REPORTING

SEXUAL
VIOLENCE

GUIDELINES FOR JOURNALISTS

 REPORTING SEXUAL VIOLENCE

CONTENTS page 4
01 IT'S THE SAME OLD STORY
It’s the Same Old Story: Rape Representation in New Zealand page 5
Newspapers (1975 – 2015)
Facts page 8

02 BEST PRACTICE FOR page 10

NEWS REPORTING
Understanding sexual violence increases in times of emergency page 11
situations
Undertake training delivered by people working in the sexual page 11
violence sector
Ensure ongoing informed consent for victim-survivors participating page 11
in interviews, filmed or otherwise
Consider word choice when creating headlines page 11
Mention content/trigger/graphic warnings at the beginning of articles page 12
Address the appropriate use of language and terminology and page 12
describe sexual violence accurately
Discuss prevention page 12
Represent diversity page 12
Provide accurate information about the severity of sexual violence page 12
and its impacts on victim-survivors
Respect and support victim-survivors of sexual violence page 12
Examples of helpful/non-damaging reporting page 13
FixedIt page 13

03 RECOMMENDED SOURCES page 14

Acknowledgements page 15
Where to get help page 16
References page 17

1
News media remain
the major and most
influential source of
information, ideas
and opinion about
crime for most
people around the
world.
Very few people have first opinions towards victims of
hand experiences of criminal sexual violence. Not only is
incidents and issues, hence the reality of sexual violence
news media (online and in our society distorted
hardcopy) are a primary source by being largely hidden
of information for most (Greer, (unreported) but further
2013; Thakker, 2012; Ujevic, bias can be introduced in
2015). In New Zealand, this media accounts of actual
is no different. cases if reporting reinforces
rather than challenges
Newspaper reporting on rape
misunderstandings about
is shaped and influenced by
sexual violence.
a variety of factors including
the journalists’ attitudes and
 REPORTING SEXUAL VIOLENCE

WHY HAVE
REPORTING
GUIDELINES?
Previous research has shown media
Sexual violence reporting has depictions can promote victim-blaming
historically been influenced attitudes which affect society’s understanding
toward sexual violence, promoting false
by myths and misconceptions narratives and rape-supportive beliefs
and presented in ways (Boyle, 2005; Carter, 2002; Kitzinger, 2004;
Moore, 2009). Rape myths – first defined by
that typically focus on Brownmiller (1975) – encompass prejudicial,
isolated incidents instead stereotyped, or false beliefs about rape, rape
victims and rapists.
of exploring trends or the
Ethical and responsible media sexual violence
broader context; asking why reporting guidelines for journalists can
it happens; or seeking out encourage victims and survivors of sexual
violence to come forward and seek help.
solutions that could prevent Media sexual violence reporting guidelines
it from happening again. can provide journalists with a greater
understanding and awareness of the realities
of sexual violence by equipping them with
resources to improve their reporting and help
them tell an accurate story. Moreover, they
would help change the way the public think
and talk about sexual violence. This would
involve shifting the conversation towards the
acknowledgement that sexual violence is a
broad and prevalent social problem, how we
can prevent it and how to encourage victim-
survivors to report to police.

