UNIT 4 NANOSENSORS 9 Hrs.

Biosensors and its fabrication-DNA based sensors-Protein based sensors and its properties- fabrication
of biosensors- Gas sensors and its properties-Gas sensor based on semiconductor devices-Molecular
sensors and its properties – Piezoelectric sensors- LOAC microfluidic sensors

Nanosensors are platforms with a characteristic dimension - nanometer in scale, and

work in much the same way as a sensor; they detect either minute particles or miniscule
quantities of something.“Nanosensors are chemical or mechanical sensors that can be
used to detect the presence of chemical species and nanoparticles, or monitor physical
parameters such as temperature, on the nanoscale.” They find use in medical diagnostic
applications, food and water quality sensing, and other chemicals.”

Nano-Sensor Applications

To detect various chemicals in gases for pollution monitoring

For medical diagnostic purposes either as bloodborne sensors or in lab-on-a-chip type
devices
To monitor physical parameters such as temperature, displacement and flow
As accelerometers in MEMS devices like airbag sensors
To monitor plant signaling and metabolism to understand plant biology
To study neurotransmitters in brain for understanding neurophysiology

Nanosensors aid in the progression of fields such as medical technology; precision

agriculture; urban farming; plant nanobionics; prognostics and diagnostics; SERS-based
sensors; and many industrial applications.

Nanosensors include:

• Carbon Nanotube–Based Fluorescent Nanosensors

• Quantum Dot–Based Fluorescent Nanosensors
• DNA-Based Fluorescent Nanosensors
• Peptide-Based Fluorescent Nanosensors
• Plasmon Coupling–Based Nanosensors
• Plasmonic Enhancing–/Quenching–Based Nanosensors
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Based Nanosensors
• Photoacoustic-Based Nanosensors
 • Multimodal Nanosensors (synergistic nanosensors with multiple modalities to
overcome individual challenges)

How Nanosensors Work

• An analyte, sensor, transducer and detector are the components of a sensor
system, with feedback from the detector to the sensor. Sensitivity, specificity and
ease of execution are the main goals in designing a sensor.
• Nanosensors typically work by monitoring electrical changes in the sensor
materials.
• For example, carbon nanotube-based sensors work in this way. When a
molecule of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is present, it will strip an electron from the
nanotube, which in turn causes the nanotube to be less conductive.
• If ammonia (NO3) is present, it reacts with water vapor and donates an electron
to the carbon nanotube, making it more conductive. By treating the nanotubes
with various coating materials, they can be made sensitive to certain molecules
and immune to others.
• Like chemical nanosensors, mechanical nanosensors also tend to measure
electrical changes. The nanosensors used in the MEMS systems that car airbags
depend upon are monitoring changes in capacitance. These systems have a
miniscule weighted shaft attached to a capacitor. The shaft bends with changes
in acceleration and this is measured as changes in capacitance.
• Nanosensors have been developed to the point of measurement at the single-
molecule level.

BIO-SENSOR
A biosensor is defined as a device that produces a measurable signal proportional to the
concentration of the target analyte, usually incorporating a biological sensing element and
measuring signals derived from biological interactions. The first biosensor was invented
in the year 1950 by American biochemist “L.L Clark”. This biosensor is used to gauge
oxygen in the blood, and the electrode used in this sensor is named the Clark electrode
or oxygen electrode. Afterward, a gel with glucose oxidize enzyme was layered on the
oxygen-electrode to compute blood sugar. Correspondingly, enzyme urease was utilized
with an electrode that was invented particularly for NH4++ions for calculating urea in fluids
of the body such as urine and blood. There are three generations of biosensors available
in the market. In the First type of biosensor, the reaction of the product disperses to the
sensor and causes the electrical reaction. In the second type, the sensor involves in
particular mediators between the sensor and the response in order to produce a better
response. In the third type, the response itself causes the reaction and no mediator is
straightly involved.

What is a Biosensor?
Biosensors can be defined as analytical devices which include a combination of biological
detecting elements like a sensor system and a transducer. When we compare with any
other presently existing diagnostic device, these sensors are advanced in the conditions
of selectivity as well as sensitivity. The applications of these Biosensors mainly include
checking ecological pollution control, in the agriculture field as well as food industries.
The main features of biosensors are stability, cost, sensitivity, and reproducibility.
The short form of the biological sensor is known as a biosensor. In this sensor, a biological
element is maybe an enzyme, a nucleic acid otherwise an antibody. The bio-element
communicates through the analyte being checked & the biological reply can be changed
into an electrical signal using the transducer. Based on the application, biosensors are
classified into different types like resonant mirrors, immune, chemical canaries, optrodes,
bio-computers, glucometers & biochips.

