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The Beginner's Guide to

Statistical Analysis | 5 Steps &
Examples
Statistical analysis means investigating trends, patterns, and
relationships using quantitative data. It is an important research
tool used by scientists, governments, businesses, and other
organizations.

To draw valid conclusions, statistical analysis requires careful

planning from the very start of the research process. You need to
specify your hypotheses and make decisions about your research
design, sample size, and sampling procedure.

After collecting data from your sample, you can organize and
summarize the data using descriptive statistics. Then, you can use
inferential statistics to formally test hypotheses and make
estimates about the population. Finally, you can interpret and
generalize your findings.

This article is a practical introduction to statistical analysis for

students and researchers. We’ll walk you through the steps using
two research examples. The first investigates a potential cause-
and-effect relationship, while the second investigates a potential
correlation between variables.

Example: Causal research question

Can meditation improve exam performance in teenagers?

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Example: Correlational research question

Is there a relationship between parental income and college

grade point average �GPA�?

 Table of contents

 Step 1� Write your hypotheses and plan your research design

 Step 2� Collect data from a sample
 Step 3� Summarize your data with descriptive statistics
 Step 4� Test hypotheses or make estimates with inferential statistics
 Step 5� Interpret your results

Step 1: Write your hypotheses and plan

your research design
To collect valid data for statistical analysis, you first need to
specify your hypotheses and plan out your research design.

Writing statistical hypotheses

The goal of research is often to investigate a relationship between
variables within a population. You start with a prediction, and use
statistical analysis to test that prediction.

A statistical hypothesis is a formal way of writing a prediction

about a population. Every research prediction is rephrased into null
and alternative hypotheses that can be tested using sample data.

While the null hypothesis always predicts no effect or no

relationship between variables, the alternative hypothesis states
your research prediction of an effect or relationship.

Example: Statistical hypotheses to test an effect

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• Null hypothesis: A 5-minute meditation exercise will

have no effect on math test scores in teenagers.
• Alternative hypothesis: A 5-minute meditation
exercise will improve math test scores in teenagers.

Example: Statistical hypotheses to test a correlation

• Null hypothesis: Parental income and GPA have no

relationship with each other in college students.
• Alternative hypothesis: Parental income and GPA are
positively correlated in college students.

Planning your research design

A research design is your overall strategy for data collection and
analysis. It determines the statistical tests you can use to test your
hypothesis later on.

First, decide whether your research will use a descriptive,

correlational, or experimental design. Experiments directly
influence variables, whereas descriptive and correlational studies
only measure variables.

• In an experimental design, you can assess a cause-and-

effect relationship (e.g., the effect of meditation on test
scores) using statistical tests of comparison or regression.
• In a correlational design, you can explore relationships
between variables (e.g., parental income and GPA� without
any assumption of causality using correlation coefficients and
significance tests.
• In a descriptive design, you can study the characteristics of
a population or phenomenon (e.g., the prevalence of anxiety
in U.S. college students) using statistical tests to draw

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inferences from sample data.

Your research design also concerns whether you’ll compare

participants at the group level or individual level, or both.

• In a between-subjects design, you compare the group-level

outcomes of participants who have been exposed to different
treatments (e.g., those who performed a meditation exercise
vs those who didn’t).
• In a within-subjects design, you compare repeated measures
from participants who have participated in all treatments of a
study (e.g., scores from before and after performing a
meditation exercise).
• In a mixed (factorial) design, one variable is altered between
subjects and another is altered within subjects (e.g., pretest
and posttest scores from participants who either did or didn’t
do a meditation exercise).

Experimental Correlational

Example: Experimental research design

You design a within-subjects experiment to study whether

a 5-minute meditation exercise can improve math test
scores. Your study takes repeated measures from one
group of participants.

First, you’ll take baseline test scores from participants.

Then, your participants will undergo a 5-minute meditation
exercise. Finally, you’ll record participants’ scores from a
second math test.

In this experiment, the independent variable is the

5-minute meditation exercise, and the dependent variable
is the math test score from before and after the

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intervention.

Measuring variables
When planning a research design, you should operationalize your
variables and decide exactly how you will measure them.

For statistical analysis, it’s important to consider the level of

measurement of your variables, which tells you what kind of data
they contain:

• Categorical data represents groupings. These may be

nominal (e.g., gender) or ordinal (e.g. level of language
ability).
• Quantitative data represents amounts. These may be on an
interval scale (e.g. test score) or a ratio scale (e.g. age).

Many variables can be measured at different levels of precision.