3
REPORTING SEXUAL VIOLENCE

HONOURING
TE TIRITI O
WAITANGI
AND CHALLENGING RACISM
WHEN REPORTING ABOUT
SEXUAL VIOLENCE
The Te Puāwaitanga o te Kākano report
Racism and sexual violence (2009) emphasised that sexual violence is
are intimately connected. viewed as a tool of colonisation against Māori
people, their whenua and resources. In other
Sexual violence has historically been words, sexual violence was not prevalent in
and continues to be used as a tool of Te Ao Māori prior to colonisation and where it
racist oppression against Māori and other did occur the consequences were rapid. Māori
communities of colour (Pennsylvania saw sexual violence and especially incest as
Coalition Against Rape, 2017). transgressing the mana, the status, the dignity
and the future birthright of not only the victim
Colonisation and the importation of colonial but also the abuser and his people. Shame
belief systems had a complex impact on was seen, lain, addressed, actioned and put
knowledge and relationships within Te Ao in its place (Pitman, 1996).
Māori. There is widespread acknowledgement
that colonisation has led to collective trauma Furthermore, literature highlights links between
for Māori and has had ongoing effects that the denial of Māori knowledge and tikanga
continue to be experienced today through and increased acts of sexual violence against
structural oppression. Today, those historical and amongst Māori (Te Puāwaitanga o te
experiences are repeated through ongoing Kākano, 2009). These beliefs and stereotypes
violence associated with racism, stereotyping about Māori and other communities of
and internalised oppression (Family Violence colour serve as justification for sexualized
Death Review Committee, 2020). violence and systematic oppression. Social
conditions and experiences of Māori and other
communities of colour have also translated
into higher rates of victimisation.

4
 REPORTING SEXUAL VIOLENCE

Māori representation Alternative ways of reporting:

in news media → Unmasking White crime

→ Avoiding sensationalist reporting practices
NEGATIVE EXAMPLES INCLUDE: → Reporting should reflect the fact that
Warriors, ’warrior gene’, primitive, Jake the violence happens in all cultures
Muss, gangs, ‘bro’ language, thugs, staunch, → Individuals and families from privileged
Māori child abuse; the repetitive use of Māori backgrounds do not have to face systemic
children as illustrations of child abuse, and the bias and often have the means to keep their
widespread and repeated use of images of violence hidden from authorities
haka and wero to represent Māori.
→ Include stories of Māori resilience and
resistance to systemic racism
NEGATIVE ASSUMPTIONS INCLUDE: → Highlight kaupapa Māori practices of
Māori, and Māori men in particular, are support and healing as key to preventing
inherently violent; any non-Māori violence and addressing sexual violence
is the action of ‘bad apples’; Māori violence → Highlight other marginalised communities
is cultural or genetic; non-Māori don’t abuse efforts to prevent and address sexual
their children, or do so less than Māori; Māori violence.
accept and cover-up violence, and Māori are
generally unconcerned about using crime to
For a fuller discussion of alternatives to
support themselves.
anti-Māori themes in news media see:

  trc.org.nz/sites/trc.org.nz/files/
NEGATIVE EFFECTS INCLUDE:
AlternativesA4-booklet.pdf
Creating a fear of Māori; makes Pākehā
violence and abuse invisible; focuses the
stigma of violence on Māori whānau; reinforces
stereotypes of Māori as violent; increases
Māori belief in these negative stereotypes;
encourages media to sensationalise Māori
crime, and ignores state violence against
Māori (e.g. Ruātoki raids, being beaten for
speaking Māori at school, the systemic
removal and widespread abuse of Māori
children in state care, the Land Wars)
(Kupu Taea, 2014).

5
01
IT’S THE
SAME OLD
STORY
 REPORTING SEXUAL VIOLENCE

It’s the Same Old Story: Findings included:

