suitable for data processing is its ability to store
data either temporarily or permanently. Data files are used to store information more permanently
in secondary storage devices. Data files once they have been created can be used as input for the
same program for as many program run as you want without having to retype data. Data files are
very essential for data processing

5.0 Summary
Data processing applications such as inventory, payroll, accounting, budgeting, and student s
information systems require that data are stored permanently in a file. In this unit we explained
the meaning of a file and covered how Visual Basic language is used to implement the
processing of files.

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments

Q1. What are the differences between a sequential file and a random file?
Q2. What is the purpose of the EOF statement?

7.0 References/Further Readings

Tony Gaddis , Starting out With Visual BASIC - With Access - 7th edition, Pearson 2017,
ISBN13: 978013440015

Jan L. Harrington, SQL Clearly Explained, Morgan Kaumann Publisher, An Imprint

of Elsevier Science, 2003, USA

112
 MODULE 4
UNIT 4: STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.1 Structure of a SQL Statement
3.2 Using SQL Statements
3.3 Using the SELECT Statement:
3.4 Using the CREATE Command
3.5 Using the INSERT Statement
3.6 Using the UPDATE Statement
3.7 Using the DELETE Statement
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction:
Structured Query Language (SQL) is a programming language that is typically used in relational database
or data stream management systems. SQL has remained a consistently popular choice for database users
over the years primarily due to its ease of use and the highly effective manner in which it queries,
manipulates, aggregates data and performs a wide range of other functions to turn massive collections of
structured data into usable information.
For this reason, it has been incorporated into numerous commercial database products, such as MySQL,
Oracle, Sybase, SQL Server, Postgres and others. In fact, many non-relational databases like MongoDB
and DynamoBD are called NoSQL products due to their lack of SQL programming. While different
iterations of SQL may utilize different syntax for key operations, in general, basic commands like select,
insert, update and create are common to all SQL releases. This makes it very easy for someone with a
basic knowledge of SQL to work in many different environments and perform a wide variety of tasks.

There are many relational DBMSs. All relational database management systems speak a common
language called SQL (Structured Query Language). The aim of this language is to store, manipulate,
and retrieve data stored in relational databases. SQL combines the familiar database concept of tables,
rows (records), and columns (field) and the mathematical idea of a set. Typical SQL queries define
the fields to be processed, the table containing the fields, the range of records to be included, and, for
records retrieval, the order in which the returned records are presented.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Explain the meaning an and use of SQL

• Give examples of basic SQL statement
• Demonstrate the use of SQL statements with examples

3.1 Structure of a SQL Statement

A SQL statement consists of the following three main components:

113
 i. The SQL operation
ii. The target
iii. The Condition

i) The SQL Operation

The four basic operations performed by a SQL Data Manipulation Language statement are:

SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE.

ii) The Target

All SQL DML statement operates on at least one database tables or views. The essence of the
target component is to identify those tables or views. In specifying out the target component you
may use the FROM clause.

iii) The Condition

The condition component is specified by the WHERE clause and identifies the specific rows to be
operated on by SELECT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement.

3.2 Using SQL Statements

In the following sections we shall cover five basic SQL statements
i. SELECT
ii. INSERT
iii. CREATE
iv. UPDATE
v. DELETE

3.3 Using the SELECT Statement:

This is probably the most common and widely used of all SQL statements. It is used to retrieve data
from a database. The retrieval of data may be done from one or more tables or views. A select
statement always has a target component specified in by the FROM clause and often has a
condition statement specified by the WHERE clause. Study the following uses of the SELECT
statements.

