Electronic musical instruments

FREQUENCY
MODULATION (FM)
SYNTHESIS
+ phase distortion (PD)
Frequency modulation (FM)

FM – frequency modulation, used since 1920s to transmit

radio waves:
• transmitted signal (modulator) – e.g. radio broadcast
• carrier signal – high frequency sine (e.g. 99.8 MHz)
• amplitude of the transmitted signal modulates
instantaneous frequency of the carrier
• modulated signal is transmitted on air
• the received signal is demodulated
• we obtain the original signal

source: http://slidedeck.io/jsantell/dsp-with-web-audio-presentation
FM in sound synthesis

1973 – John Chowning published a paper:

„The Synthesis of Complex Audio Spectra
by Means of Frequency Modulation”.
• If the two signals have specific frequencies,
a harmonic signal is obtained.
• Changes in modulator amplitude modify the timbre.
• Multiple modulations may be performed.
• Easy and cheap method of digital sound synthesis.
• Patented in 1975-1995 by Chowning and Yamaha.
FM in sound synthesis

Let’s simplify the problem to two sine oscillators:

• carrier signal (C)
xc(t) = A sin(t)
• modulating signal (M)
xm(t) = I sin(t)
The modulator changes (modulates)
the instantaneous frequency
of the carrier signal:
x(t) = A sin[t + xm(t)]
x(t) = A sin[t + I sin(t)]
Frequency modulation in sound

What effect does FM produce?

• Low modulating frequency (<1 Hz): slow wobbling
of the pitch (just like LFO in the subtractive synthesis).
• Modulating frequency in 1 Hz – 20 Hz range:
an increasing vibrato effect.
• Frequency above 20 Hz: an inharmonic sound
is produced, it sounds very rough.
• In some configurations, e.g. if both frequencies are
the same, we get a nice sounding harmonic signal!
Synthetic spectrum components

Peaks in the spectrum of a modulated sound:

fc  k fm (k = 0, 1, 2, ...)
In FM terms: lower and upper band (below and above fc )
For example, fc = 500 Hz, fm = 100 Hz:
…, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, …
Reflection of spectral components

• What about components with negative frequencies?

For example, for fc = 400 Hz, fm = 100 Hz, we obtain:
fc – 5fm = 400 – 500 = -100 Hz
• We know that: sin(–x) = –sin(x)
• Therefore:
– a “negative” component is reflected to a positive
frequency (an absolute value is taken),
– phase of the reflected component is inversed,
– if another component is present at this frequency,
amplitudes are summed up (with phase).
Reflection of spectral components
amplituda
Spectrum with a
“negative” component

c f
The component is
reflected, its sign
changes.
f
The components are
summed, taking their
phase into account
f

Absolute values of
the amplitude are
taken.
f
Modulation ratio

Modulation ratio wm – a ratio of modulating frequency

to the carrier frequency.

fm N2
wm = =
fc N1
• In order to obtain a harmonic signal, the modulation
ratio has to be expressed as a ratio of integers N2 and N1.
• In practice, low integers are used, e.g.: 1:1, 2:1, 3:1, 3:2.
Modulation ratio

Typical values of the modulation ratio

(spectral frequencies are calculated for fc = 400 Hz):
• 1:1 – all spectral components are present
400, 800, 1200, 1600, 2000, …
• 2:1 – only even numbered components (k = 0,2,4,...)
400, 1200, 2000, 2800, …
• 3:1 – every third component is missing
400, 800, 1600, 2000, 2800, …
Example of an inharmonic spectrum:
• wm = 2 : 1
Modulation ratio and fundamental frequency

Warning: this is a common mistake.

Carrier frequency does not have to be equal
to the fundamental frequency! The latter is determined
by the first peak in the harmonic series.
• fc = 500 Hz, fm = 500 Hz → f0 = 500 Hz
(for modulation ratio 1:1, both frequencies are the same)
• fc = 500 Hz, fm = 100 Hz → f0 = 100 Hz
(the first peak is at 100 Hz: 500 – 4 x 100)
• fc = 200 Hz, fm = 300 Hz → f0 = 100 Hz (!!!)
…, -700, -400, -100, 200, 500, 800, … (reflection:)
100, 200, 400, 500, 700, 800, …
Modulation index