For example, age data can be quantitative �8 years old) or
categorical (young). If a variable is coded numerically (e.g., level of
agreement from 1�5�, it doesn’t automatically mean that it’s
quantitative instead of categorical.

Identifying the measurement level is important for choosing

appropriate statistics and hypothesis tests. For example, you can
calculate a mean score with quantitative data, but not with
categorical data.

In a research study, along with measures of your variables of

interest, you’ll often collect data on relevant participant
characteristics.

Experimental Correlational

Example: Variables (experiment)

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You can perform many calculations with quantitative age

or test score data, whereas categorical variables can be
used to decide groupings for comparison tests.

Age

Quantitative (ratio)

Gender

Categorical (nominal)

Race or ethnicity

Categorical (nominal)

Baseline test scores

Quantitative (interval)

Final test scores

Quantitative (interval)

Step 2: Collect data from a sample

In most cases, it’s too
difficult or expensive to
collect data from every
member of the population
you’re interested in
studying. Instead, you’ll
collect data from a

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sample.

Statistical analysis allows

you to apply your findings
beyond your own sample
as long as you use
appropriate sampling
procedures. You should
aim for a sample that is
representative of the
population.

Sampling for statistical analysis

There are two main approaches to selecting a sample.

• Probability sampling: every member of the population has a

chance of being selected for the study through random
selection.
• Non-probability sampling: some members of the population
are more likely than others to be selected for the study
because of criteria such as convenience or voluntary self-
selection.

In theory, for highly generalizable findings, you should use a

probability sampling method. Random selection reduces several
types of research bias, like sampling bias, and ensures that data
from your sample is actually typical of the population. Parametric
tests can be used to make strong statistical inferences when data
are collected using probability sampling.

But in practice, it’s rarely possible to gather the ideal sample. While
non-probability samples are more likely to at risk for biases like
self-selection bias, they are much easier to recruit and collect data
from. Non-parametric tests are more appropriate for non-
probability samples, but they result in weaker inferences about the

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population.

If you want to use parametric tests for non-probability samples,

you have to make the case that:

• your sample is representative of the population you’re

generalizing your findings to.
• your sample lacks systematic bias.

Keep in mind that external validity means that you can only
generalize your conclusions to others who share the
characteristics of your sample. For instance, results from Western,
Educated, Industrialized, Rich and Democratic samples (e.g.,
college students in the US� aren’t automatically applicable to all
non-WEIRD populations.

If you apply parametric tests to data from non-probability samples,

be sure to elaborate on the limitations of how far your results can
be generalized in your discussion section.

Create an appropriate sampling procedure

Based on the resources available for your research, decide on how
you’ll recruit participants.

• Will you have resources to advertise your study widely,

including outside of your university setting?
• Will you have the means to recruit a diverse sample that
represents a broad population?
• Do you have time to contact and follow up with members of
hard-to-reach groups?

Experimental Correlational

Example: Sampling (experiment)

The population you’re interested in is high school students

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in your city. You contact three private schools and seven

public schools in various districts of the city to see if you
can administer your experiment to students in the 11th
grade.

Your participants are self-selected by their schools.

Although you’re using a non-probability sample, you aim
for a diverse and representative sample.

Calculate su�cient sample size

Before recruiting participants, decide on your sample size either by
looking at other studies in your field or using statistics. A sample
that’s too small may be unrepresentative of the sample, while a
sample that’s too large will be more costly than necessary.

There are many sample size calculators online. Different formulas

are used depending on whether you have subgroups or how
rigorous your study should be (e.g., in clinical research). As a rule
of thumb, a minimum of 30 units or more per subgroup is
necessary.

To use these calculators, you have to understand and input these

key components:

• Significance level (alpha): the risk of rejecting a true null

hypothesis that you are willing to take, usually set at 5%.
• Statistical power: the probability of your study detecting an
effect of a certain size if there is one, usually 80% or higher.
• Expected effect size: a standardized indication of how large
the expected result of your study will be, usually based on
other similar studies.
• Population standard deviation: an estimate of the population
parameter based on a previous study or a pilot study of your
own.

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Step 3: Summarize your data with

descriptive statistics
Once you’ve collected all of your data, you can inspect them and
calculate descriptive statistics that summarize them.

Inspect your data

There are various ways to inspect your data, including the
following:

• Organizing data from each variable in frequency distribution

tables.
• Displaying data from a key variable in a bar chart to view the
distribution of responses.
• Visualizing the relationship between two variables using a
scatter plot.

By visualizing your data in tables and graphs, you can assess

whether your data follow a skewed or normal distribution and
whether there are any outliers or missing data.