Syntax

SELECT "column_name" FROM "table_name"

To illustrate with the above syntax, assume that we have the following table:

Table 18: Student_ Information

Matric-NO Name Department Level

NOU0400010311 Adamu Computer Science 400
NOU0500011211 James Economics 300
NOU0600012311 Peter Mathematics 200
NOU0700034435 Musa Nursing 100
NOU0700042341 Sule Computer Science 100
NOU0600051332 Adebayo Accounting 200

114
Also, let us assume that we are interested in the matriculation number of all the students in the
Student_Information table: To accomplish this, we use the command:

a.) SELECT Matric_No FROM Student_Information

The result of the selection will be:

NOU0400010311
NOU0500011211
NOU0600012311
NOU0700034435
NOU0700042341
NOU0600051332

Similarly to select all the departments from the student_Information table you can use the
command:

b.) SELECT Department FROM Student_Information

The result of the selection will be:

Computer Science
Economics
Mathematics
Nursing
Computer Science
Accounting

Notice that the result of the SELECT statement in ii.) produced some redundancies i.e., the
department Computer Science appears twice. To avoid this, you may which to apply the
command DISTINCT after SELECT. That is to select all distinct departments in table
Student_Information write

c.) SELECT DISTINCT "department " FROM "Student_ Information"

The result of the selection will be:

Computer Science
Economics
Mathematics
Nursing
Accounting

Next, we might want to conditionally select the data from a table. For example, we may want to
only retrieve student names with Level above 200. To do this, we use the WHERE clause. To
select all Names with Level above 200 in the Student_Information Table, we apply the
commands

d.) SELECT Name FROM Student_Information WHERE Level> 200

The result of the selection will be:
Adamu

115
 James

So far, we have seen how to retrieve relevant data from a table using SELECT and WHERE
commands. Sometimes, however, you may want the result of your query to be in a particular
order. This could be in ascending order, in descending order, or could be based on either
numerical value or text value. To achieve these, you can apply the ORDER BY clause to achieve
your goal. The syntax for an ORDER BY statement is as follows:

SELECT "column_name"
FROM "table_name"
[WHERE "condition"]
ORDER BY "column_name" [ASC, DESC]

In the syntax written above:

[ ] means that the WHERE statement is optional When it is used it appears before the ORDER
BY command

ASC means Ascending

DESC means Descending

When neither ASC nor DESC is specified, ASC is taken as the default. It is possible to order by more
than one column. In this case, the ORDER BY clause above is written as:

ORDER BY "column_name1" [ASC, DESC], "column_name2" [ASC, DESC]

For example, we ma y wish to list the contents of the Table, Student_ Information by Name, in
ascending order: We use the command

e) SELECT Name, department, level FROM Student_Information ORDER B Y

Level,
Name

Result
Adamu Computer Science 400
Adebayo Accounting 200
James Economics 300
Musa Nursing 100
Peter Mathematics 200
Sule Computer Science 100

f.) Using the COUNT Command

The Count command is an arithmetic function that allows you to count up the number of row in a
certain table.
The syntax is: SELECT COUNT ("column_name") FROM "table_name"

For example, if we want to find the number of departments in the table we use the command
SELECT COUNT (Department) FROM Student_ Information

The result of the selection will be:

116
 Count(Department)
6

g.) Combining the COUNT and DISTINCT Commands

COUNT and DISTINCT can be used together in a statement to fetch the number of distinct
entries in a table. For example, if we want to find out the number of distinct department, we type
in the following

SELECT COUNT (DISTINCT Department) FROM Student_Information

The result of the selection will be:
Count(DISTINCT Department)
5

3.4 Using the CREATE Command

Tables are the basic structure where data is stored in the database. When developing data
processing applications, the programmer or Data processing manager must first create database
and then tables within the database. Though many database tools allow you to create tables
without writing SQL, it is important to note that SQL uses the CREATE TABLE command for
creating table.

A table as discussed earlier is divided into rows and columns. Each row represents one piece of
data, and each column can be thought of as representing a component of that piece of data. So, for
example, if we have a table for recording student information, then the columns may include
information such as Matriculation Number, Name, School, Department and Level. As a result,
when we specify or create a table, we include the column headers and the data types for that
particular column.