Rape Representation in → A disproportionate level of coverage of

cases involving stranger rape, even though
New Zealand Newspapers most women are known to their rapist.
(1975 – 2015) Such warnings are both explicit (they are by
police) and implicit (‘stick with your mates’)
Research exploring depictions of male-female and tend to advise women about self-care
rape across a 40-year period provides new in public settings indicating the greatest
research and insight into the New Zealand risk to be from strangers.
context (Barton, 2017). Urban and regional
newspapers across New Zealand between → Newspapers highlighted that women need to
1975 – 2015 were examined; the newspapers take responsibility for protecting themselves
selected were: the New Zealand Herald, and preventing rape’s occurrence obscures
Sunday Star Times, The Dominion and The where the greatest risks to women are
Evening Post (merged in 2002 to become The located – such as in the home – and
Dominion Post), The Press, Otago Daily Times, ultimately leaves women responsible for
Southland Times and the Taranaki Daily News. rape rather than the perpetrator.
→ Newspapers position female rape victims
according to culturally constructed
notions of what the ‘real’ rape victim looks
like. Implicit in this is a focus on what
the woman has said, done, or worn, as
she is held central to analyses of what
happened and why. If the representation
by newspapers that only a certain ‘type’
of woman will be raped – that is, the
‘good’, ‘respectable’ woman – other women
that do not fit this stereotype are judged
harshly and their experiences of sexual
victimisation can be rendered unworthy.
This can prevent women (and men) who
have been raped from reporting offences
they’ve experienced.
→ Not only is the reality of sexual violence
in our society distorted by being largely
hidden (unreported) but further bias is
introduced in newspaper accounts of
actual cases. New Zealand’s news media
is therefore at least partially responsible
for contributing to a cultural narrative that
positions women as targets of stranger
rape, yet responsible for their apparent
victimisation, in their pursuit of ‘objectivity’
and ‘newsworthiness’.

The analysis also examined who spoke

professionally across the sample, noting
their gender.

7
REPORTING SEXUAL VIOLENCE

FIGURE 1:
Total number of articles (n=1833) concerning rape cases across time

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
1975 1985 1995 2005 2015

Out of 1833 articles, the total number of cases

spanning the five individual years across all
newspapers produced the number 1053.

FIGURE 2:
Gender breakdown of voices
500
450
400

350
300

250
200
150
100
50
0
1975 1985 1995 2005 2015

Men’s voices Women’s voices Both Unsure

This graph illustrates that the dominant the implications of a gendered voice on rape
gender that commits rape (men) is also the and seek out women’s voices to counter them.
dominant gender coming through in reporting The overall trend indicates that New Zealand
practices and speaking on behalf of women. newspaper media prioritise men’s voices in
This serves to doubly silence women; by rape reporting, which only serve to remind us
firstly raping her and then retaining the how strong patriarchal legacies are and how
controlling voice through media commentary. much more work needs to be done.
Therefore, reporters need to be conscious of

8
 REPORTING SEXUAL VIOLENCE

FIGURE 3:
Women’s voices across time
120%

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%
1975 1985 1995 2005 2015

Women’s voices Men’s voices

While positive changes have occurred, the on specific incidents that fail to engage in
reporting and representation practices over wider critiques of the societal attitudes that
the 40-year period Barton (2017) analysed support and perpetuate rape (Jordan, 2012;
can still be seen today. The media focused on Kitzinger, 2009; Meyers, 1997). New Zealand
stranger attacks, objectifies victims, reflects news media still predominantly reports rape
court-based discourse (which can excuse in terms that are titillating, arousing, and
perpetrators and perpetuate stereotypes sensationalist to readers.
about victims and victimisation), or focused

9
REPORTING SEXUAL VIOLENCE

FACTS
Sexual Violence Young people are statistically at
in New Zealand 05 the highest risk of being sexually
assaulted; the 16 – 24-year-old age
Sexual violence can include any sexual act, group is four times more likely to be
attempted sexual act, sexual harassment, sexually assaulted than any other age
sexual coercion and sexual contact with force. group. This has nothing to do with
Lack of consent is crucial to sexual violence. Tinder or any other dating app.
Sexual violence can be perpetrated by, or
against, anyone regardless of age, gender,
People who are marginalised in some
socio-economic background, sexuality,
ethnicity or ability and has a wide prevalence
and high impact. The statistics listed below
06 way are also a more common target
for sexual abuse. Counting ourselves:
The health and wellbeing of trans
are provided by HELP Auckland (2019).
and non-binary people in Aotearoa
New Zealand (2019) found that
Māori are substantially over- disabled participants were more likely