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A normal distribution means that your data are symmetrically

distributed around a center where most values lie, with the values
tapering off at the tail ends.

In contrast, a skewed distribution is asymmetric and has more

values on one end than the other. The shape of the distribution is
important to keep in mind because only some descriptive statistics
should be used with skewed distributions.

Extreme outliers can also produce misleading statistics, so you may

need a systematic approach to dealing with these values.

Calculate measures of central tendency

Measures of central tendency describe where most of the values in
a data set lie. Three main measures of central tendency are often
reported:

• Mode: the most popular response or value in the data set.

• Median: the value in the exact middle of the data set when

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ordered from low to high.

• Mean: the sum of all values divided by the number of values.

However, depending on the shape of the distribution and level of

measurement, only one or two of these measures may be
appropriate. For example, many demographic characteristics can
only be described using the mode or proportions, while a variable
like reaction time may not have a mode at all.

Calculate measures of variability

Measures of variability tell you how spread out the values in a data
set are. Four main measures of variability are often reported:

• Range: the highest value minus the lowest value of the data
set.
• Interquartile range: the range of the middle half of the data
set.
• Standard deviation: the average distance between each
value in your data set and the mean.
• Variance: the square of the standard deviation.

Once again, the shape of the distribution and level of measurement

should guide your choice of variability statistics. The interquartile
range is the best measure for skewed distributions, while standard
deviation and variance provide the best information for normal
distributions.

Experimental Correlational

Example: Descriptive statistics (experiment)

After collecting pretest and posttest data from 30

students across the city, you calculate descriptive
statistics. Because you have normal distributed data on an
interval scale, you tabulate the mean, standard deviation,

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variance and range.

Using your table, you should check whether the units of

the descriptive statistics are comparable for pretest and
posttest scores. For example, are the variance levels
similar across the groups? Are there any extreme values?
If there are, you may need to identify and remove extreme
outliers in your data set or transform your data before
performing a statistical test.

Mean

68.44

75.25

Standard deviation

9.43

9.88

Variance

88.96

97.96

Range

36.25

45.12

30

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From this table, we can see that the mean score increased
after the meditation exercise, and the variances of the two
scores are comparable. Next, we can perform a statistical
test to find out if this improvement in test scores is
statistically significant in the population.

Step 4: Test hypotheses or make

estimates with inferential statistics
A number that describes a sample is called a statistic, while a
number describing a population is called a parameter. Using
inferential statistics, you can make conclusions about population
parameters based on sample statistics.

Researchers often use two main methods (simultaneously) to make

inferences in statistics.

• Estimation: calculating population parameters based on

sample statistics.
• Hypothesis testing: a formal process for testing research
predictions about the population using samples.

Estimation
You can make two types of estimates of population parameters
from sample statistics:

• A point estimate: a value that represents your best guess of

the exact parameter.
• An interval estimate: a range of values that represent your
best guess of where the parameter lies.

If your aim is to infer and report population characteristics from

sample data, it’s best to use both point and interval estimates in
your paper.

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You can consider a sample statistic a point estimate for the

population parameter when you have a representative sample (e.g.,
in a wide public opinion poll, the proportion of a sample that
supports the current government is taken as the population
proportion of government supporters).

There’s always error involved in estimation, so you should also

provide a confidence interval as an interval estimate to show the
variability around a point estimate.

A confidence interval uses the standard error and the z score from
the standard normal distribution to convey where you’d generally
expect to find the population parameter most of the time.

Hypothesis testing
Using data from a sample, you can test hypotheses about
relationships between variables in the population. Hypothesis
testing starts with the assumption that the null hypothesis is true in
the population, and you use statistical tests to assess whether the
null hypothesis can be rejected or not.

Statistical tests determine where your sample data would lie on an

expected distribution of sample data if the null hypothesis were
true. These tests give two main outputs:

• A test statistic tells you how much your data differs from the
null hypothesis of the test.
• A p value tells you the likelihood of obtaining your results if
the null hypothesis is actually true in the population.

Statistical tests come in three main varieties:

• Comparison tests assess group differences in outcomes.

• Regression tests assess cause-and-effect relationships
between variables.
• Correlation tests assess relationships between variables

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without assuming causation.

Your choice of statistical test depends on your research questions,

research design, sampling method, and data characteristics.

Parametric tests
Parametric tests make powerful inferences about the population
based on sample data. But to use them, some assumptions must
be met, and only some types of variables can be used. If your data
violate these assumptions, you can perform appropriate data
transformations or use alternative non-parametric tests instead.

A regression models the extent to which changes in a predictor

variable results in changes in outcome variable(s).