The SQL syntax for CREATE TABLE is:

CREATE TABLE "table_name"

("column 1" "data_type_for_column_1",
"column 2" "data_type_for_column_2",
... )

Thus if we are to create the Student_information table used in the preceding

examples, we type

CREATE TABLE Student_information (

MatricNo varchar(12),
Names varchar(50),
Dept varchar(50),
Level integer )

Now that you know how to write simple queries to retrieve information from a table and the
command for creating a table, we shall look at the INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE command.

3.5 Using the INSERT Statement

117
The INSERT statement is used to create new rows of data in a target database table or view. The
statement provides a list of columns that will receive the data provided and the corresponding list
having the data elements to be placed in each column.

The general syntax for inserting data into a table one row at a time is as follows:
INSERT INTO "table_name" ("column1", "column2", ...)
VALUES ("value1", "value2", ...)

Assuming that we have a table that has the following structure,

Table Student_Information

Table 19: Data Types

Column Name Data Type
Matric_No Varchar(12)
Name Varchar(50)
Dept Varchar(50)
Level Number

and now we wish to insert one additional row into the table representing the data for student with

Name: Sonekan Tunde

Matriculation number: NOU050010456
Department: Accounting
Level: 400

The SQL statement will be written as:

INSERT INTO Student_Information (MatricNo , Name, Dept, Level)

VALUES ('NO U050010456 ', Sonekan Tunde , Acco unting , 400)

3.6 UPDATE Statement

This statement is used to modify the data already in a table or view. The syntax of the

Update statement is:

UPDATE "table_name SET "column_1" = [new value] WHERE {condition}

For example, say we currently have a table with the following data:

Table Student _Information

Matric_No Name Dept Level
NOU050010456 Sonekan Tunde Accounting 400
NOU050010457 Daramola Kemi CIS 400
NOU050010459 Akinlabi Oluwafemi Economics 400

If at a point in Sonekan Tunde’s career, he decides to have a change of department from

Accounting to Economics. His record would need to be updated. To do this, use the following
SQL statement:

118
UP DATE Student_ Information
SET Dept = Economics
WHERE MatricNo = "NOU050010456 "

The resulting table would look like

Table 20: Table Student Information

Matric_No Name Dept Level

NOU050010456 Sonekan Tunde Economics 400
NOU050010457 Daramola Kemi CIS 400
NOU050010459 Akinlabi Oluwafemi Economics 400

It should be noted that the matriculation number which is unique to all students in a
university was used as the search key.

3.7 Using the DELETE Statement

The DELETE statement is used to remove rows from a database table or view. The syntax for
this is DELETE FROM Table_name WHERE {condition. For example, if Daramola Kemi is
withdrawn from the university for poor academic performance or voluntarily, her data ma y be
deleted from the student records. To do this, type

DELETE FROM Student_ Information WHERE Matric_No = " NO U050010457 "

The new content of the database will look like:

Table 21: Student_Information

Matric_No Name Dept Level
NOU050010456 Sonekan Tunde Economics 400
NOU050010459 Akinlabi Oluwafemi Economics 400

4.0 Conclusion
The use of SQL statement increases the productivity of programmers in the development of
applications. SQL statements allows table be created, allow insertion, update, deletion of records,
etc. to be performed easily.

5.0 Summary
This unit covers describe and explain the use of basic SQL statements. Most modern day
programming languages support the use of SQL statements. The SQL statement allows easily
manipulations of record in database. You will find the skills acquired in this unit very useful in
your career as a Data Processing personnel

Exercise
Develop a simple data processing application that have features to add, delete, search,
edit, access first, access next, access previous and last student record from a database. The user s
interface should look like Figure 1. The information stored for each student contains
Matriculation Number, Name, School, Department and Level. Hint: Adapt the sample codes and
follow the procedures given below to write your application.