Components of a Biosensor
The block diagram of the biosensor includes three segments namely, sensor, transducer,
and associated electrons. In the first segment, the sensor is a responsive biological part,
the second segment is the detector part that changes the resulting signal from the contact
of the analyte, and for the results, it displays in an accessible way. The final section
comprises an amplifier which is known as a signal conditioning circuit, a display unit as
well as the processor.
Working Principle of Biosensor
Usually, a specific enzyme or preferred biological material is deactivated by some of the
usual methods, and the deactivated biological material is in near contact with the
transducer. The analyte connects to the biological object to shape a clear analyte which
in turn gives the electronic reaction that can be calculated. In some examples, the analyte
is changed to a device that may be connected to the discharge of gas, heat, electron ions,
or hydrogen ions. In this, the transducer can alter the device linked convert it into electrical
signals which can be changed and calculated.

Working of Biosensors
The electrical signal of the transducer is frequently low and overlays upon a fairly high
baseline. Generally, the signal processing includes deducting a position baseline signal,
obtained from a related transducer without any biocatalyst covering. The comparatively
slow character of the biosensor reaction significantly eases the electrical noise filtration
issue. In this stage, the direct output will be an analog signal however it is altered into
digital form and accepted to a microprocessor phase where the information is progressed,
influenced to preferred units, and o/p to a data store.

Evolution of Biosensor
The classification of Biosensors can be done into 3 generations based on the amount of
incorporation of the separate component like the technique of connection of the
bioreceptor molecule otherwise biorecognition toward the element of the base transducer.
In the 1st generation, the molecule of the bioreceptor is entrapped physically within the
area of the base sensor after a discriminating membrane like a dialysis membrane. In the
next generations, the achievement of immobilization can be done through covalent bonds
on a properly customized transducer interface otherwise by inclusion into a polymer
matrix on the surface of transduction. In the 2nd generation, the individual components
stay separate like control electronics, bio-molecule & electrode. In the 3rd generation, the
molecule-like bio-receptor turns into an essential element of the base sensing element
whereas these definitions were possibly planned for enzyme electrode systems, related
classifications are suitable to biosensors usually can be made. It is within the 2nd & 3rd
generations of families that the main development attempt can currently be observed.

Features

A biosensor includes two main distinct components like Biological component such as
cell, enzyme and a physical component like an amplifier and transducer. The biological
component identifies as well as communicates through the analyte for generating a signal
that can be sensed through the transducer. The biological material is properly immobilized
over the transducer & these can be frequently used numerous times for a long period.

Types of Biosensors

The different types of biosensors are classified based on the sensor device as well as the
biological material that is discussed below.

Electrochemical Biosensor

Generally, the electrochemical biosensor is based on the reaction of enzymatic catalysis

that consumes or generates electrons. Such types of enzymes are named Redox
Enzymes. The substrate of this biosensor generally includes three electrodes such as a
counter, reference, and working type.
The object analyte is engaged in the response that happens on the surface of an active
electrode, and this reaction may source also electron transfer across the dual-layer
potential. The current can be calculated at a set potential.

Electrochemical biosensors are classified into four types

Amperometric Biosensors

Potentiometric Biosensors

Impedimetric Biosensors

Voltammetric Biosensors

Amperometric Biosensor

An amperometric biosensor is a self-contained incorporated device based on the amount

of the current ensuing from the oxidation offering exact quantitative analytical information.
Generally, these Biosensors have reaction times, energetic ranges & sensitivities
comparable to the Potentiometric-biosensors. The simple amperometric biosensor
infrequent usage includes the “Clark oxygen” electrode.
The rule of this biosensor is based on the amount of the flow of current between the
Counter Electrode and the working which is encouraged by a redox response at the
operational electrode. Choosing analyte centers is essential for a wide selection of uses,
comprising high-throughput medicine screening, quality control, problem finding and
handling, and biological checking.