• A simple linear regression includes one predictor variable and

one outcome variable.
• A multiple linear regression includes two or more predictor
variables and one outcome variable.

Comparison tests usually compare the means of groups. These

may be the means of different groups within a sample (e.g., a
treatment and control group), the means of one sample group
taken at different times (e.g., pretest and posttest scores), or a
sample mean and a population mean.

• A t test is for exactly 1 or 2 groups when the sample is small

�30 or less).
• A z test is for exactly 1 or 2 groups when the sample is large.
• An ANOVA is for 3 or more groups.

The z and t tests have subtypes based on the number and types of
samples and the hypotheses:

• If you have only one sample that you want to compare to a

population mean, use a one-sample test.

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• If you have paired measurements (within-subjects design),

use a dependent (paired) samples test.
• If you have completely separate measurements from two
unmatched groups (between-subjects design), use an
independent (unpaired) samples test.
• If you expect a difference between groups in a specific
direction, use a one-tailed test.
• If you don’t have any expectations for the direction of a
difference between groups, use a two-tailed test.

The only parametric correlation test is Pearson’s r. The correlation

coefficient (r) tells you the strength of a linear relationship between
two quantitative variables.

However, to test whether the correlation in the sample is strong

enough to be important in the population, you also need to perform
a significance test of the correlation coefficient, usually a t test, to
obtain a p value. This test uses your sample size to calculate how
much the correlation coefficient differs from zero in the population.

Experimental Correlational

Example: Paired t test for experimental research

Because your research design is a within-subjects

experiment, both pretest and posttest measurements
come from the same group, so you require a dependent
(paired ) t test. Since you predict a change in a specific
direction (an improvement in test scores), you need a one-
tailed test.

You use a dependent-samples, one-tailed t test to assess

whether the meditation exercise significantly improved
math test scores. The test gives you:

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• a t value (test statistic) of 3.00

• a p value of 0.0028

Step 5: Interpret your results

The final step of statistical analysis is interpreting your results.

Statistical significance
In hypothesis testing, statistical significance is the main criterion
for forming conclusions. You compare your p value to a set
significance level (usually 0.05� to decide whether your results are
statistically significant or non-significant.

Statistically significant results are considered unlikely to have

arisen solely due to chance. There is only a very low chance of
such a result occurring if the null hypothesis is true in the
population.

Experimental Correlational

Example: Interpret your results (experiment)

You compare your p value of 0.0027 to your significance

threshold of 0.05. Since your p value is lower, you decide
to reject the null hypothesis, and you consider your results
statistically significant.

This means that you believe the meditation intervention,

rather than random factors, directly caused the increase
in test scores.

E�ect size
A statistically significant result doesn’t necessarily mean that there

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are important real life applications or clinical outcomes for a

finding.

In contrast, the effect size indicates the practical significance of

your results. It’s important to report effect sizes along with your
inferential statistics for a complete picture of your results. You
should also report interval estimates of effect sizes if you’re writing
an APA style paper.

Experimental Correlational

Example: Effect size (experiment)

You calculate Cohen’s d to find the size of the difference

between pretest and posttest scores.

With a Cohen’s d of 0.72, there’s medium to high practical

significance to your finding that the meditation exercise
improved test scores.

Decision errors
Type I and Type II errors are mistakes made in research
conclusions. A Type I error means rejecting the null hypothesis
when it’s actually true, while a Type II error means failing to reject
the null hypothesis when it’s false.

You can aim to minimize the risk of these errors by selecting an

optimal significance level and ensuring high power. However,
there’s a trade-off between the two errors, so a fine balance is
necessary.

Frequentist versus Bayesian statistics

Traditionally, frequentist statistics emphasizes null hypothesis
significance testing and always starts with the assumption of a

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true null hypothesis.

However, Bayesian statistics has grown in popularity as an

alternative approach in the last few decades. In this approach, you
use previous research to continually update your hypotheses
based on your expectations and observations.

Other students also liked

Bayes factor compares the relative strength of evidence for the null
versus the alternative hypothesis rather than making a conclusion
about rejecting the null hypothesis or not.

Descriptive Statistics | Definitions,

Is this article helpful? Types,
Examples
Descriptive statistics summarize935 58a data set. There are three
the characteristics of

types: distribution, central tendency, and variability.

749

Inferential Statistics | An Easy Introduction &

Examples
While descriptive statistics summarize data, inferential statistics help you come to

conclusions and make predictions based on your data.

457

Choosing the Right Statistical Test | Types &

Examples
Your choice of statistical test depends on the types of variables you're dealing

with and whether your data meets certain assumptions.

2492

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