119
STUDENT REGISTRATION INFORMATION

Figure 41: User Interface

Sample codes

Source Code for command (First)

Private Sub Command1_Click()
If datstud.constud.State <> adStateOpen Then datstud.constud.Open
If rstud.State <> adStateOpen Then rstud.Open "Select * from tblstud", datstud.constud,
adOpenDynamic, adLockOptimistic
With rstud
If .RecordCount <> 0 Then
.MoveFirst
txtdept.Text = !Dept
txtmat.Text = !MatricNo
txtlev.Text = !Level
txtsch.Text = !School
txtname.Text = !Names
End If
End With
End Sub
Source Code for command (Next)
Private Sub Command2_Click()
If datstud.constud.State <> adStateOpen Then datstud.constud.Open
If rstud.State <> adStateOpen Then rstud.Open "Select * from tblstud", datstud.constud,
adOpenDynamic, adLockOptimistic
With rstud
If .RecordCount > 1 Then
.MoveNext
If Not .EOF Then
txtdept.Text = !Dept
txtmat.Text = !MatricNo
txtlev.Text = !Level
txtsch.Text = !School
txtname.Text = !Names
Else

120
 MsgBox "No more Records Found ", vbInformation, "Message Box"
End
End If
End If
End With
End Sub
===============================================================

Source Code for command (Previous)

Private Sub Command3_Click()

If datstud.constud.State <> adStateOpen Then datstud.constud.Open
If rstud.State <> adStateOpen Then rstud.Open "Select * from tblstud", datstud.constud,
adOpenDynamic, adLockOptimistic
With rstud
If .RecordCount > 1 Then
.MovePrevious
If Not .EOF Then
txtdept.Text = !Dept
txtmat.Text = !MatricNo
txtlev.Text = !Level
txtsch.Text = !School
txtname.Text = !Names
Else
MsgBox "No previous record", vbInformation, "Message Box"
End
End If
End If
End With
End Sub
Source Code for command (Last)
Private Sub Command4_Click()
If datstud.constud.State <> adStateOpen Then datstud.constud.Open
If rstud.State <> adStateOpen Then rstud.Open "Select * from tblstud", datstud.constud,
adOpenDynamic, adLockOptimistic
With rstud
If .RecordCount <> 0 Then
.MoveLast
txtdept.Text = !Dept
txtmat.Text = !MatricNo
txtlev.Text = !Level
txtsch.Text = !School
txtname.Text = !Names
End If
End With
End Sub
Source Code for command (Add)
Private Sub Command5_Click()
If datstud.constud.State <> adStateOpen Then datstud.constud.Open
If rstud.State <> adStateOpen Then rstud.Open "Select * from tblstud", datstud.constud,
adOpenDynamic, adLockOptimistic

121
With rstud
If txtdept.Text = "" Or txtlev.Text = "" Or txtmat.Text = "" Or txtname.Text = "" Or txtsch.Text
= "" Then
MsgBox "Incomplete Registration", vbCritical, "Message Box"
Else
.AddNew
!MatricNo = txtmat.Text
!Dept = txtdept.Text
!School = txtsch.Text
!Names = txtname.Text
!Level = txtlev.Text
.Update
MsgBox "Registration Successful!!!", vbInformation, "Message Box"
Call clr
End If
End With
End Sub

Figure 41: Information Box

===============================================================
=======
Source Code for command (Edit)
If datstud.constud.State <> adStateOpen Then datstud.constud.Open
If rstud.State <> adStateOpen Then rstud.Open "Select * from tblstud", datstud.constud,
adOpenDynamic, adLockOptimistic
With rstud
If txtdept.Text = "" Or txtlev.Text = "" Or txtmat.Text = "" Or txtname.Text = "" Or txtsch.Text
= "" Then
MsgBox "Incomplete Registration", vbCritical, "Message Box"
Else