• Modulation index (I) = modulator amplitude

(do not confuse with the modulation ratio).
• Determines the modulated frequency range (f = I  fm).
• Influences the number of important components
in the spectrum. Larger index – a richer spectrum.
Carson rule: B = 2(f + fm) = 2 fm (I + 1)
• Also influences amplitudes of spectral components
and therefore, determines the timbre of the sound!
• Practical values: 10 to 100.
 Influence of the modulation index

Carrier frequency: 220 Hz, modulation: 440 Hz

Time signals Spectra

0.1

10

100
Amplitude of spectral components

Amplitudes of spectral components are given by:

x ( n) = A {J 0 ( I ) sin(  c nT )
+ J 1 ( I )  [sin(  c +  m ) nT − sin(  c −  m )  nT ]
+ J 2 ( I )  [sin(  c + 2 m ) nT + sin(  c − 2 m )  nT ]
+ J 3 ( I )  [sin(  c + 3 m ) nT − sin(  c − 3 m )  nT ]
+............................................................}
Note: odd numbered components in the lower band
have inversed phase – negative sign.
Minus dlaorder
Jn(I): n-th nieparzystych prążkówargument:
Bessel functions, wstęgi dolnej!
modulation idx.
 Bessel functions (J)

fc fc  3fm

fc  fm fc  4fm

fc  2fm fc  5fm
Influence of modulation index on spectrum
amplituda

I=0

f
c

I=1 c-2m c+2m

c-3m c-m c+m c+3m f

c

I=2

c-4m c c+4m f

I=3

c-4m c c+4m f

I=4

c
c-5m c+5m f
Calculating a synthetic spectrum

Parameters: carrier frequency fc, modulating frequency fm,

modulation index I.
How to compute the spectrum of a FM-modulated signal:
• calculate frequencies of components (fc  k fm ),
• compute amplitudes of components [Jk(I)], remember
that some lower band components have negative phase.
• reflect components at negative freqs., invert their phase,
• sum up amplitudes of overlapping components,
• take absolute values of amplitudes.
Note: it is not possible to reverse this process and compute
parameters that yield a desired spectrum.
FM synthesis parameters

• Frequencies: carrier (fm) and modulating (fm) determine

the location of spectral components:
– they determine if the sound is harmonic,
– if it is, they determine the sound pitch.
• Modulation index (I) determines amplitudes of spectral
components (and, indirectly, the number of components)
– decide on the sound timbre,
– modulation index has to be changed during a sound
synthesis in order to introduce dynamic timbre
changes and make the sound alive.
Operator

Operator is a basic building block of FM synthesis.

It consists of:
• sine oscillator (OSC) freq mod

• amplifier (VCA)
• envelope generator (EG) OSC

freq – fixed frequency

mod – modulating frequency
VCA EG amp
OSC generates a sine with instantaneous
frequency = freq + mod
FM algorithm

A connection of two or more operators creates

a FM synthesis algorithm.
• Two operators (Simple FM, 2-op FM): one carrier and
one modulator. The simplest algorithm possible,
not sufficient to obtain useful effects.
• In practice, more operators (usually 6) are used,
many algorithms are possible.
• The same operators with the same settings,
but connected in a different algorithm, produce
completely different sound!
Examples of 6-op algorithms

M – modulator, C – carrier

Stack Additive
M
C C C C C C
M

M
Pairs
M
M M M
M
C C C
C
Feedback

• A modulated signal is fed back to the input and

modulated again.
• A gain of the feedback loop is regulated.
• An operator modulates itself!
• Feedback is used to create sounds
with reach spectrum
(e.g. noise like).
Setting the synthesis parameters

• In an EMI, a pressed key fixes the fundamental

frequency.
• For each operator, a frequency multiplier is set.
The operator generates freq.: fundamental * multiplier.
• Output amplitude in each operator is controlled by EG.
• Amplitudes of carriers (output operators) determine the
output level (loudness), EGs control the sound envelope.
• Amplitudes of modulators determine the sound timbre,
EGs control modulation index changes.
Setting the synthesis parameters

Sound timbre is controlled with modulation indices

– amplitudes of signals generated by modulating operators.
Modulation index may be controlled by:
• envelope generators in the modulators – we can modify
the timbre, especially in the attack phase,
• LFO blocks – modulation during the sustain phase,
• other controllers, e.g. a modulation wheel.
Yamaha DX7

Yamaha DX7 (1983) – the most popular FM synthesizer:

• 6 operators,
• 32 fixed algorithms,
• each operator allows for setting: frequency multiplier,
amplitude, envelope and feedback,
• envelope: 4 sections, regulated duration and slope,
• modulators (LFO) and sound effects,
• 16 voice polyphony
• internal and external storage (presets)
Yamaha DX7

Envelope

Operator
Yamaha DX7 – all 32 algorithms
FM synthesis in PC soundcards

• OPL3 chip by Yamaha, for PC soundcards.