Potentiometric Biosensor

This type of biosensor provides a logarithmic reply by means of a high energetic range.
These biosensors are frequently complete by monitor producing the electrode prototypes
lying on a synthetic substrate, covered by a performing polymer with some enzyme is
connected.
They comprise two electrodes that are enormously responsive and strong. They allow the
recognition of analytes on stages before only attainable by HPLC, LC/MS & without exact
model preparation. All types of biosensors generally occupy the least sample preparation
because the biological detecting component is extremely choosy used for the analyte
troubled. By the changes of physical and electrochemical the signal will be generated by
in the layer of conducting polymer due to modifying happening at the outside of the
biosensor.

These changes might be credited to ionic force, hydration, pH, and redox responses, the
latter as the label of enzyme rotating above a substrate. In FETs, the gate terminal has
been changed with an antibody or enzyme, which can also sense very-low attention from
different analytes because the required analyte toward the gate terminal makes a modify
in the drain to source current. The main types of potentiometric biosensors are ISE or Ion-
Selective Electrodes based on the membrane, ISFET (Ion-Selective Field Effect
Transistors), Solid state devices, Screen-Printed Electrodes & modified electrodes
through chemically like metal oxides otherwise electrodeposited polymers like sensitive
layers.
Impedimetric Biosensor

The EIS (Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy) is a responsive indicator for a broad

range of physical as well as chemical properties. A rising trend towards the expansion of
Impedimetric biosensors is being presently observed. The techniques of Impedimetric
have been executed to differentiate the invention of the biosensors as well as to examine
the catalyzed responses of enzymes lectins, nucleic acids, receptors, whole cells, and
antibodies.

Voltammetric Biosensor

This communication is the base of a new voltammetric biosensor to notice acrylamide.

This biosensor was built with a carbon glue electrode customized with Hb (hemoglobin),
which includes four prostatic groups of the hem (Fe). This type of electrode shows a
reversible oxidation or reduction procedure of Hb (Fe).
Physical Biosensor

In conditions of classification, physical biosensors are the most fundamental as well as

broadly used sensors. The main ideas behind this categorization also happen from
inspecting the human minds. As the general working method behind the intelligence of
hearing, sight, touch is to react on the exterior physical stimuli, therefore any detecting
device that offers a reaction to the physical possessions of the medium was named as a
physical biosensor.

The physical biosensors are classified into two types namely piezoelectric biosensors and
thermometric biosensors.

Piezoelectric Biosensors

These sensors are a collection of analytical devices which work on a law of “affinity
interaction recording”. The platform of a piezoelectric is a sensor element that works on
the law of oscillations transform due to a collection jump on the surface of a piezoelectric
crystal. In this analysis, biosensors having their modified surface with an antigen or
antibody, a molecularly stamped polymer, and heritable information. The declared
detection parts are normally united by using nano-particles.
Thermometric Biosensor

There are various types of biological reactions which are connected with the invention of
heat, and this makes the base of thermometric biosensors. These sensors are usually
named thermal biosensors.
Thermometric-biosensor is used to measure or estimate serum cholesterol. As
cholesterol obtains oxidized through the enzyme cholesterol oxidize, then the heat will be
produced which can be calculated. Similarly, assessments of glucose, urea, uric acid, and
penicillin G can be done with these biosensors.

Optical Biosensor

The Optical biosensor is a device that uses an optical measurement principle. They use
fiber optics as well as optoelectronic transducers. The term optrode represents a
compression of the two terms optical & electrode. These sensors mainly involve
antibodies and enzymes like the transducing elements.
Optical biosensors permit a secure non-electrical inaccessible sensing of equipment. An
extra benefit is that these frequently do not need reference sensors, because the
comparative signal can be produced by using a similar light source to the sampling
sensor. The optical biosensors are classified into two type’s namely direct optical
detection biosensors and labeled optical detection biosensors.

Wearable Biosensors

The wearable biosensor is a digital device, used to wear on the human body in different
wearable systems like smart watches, smart shirts, tattoos which allows the levels of
blood glucose, BP, the rate of heartbeat, etc.