01 represented as both victims and

perpetrators of violence in families/
to report that someone had sex with
them against their will. Trans women,
whānau. Regarding sexual violence, trans men and non-binary individuals
research has consistently shown an experience higher rates of sexual
over-representation with Māori more violence. So do those people with
than twice as likely to be victimised physical disabilities.
compared to the New Zealand
average. Māori are also more likely to Violent, stranger danger sexual
be victims of intimate partner violence
and/or sexual violence at some point
07 assault is rare. Most sexual assault
involves pressure, coercion and
in their lives than the New Zealand threats, often by people known to the
average, and are more likely to be the person affected. Sexual assault does
victims of multiple or repeat offences not always leave physical injuries.
than the New Zealand average.
Only about 10 out of 100 sexual abuse

02
1 out of 3 girls may be sexually
abused before she turns 16 years old.
08 crimes are reported and 3 of those
get to court. Sadly, only one of those
Most of this abuse (90%) will be done is likely to get a conviction. That’s 1%
by someone she knows and 70% will of all incidences.
involve genital contact.
Victims of childhood sexual abuse

03
1 in 7 boys may be sexually abused by
adulthood.
09 are twice as likely as non-victims to
experience later personal violence.

Research strongly demonstrates that

04
Approximately 1 in 5 New Zealand
women experience a serious sexual
assault. For some women, this
10 physical and mental health problems
resulting from sexual abuse and rape
happens more than once. can be significant. The long-term
effects of sexual abuse on children
have been correlated with almost
every known mental health disorder.
10
 REPORTING SEXUAL VIOLENCE

Consent
New Zealand law states sexual consent
cannot be given under these seven situations:
→ the survivor was under the age of 16
→ the survivor was threatened with force,
threat or coercion
→ the survivor was asleep or unconscious
Sexual Violation,
→ the survivor was intoxicated due to alcohol
Section 128 of the or drugs that they were unable to consent
Crimes Act 1961 → the survivor was affected by an intellectual,
The Crimes Act 1961 protects mental, or physical condition or impairment
everyone in New Zealand from
→ the survivor was mistaken about the
sexual violation. Under Section 128,
identity of the person (for example, they
the crime of sexual violation can
were tricked into thinking the perpetrator
be committed in one of two ways:
was someone else)
either by “rape” or by “unlawful
sexual connection”. → the survivor was mistaken about the nature
of the act (for example, they consented
only to vaginal sex but not to anal sex).

01 Consent is ongoing. Giving consent for

one activity, one time, does not mean giving
“Rape” means the penetration of
the genitalia by the penis, without consent for increased or recurring sexual
consent. It is a man-on-woman contact. Consent needs to be renewed and
offence (although either the reconfirmed continuously. Sexual consent
offender or victim may have had must be:
gender reassignment surgery). → Free, full and voluntary – consent is a free,
full, voluntary agreement made together by
those involved for any sexual situations or

02 experiences
→ Informed – those involved know exactly
“Unlawful sexual connection” what they are consenting to
includes a much wider range of
offending – forcing someone to → Enthusiastic – an enthusiastic yes means
give or receive anal sex or oral those involved are really excited and keen
sex, same-sex offending, and to engage in activity. There is a damaging
offending with an object. It is still sexual script that exists which purports
a “sexual connection” no matter ‘male pursuer/female gatekeeper.’ It is
how slight the contact with the important to remember that non-consent
offender’s genitalia or anus, or with should not be the victim-survivors
the survivor’s genitalia or anus responsibility to prove.
– it includes penetration, and it
includes touching.

11
02
BEST PRACTICE
FOR NEWS
REPORTING
 REPORTING SEXUAL VIOLENCE

These guidelines provide

suggestions to journalists
when reporting sexual Undertake training delivered
violence stories. by people working in the
They aim to give journalists a greater sexual violence sector
understanding of sexual violence realities
Where possible, journalists should
and equip them with resources to improve
attend training seminars by sexual
their reporting. They are based on,
violence sector specialists.
and influenced by, research regarding
recommendations to journalists (Lynch, 2015;
Marhia, 2008; Wood, & Dickson, 2013), and
include the new findings from Barton (2017).