• Used in Creative Labs SoundBlaster 2/Pro/16 and clones
(ca. 1991-94).
• Very simplified FM synthesis: two 2-op and four 4-op
algorithms.
• General MIDI compliance: sounds assigned to real
instrument names. These sounds were not realistic,
which contributed to negative opinions on the FM.
• Replaced by soundcards based on sound samples.
Software FM synthesis

Software FM synthesizers – emulation of hardware

synthesizers (NI FM7 i FM8) or custom implementations.
They retain all advantages of the classic FM method.
New functions:
• operators can generate more complex signals than sines,
it changes the sound significantly,
• modulation matrices
- creating custom
algorithms
• additional modules
(effects, modulators)
Summary of FM synthesis

Pros:
• interesting and novel sounds (in early 1980s),
• easy and cheap implementation, compared with
analogue synthesizers,
• stable pitch,
• many possibilities of sound creation.
Cons:
• relation between the parameters and the sound is not
intuitive,
• for some people, the sound is too artificial (“plastic”).
PHASE DISTORTION SYNTHESIS (PD)

• PD synthesis method was developed by Casio and used

in their CZ series instruments (1985-1988).
• Digital, “mathematic” synthesis, similarly to FM.
• Very “synthetic” sounds, almost toy-like.
• The concept: dynamic changes in phase of a sine signal
introduce harmonic distortion into the signal and create
a sound with a dynamic (changing) timbre.
• The sine signal is read from memory.
• Phase distortion is introduced by varying the speed
of reading sine samples from the memory.
An illustration of phase distortion
Practical phase distortion

• In practice, timbre changes were achieved by changing

the distortion coefficient in 0 to 1 range:
– 0: pure sine,
– 1: target signal, e.g. a square wave,
– between 0 and 1: something in between.
• The distortion coefficient is regulated by envelope
generators.
• A “timbre morphing”
effect is achieved.
PD instrument

Block diagram of CASIO CZ-01 instrument

DCW – Digitally Controlled Waveshaper

PD instrument

• 8 target wave shapes, stored in memory.

• These shapes can be combined in pairs.
• A total of 33 wave shapes are possible.
• Envelope controls the phase distortion coefficient.
DCW – Digitally controlled waveshaper

• Envelope controls the phase distortion:

– 0: sine (no distortion),
– 99: target wave (full distortion).
• Key follow: max distortion depends on the key number.
• Velocity: max distortion depends on the strength
of key press.
Casio CZ instruments

CZ-101 (1985)

CZ-5000 (1985)

CZ-1 (1986)
Summary of PD synthesis

Pros:
• possibility of creation of new, interesting sounds,
• easy to implement and cheap,
• easy to use (small number of parameters).

Cons:
• spectrum cannot be controlled directly,
• FM gives more possibilities of sound creation,
• produces synthetic, “toy like” sounds (but many
musicians liked CZ instruments just because of this).
Bibliography

• J. Chowning: The Synthesis of Complex Audio Spectra by Means of

Frequency Modulation. Journal of Audio Engineering Society, Vol. 21, No. 7,
pp. 526-534.
• Yamaha DX7 – manual and other:
https://homepages.abdn.ac.uk/d.j.benson/pages/html/dx7.html
• NI FM8 – a commercial FM software synthesizer:
http://www.native-instruments.com/index.php?id=fm8
• Dexed – simple FM synthesizer: https://asb2m10.github.io/dexed/
• Casio CZ-1 Operation Manual: http://www.synthzone.com/midi/casio/cz1/
• Casio Sound Synthesis Handbook:
https://physics-astronomy-manuals.wwu.edu/Casio%20CZ-
Series%20Sound%20Synthesis%20Handbook.pdf
• Vintage Synthe Explorer: https://www.vintagesynth.com
• Wikipedia: FM synthesis