Nowadays, we can notice that these sensors are carrying out a signal of improvement to
the world. Their better use and ease can give an original level of experience into a
patient’s real-time fitness status. This data accessibility will let superior clinical choices
and will affect enhanced health results and extra capable use of health systems. For
human beings, these sensors may assist in premature recognition of health actions and
prevention of hospitalization. The possibility of these sensors to reduce hospital stays and
readmissions will definitely attract positive awareness in the upcoming future. As well,
investigate information says that WBS will definitely carry cost-effective wearable health
equipment to the world.
Enzyme Biosensor

This sensor is one kind of analytical device, used to merge an enzyme using a transducer
to generate a signal that is proportional to the concentration of the target analyte. Further,
this signal can be amplified, stored, processed for later analysis.

DNA Biosensor

The development of DNA biosensors can be done based on identification techniques of

nucleic acid for analysis of simple, rapid & economical testing of genetic & infectious
diseases. Also, the exact DNA series detection is important in several areas like food
analysis, clinical, environmental, etc. For better detection techniques, SAM & SELEX
technologies are used for developing better recognition techniques for DNA Biosensors.

Different from antibodies or enzymes, recognition of nucleic acid layers can be willingly
created & regenerate for several uses. As compared to normal hybridization, these
sensors, as well as gene chips, have many benefits because of their enormous potential
for attaining specific data in a simpler, cheaper & faster manner. Further, these sensors
have been increased but, the fundamental investigation is still required to enhance the
sensor technologies, detecting plans, instrumentations for analytical & procedures.

Immunosensors

Immuno sensors were recognized on the truth that antibodies include high affinity to their
particular antigens like the antibodies particularly combine to toxins or pathogens or
interact through host immune system’s components. These types of biosensors are
based on affinity ligand solid-state devices where the reaction of immunochemical can be
connected to a transducer.

Magnetic Biosensors

These types of sensors are used to gauge changes within magnetically persuaded effects
or magnetic properties. These kinds of sensors use crystals or particles of super-
paramagnetic otherwise paramagnetic to detect biological communications through
measuring changes within magnetic properties like changes within coil inductance,
resistance.

Resonant Biosensors

In a resonant biosensor, a transducer like an acoustic wave can be connected through a

bio-element. Once the analyte molecule is connected toward the membrane, then the
mass of the membrane alters. So, the final change within the mass subsequently alters
the transducer’s resonant frequency. After that, the change in frequency can be
measured.

Thermal Detection Biosensor

Thermal detection type biosensor uses one of the basic biological reaction properties like
heat production or absorption and changes the temperature when the reaction occurs.
The designing of this sensor can be done by uniting the molecules of an immobilized
enzyme using temperature sensors. Once the analyte & the approaches in contact, then
the enzyme’s heat reaction can be measured and & adjusted against the concentration
of the analyte.

The whole heat generated otherwise absorbed can be proportional toward the molar
enthalpy & the total number of molecules within the reaction. The temperature
measurement is normally achieved through a thermistor known as enzyme thermistors.
Thermistors are ideal in some applications as they are sensitive to thermal changes. Not
like other types of transducers, thermal sensors do not require regular recalibration & they
are insensible to the properties of electrochemical & optical of the sample. These sensors
are used to detect pathogenic & pesticide bacteria.

Biosensors Applications

Biosensor devices include a biological element as well as a physiochemical detector and

the main function of this device is to detect analytes. So, the applications of biosensors
are in a wide range. These devices are applicable in the medical, food industry, the marine
sector as they offer good sensitivity & stability as compared with the usual techniques. In
recent years, these sensors have become very popular, and they are applicable in
different fields which are mentioned below.

Common healthcare checking

Metabolites Measurement

Screening for sickness

Insulin treatment

Clinical psychotherapy & diagnosis of disease

In Military

Agricultural, and Veterinary applications

Drug improvement, offense detection

Processing & monitoring in Industrial

Ecological pollution control

Diagnostic & Clinical

Industrial & Environmental Applications

Study & Interaction of Biomolecules

Development of Drug

Detection of Crime

Medical Diagnosis

Monitoring of Environmental Field

Quality Control

Process Control in Industries

Pharmaceuticals Manufacturer & Organs Replacement

Thus, biosensors are becoming gradually more complicated, mostly due to a blend of
advances in two technological fields like biotechnology & microelectronics. These are
highly important devices to measure an extensive spectrum of analytes like gases,
organic compounds, bacteria & ions. Thus, this is all about an overview of biosensors and
the main components used in this sensor are physical components like amplifier &
transducer whereas biological components like analyte & sensitive bio-element. The
characteristics of biosensors mainly include Linearity, Sensitivity, Selectivity & Response
Time.