122
 !MatricNo = txtmat.Text
!Dept = txtdept.Text
!School = txtsch.Text
!Names = txtname.Text
!Level = txtlev.Text
.Update
MsgBox "Update Successful!!!", vbInformation, "Message Box"
Call clr
End If
End With
End Sub
===============================================================
=======
Source Code for command (delete)
Private Sub Command6_Click()
If datstud.constud.State <> adStateOpen Then datstud.constud.Open
If rstud.State <> adStateOpen Then rstud.Open "Select * from tblstud", datstud.constud,
adOpenDynamic, adLockOptimistic
If txtdept.Text <> "" And txtlev.Text <> "" And txtmat.Text <> "" And txtname.Text
<> "" And txtsch.Text <> "" Then
MsgBox "Sure you want to delete this Record", vbYesNo, "Message box"
If vbYes Then
With rstud
.Delete adAffectCurrent
.Requery
MsgBox "Recod Deleted", vbInformation, "Message Box"
End With
End If
End If
End Sub

123
 Figure 42: Student Information
===============================================================
=======
Source Code for command (Search)
Private Sub Command8_Click()
If datstud.constud.State <> adStateOpen Then datstud.constud.Open
If rstud.State <> adStateOpen Then rstud.Open "Select * from tblstud", datstud.constud,
adOpenDynamic, adLockOptimistic
With rstud
.Filter = "MatricNo='" & txtmat.Text & "'"
If Not .EOF Then
txtname.Text = !Names
txtdept.Text = !Dept
txtlev.Text = !Level
txtmat.Text = !MatricNo
txtsch.Text = !School
Else
MsgBox "This name was not found in the database", vbCritical, "Message
Box" End If
End Sub

124
 Figure 43: Other Registration
===============================================================
=======
Database Connection

Step 1 Create your database using Microsoft Access or SQL

SCREEN SHOTS

Figure 44:Database Design view in Microsoft Access

125
 Figure 44: Database format
Step 2 Right click in the project explorer then Add a data environment this is what it looks
like:

Figure 45: Environment View

You could rename it if you wish to but this has been rename form data environment1 to
datstud likewise connection1 has also been renamed to constud.

Step 3
Figure 446
Right on the constud an click on the properties this is what you will see:

126
Figure 46: Data Properties

Step 4 Use connection string as shown on the screen shot then build. To build, you need
to supply your data source name. If you have not created any, enter a new data source name.

Step 5 Select the database used from the outlined databases then proceed

Step 6 Repeat step 4 because you don t have any created data source.

Step 7 You then select your database that has been created then you click ok!

Step 8 Test you connection. If successful, it means that your data source has been successfully
created otherwise repeat the step again.

Step 9 - Right click in the project explorer and add a module.

Step 10 Declare your recordset in this module as follows

Public rstud As New ADODB.Recordset

Public rsass As New ADODB.Recordset

Step 11 Link each recordset with the corresponding table that has been created in
the database in your form load() as follows:

Private Sub Form_Load()

If datstud.constud.State <> adStateOpen Then datstud.constud.Open
If rstud.State <> adStateOpen Then rstud.Open "Select * from tblstud",
datstud.constud, adOpenDynamic, adLockOptimistic
End Sub

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments

Q1. What is a DBMS? Give 5 Examples

Q2 Using any of the DBMSs create table 1( i.e Student_Information) and execute the
SQL
SELECT statements (a-g) in section 3.3

7.0 References/Further Readings

Jan L. Harrington, SQL Clearly Explained, Morgan Kaumann Publisher, An Imprint of Elsevier
Science, 2003, USA

Steve Tale, SQL: The Ultimate Beginners Guide: Learn SQL Today, CreateSpace Independent
Publishing Platform, 2016, ISBN 1533604568, 9781533604569

Dusan Petkovic, Microsoft SQL Server 2016: A Beginner's Guide, Sixth Edition, 6th Edition,
McGraw-Hill 2016, ISBN: 978125964180

127