Understanding sexual Ensure ongoing informed

violence increases in times consent for victim-survivors
of emergency situations participating in interviews,
Sexual violence increases during emergencies, filmed or otherwise
crises or pandemics when being at home with This would involve explaining how much of
an abuser makes victims more vulnerable the interview is likely to make it into the final
because there is no escape. In addition, edit, the themes that are likely to be selected,
formal and informal support systems are and the framing of the story, if that is already
impacted, and Police and emergency services known. Collaborative decision-making about
are focused on responding to the natural the chosen narrative and the power and
disaster or emergency, making it more difficult control shifting to survivors so they can
to access help. These resources further have control over their own story.
explain why:

  nsvrc.org/blogs/five-reasons-sexual-
violence-increases-disasters

  cgdev.org/publication/pandemics-and-
violence-against-women-and-children
Consider word choice when
creating headlines
It’s distressing for victim-survivors and their
loved ones to read distorted headlines when
they’re already having to make sense of a
difficult situation.

13
REPORTING SEXUAL VIOLENCE

!
Mention content/trigger/ Discuss prevention
graphic warnings at the Covering real, identifiable solutions and those
beginning of articles working toward them helps shift perceptions
of this issue and demonstrate that prevention
Sexual violence can lead to PTSD (among is possible, no matter the scale. If unsure,
other conditions) and it is vital to acknowledge contact sexual violence prevention experts.
these lived experiences and how trigger
warnings can empower survivors to look after
themselves day to day.

Represent diversity
Across reporting include a wide range
Describe sexual of people who are assaulted or who are
otherwise affected by sexual violence.
violence accurately This is not always possible, but journalists
It’s important to avoid euphemisms and must strive for different voices in their
common misconceptions. The following coverage. For example, think about survivors
suggestions were developed by Rachel across the lifespan, survivors of different
Harrison (2020): ethnicities, male survivors, LGBTQI* survivors,
people living with disabilities and other
→ Instead of saying child paedophile, child
underrepresented voices.
sex offender, child predator or perpetrator,
say children who have problematic sexual
behaviour. Instead of saying child porn,
say child sexual abuse images, child sexual
exploitation or child abuse material (if
referring to a sound clip).
→ Instead of saying they (the survivor/victim) Provide accurate information
didn’t fight back, or the child and adult
had a sexual relationship that lasted two about the severity of sexual
years, or non-consensual sex, say they violence and its impacts on
(the person doing the behaviour) did not
check that there was consent, or the adult
victim-survivors
sexually abused the child for two years, or Sexual violence is a broad and prevalent social
sexual violence/assault/abuse/rape. problem, journalists need to emphasise that
and critically discuss this, why do people
→ Instead of saying alleged victim, alleged
commit sexual violence? (Challenge patriarchy
perpetrator, alleged abuse, say survivor/
and traditional gender roles, challenge common
victim/person who experienced harm, or
myths and stereotypes, avoid pathologising).
person who has done harm (or offender if
there is a conviction).

Respect and support victim-

survivors of sexual violence
Provide contact details of support services at
the end of articles.

14
 REPORTING SEXUAL VIOLENCE

Examples of helpful/non-
damaging reporting

stuff.co.nz/national/113090659/a-
third-of-women-university-students-
report-being-sexually-assaulted-
what-do-we-owe-them

stuff.co.nz/national/112654442/
slutshaming-for-women-and-
protection-for-men-is-this-system-
fair

stuff.co.nz/opinion/117440651/
courts-should-be-about-justice-not-
more-trauma FixedIt
Below is an example from
stuff.co.nz/opinion/117282610/ Jane Gilmore’s campaign
alison-mau-the-cycle-of-silencing- ‘FixedIt’ – aimed at rewriting
victims-is-beyond-frustrating news headlines to accurately
reflect the crime.

nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.
cfm?c_id=1&objectid=12287715

newsroom.co.nz/2018/11/28/91634/
law-firm-faces-new-sex-claims

Photo credit: Jane Gilmore (2019)

15
03
RECOMMENDED
SOURCES
 REPORTING SEXUAL VIOLENCE

There are people available

to provide commentary to
media on the topic of sexual
violence who represent a
range of perspectives –
both kaupapa Māori and
mainstream services.
We recommend you contact specialists in
your local area when writing a story. See the
Te Ōhaakii ā Hine – National Network Ending Acknowledgements
Sexual Violence Together (TOAH-NNEST) In 2013, the Tauiwi Caucus of
website which has up to date information for TOAH-NNEST created a set of
each region, what services they offer and lists media sexual violence reporting
of academics and researchers to contact who guidelines, authored by Sandra
are experts in their field: Dickson and Nicola Wood. Thank
  toah-nnest.org.nz/get-help/find-help you to everyone who participated
in this current project which
involved updating the 2013
guidelines. In particular, thanks
goes to Miriam Sessa and Liza
Time (TOAH-NNEST), Sarah
Monod de Froideville (Victoria
University of Wellington), Laura
Walters (Newsroom), Alison
Mau and Michelle Duff (Stuff),
Stephanie Edmond (Ministry of
Justice), Tracey Shelton (Australian
journalist, photographer, video
producer), Hala Nasr (independent
researcher) and Judy O’Brien
(Respect Ed Aotearoa) who
provided excellent guidance,
advice and feedback on numerous
iterations and drafts.

17
REPORTING SEXUAL VIOLENCE

Where to get help

Safe to Talk HELP Auckland
0800 044 334 (09) 623 1700 (24-hour confidential
Free text 4334 phone line)
Webchat and info at safetotalk.nz helpauckland.org.nz
Email (24/7) [email protected]
Email [email protected]
Tu Wahine – Kaupapa Māori Crisis Service
Auckland – 09 838 8700 HELP Wellington
04 801 6655
wellingtonhelp.org.nz
Korowai Tumanako – Kaupapa Māori
Survivor and Harmful Sexual Behavior
Support AVIVA Christchurch

Auckland, Northland and Waikato. 24/7 rape/sexual assault support, including

support to attend medical exams or give
Service website korowaitumanako.org Police statements, access to counselling,
Email [email protected] support for parents/whanau of people who
have been sexually abused, support and
Te Puna Oranga – Kaupapa Māori Crisis advocacy services and community education
Service and resources.
Christchurch – 0800 222 042 0800 AVIVA NOW
Email: [email protected] avivafamilies.org.nz/Services/Sexual-
Assault-Support-Service-Canterbury/
National Rape Crisis Centres
Shama
New Zealand wide contacts.
National Sexual Harm Support Service
0800 88 33 00 for ethnic communities
rapecrisisnz.org.nz
Call 07 843 3810
Male Survivors Aotearoa Text 022 135 9545
shama.org.nz/how-we-help/national-
Support for the wellbeing of male survivors
response-for-sexual-harm/
of sexual abuse.

malesurvivor.nz

Shakti Crisis Line

Provides immediate help and support to Further Reading
migrant and refugee women, children and International communications guides for
youth who have experienced sexual abuse, reporting about sexual violence:
family violence, domestic violence and
discrimination (24/7). → mncasa.org/wp-content/
uploads/2018/09/Advocates-Guide-to-
0800 742 584
the-Media.pdf
shakti-international.org/shakti-nz
→ mncasa.org/wp-content/
Women’s Refuge Crisis Line uploads/2018/09/MNCASA_Media_
Manual_2017.pdf
For women living with violence, or in fear,
in their relationship or family (24/7). → calcasa.org/wp-content/uploads/files/
calcasa_media_advocacy.pdf
0800 733 843 (0800 REFUGE)
womensrefuge.org.nz

18
 REPORTING SEXUAL VIOLENCE

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te_K%C4%81kano__FIXED.pdf.
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Thakker, J. (2012). Public attitudes to sex offenders
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