MODULE 5

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Learning Tasks and Performance Indicators:

1. Explain the structural and functional difference between the three types of muscle;
2. Describe the relationship between bones and skeletal muscle in producing body movements;
3. Identify the types of fascicle arrangements in a skeletal muscle, and relate the arrangement to
strength of contraction and range of motion;
4. Explain seven features used in naming skeletal muscles; and
5. Enumerate different muscles responsible for the different movements of the body.

Course Outline:

1. Muscular System: Overview

2. General Functions of the Muscles
3. Properties of Muscle Tissue
4. Type of Muscle Tissue
5. The Muscular System: Anatomy and Physiology

Muscular tissue contributes to homeostasis by producing body movements, moving substances

through the body, and producing heat to maintain normal body temperature.

Although bones provide leverage and form the framework of the body, they cannot move body
parts by themselves. Motion results from the alternating contraction and relaxation of muscles, which
make up 40–50% of total adult body weight. Your muscular strength reflects the primary function of
muscle—the transformation of chemical energy into mechanical energy to generate force, perform
work, and produce movement. In addition, muscle tissues stabilize body position, regulate organ
volume, generate heat, and propel fluids and food matter through various body systems.

GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF THE

MUSCLES:

Through sustained
contraction or alternating
contraction and relaxation,
muscular tissue has four key
functions:

1. Producing body
movements
2. Stabilizing body positions
3. Storing and moving
substances within the
body
4. Generating heat
PROPERTIES OF MUSCULAR TISSUE

Muscular tissue has four special properties that enable it to function and contribute to
homeostasis:
1. Electrical excitability
- ability to respond to certain stimuli by producing electrical signals called action potentials
- Action potentials in muscular tissue:
a. Autorhythmic electrical signals
- arising in the muscular tissue itself, as in the heart’s pacemaker
b. Chemical stimuli
- neurotransmitters released by neurons, hormones distributed by the blood, or even
local changes in pH
2. Contractility
- ability of muscular tissue to contract forcefully when stimulated by an action potential
- During muscle contraction, tension (force of contraction) is generated while pulling on its
attachment points causing movements.
3. Extensibility
- ability to stretch without being damaged
- allows a muscle to contract forcefully even if it is already stretched
4. Elasticity
- ability of muscular tissue to return to its original length and shape after contraction or
extension

TYPE OF MUSCLE TISSUES

The three types of muscular tissue—skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. Although the different types
of muscular tissue share some properties, they differ from one another in their microscopic anatomy,
location, and how they are controlled by the nervous and endocrine systems.

I. SKELETAL MUSCLE
- consists of long cylindrical fibers with many peripherally located nuclei and striations

A. MACROSCOPIC STRUCTURES
1. Hypodermis
- Connects the skin to the muscle fibers
- serves as an insulating layer that reduces heat loss, and protects muscles from
physical trauma
2. Fascia
- dense sheet or broad band of irregular connective tissue
- supports and surrounds muscles and other organs of the body
- holds muscles with similar functions together
- allows free movement of muscles, carries nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatic
vessels, and fills spaces between muscles
3. Epimysium
- Dense irregular connective tissue
- extend from the fascia to protect and strengthen skeletal muscle
- outermost layer, encircling the entire muscle
4. Perimysium
- Dense irregular connective tissue
- surrounds groups of 10 to 100 or more muscle fibers, separating them into bundles
called fascicles
 5. Endomysium
- thin sheath of areolar
connective tissue
- Penetrates the interior
of each fascicle
- Separates individual
muscle fibers from one
another
6. Tendons
- cord of dense regular
connective tissue and
parallel bundles of
collagen fibers
- attach a muscle to the
periosteum of a bone
7. Blood Vessels
- Supplies blood to the
muscle fibers
- Bring in oxygen and
nutrients and remove
heat and the waste
products of muscle
metabolism
8. Somatic Motor Neurons
- Stimulate skeletal muscle to contract
- Acetylcholine

B. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURES
1. Sarcolemma
- The plasma membrane of
a muscle cell
2. Transverse Tubules
- tiny invaginations of the
sarcolemma
- ensures that an action
potential excites all parts of
the muscle fiber at
essentially the same instant
3. Sarcoplasm
- cytoplasm of a muscle fiber
- glycogen – used for
synthesis of ATP
- myoglobin – releases
oxygen when it is needed
by the mitochondria for
ATP production
4. Myofibrils
- Thread-like structures
- the contractile organelles of skeletal muscle
- causes the striations
5. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
- fluid-filled system of membranous sacs
- encircles each myofibril
- stores calcium ions (relaxed)
- releases stored calcium ion (muscle contraction)
6. Filaments
- Smaller structures within myofibrils
- Consists of thin and thick filaments
- Do not extend on the entire length of muscle fiber
7. Sarcomeres – structure that compartmentalizes the thin and thick filaments
▪ Z-Disc – narrow, plate-shaped regions of dense protein material which separates
one sarcomere from the next
▪ A Band – the dark, middle part of the sarcomere that extends the entire length of
the thick filaments and also includes those parts of the thin filaments that overlap
with the thick filaments.
▪ I Band – The lighter, less dense area of the sarcomere that contains the rest of the
thin filaments but no thick filaments. A Z disc passes through the center of each I
band.
▪ H-Zone – A narrow region in the
center of each A band that
contains thick filaments but no
thin filaments.
▪ M line – A region in the center of
the H zone that contains proteins
that hold the thick filaments
together at the center of the
sarcomere.

8. Muscle Proteins
- Myofibrils are built from three kinds of proteins:
i. Contractile proteins
- generate force during contraction
- actin – are attached to the Z-lines and main component of the thin filament.
On each actin molecule is a myosin-binding site where a myosin head of a
thick filament binds during muscle contraction.
- myosin – located in the center and makes up the thick filament. A myosin
molecule consists of a tail and two myosin heads, which bind to myosin-
binding sites on actin molecules of a thin filament during muscle contraction.
ii. Regulatory proteins
- help switch the contraction process on (troponin) and off (tropomyosin)
iii. Structural proteins
- keep the thick and thin filaments in the proper alignment
- give the myofibril elasticity and extensibility, and link the myofibrils to the
sarcolemma and extracellular matrix
C. SLIDING FILAMENT MECHANISM

The sliding filament mechanism is a fundamental process that occurs in muscle

contraction. It involves the interaction between two proteins, actin and myosin, within muscle
fibers. Here's a summary of the sliding filament mechanism:

1. Resting State: In the resting state, actin and myosin filaments partially overlap, but they
are not fully engaged with each other.
2. Cross-Bridge Formation: When a muscle is stimulated to contract, calcium ions are
released, which triggers a series of events. Calcium ions bind to a protein called troponin,
causing tropomyosin to move away from the binding site on actin.
3. Power Stroke: With the binding site exposed, myosin heads (extensions of the myosin
filaments) can attach to actin, forming cross-bridges. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is then
hydrolyzed, providing energy for the myosin heads to swivel and pull the actin filament
towards the center of the sarcomere. This is known as the power stroke.
4. Sliding Filament Movement: As the myosin heads undergo the power stroke, the actin
filaments slide past the myosin filaments towards the center of the sarcomere. This shortens
the sarcomere and ultimately results in muscle contraction.
5. ATP Replenishment: After the power stroke, ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and
phosphate are released from the myosin head. ATP binds to the myosin head, causing it to
detach from actin. The ATP is then hydrolyzed again to provide energy for the myosin head
to reset its position and be ready for another cycle of cross-bridge formation.
6. Relaxation: When the muscle stimulation stops, calcium ions are pumped back into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum, causing troponin and tropomyosin to return to their original
positions. This blocks the actin binding site, preventing further cross-bridge formation. The
actin and myosin filaments slide back to their resting state, and the muscle relaxes.

The sliding filament mechanism allows for the controlled contraction and relaxation of
muscle fibers, enabling various movements and functions within the body. Skeletal muscles
contracts only when stimulated by acetylcholine released by a nerve impulse in a motor neuron.
II. CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE
- Composed of branched
cylindrical fibers with one centrally
located nuclei
- Has striations and intercalated
discs that joins adjacent fibers
- principal tissue in the heart wall

A. Macroscopic and Microscopic

Structures
- have the same
arrangement of actin and
myosin and the same bands,
zones, and Z discs as skeletal
muscle fibers.
- intercalated discs
- unique to cardiac muscle fiber
- irregular transverse thickenings of the sarcolemma
- connect the ends of cardiac muscle fibers to one another
- contain desmosomes – hold the fibers together, and gap junctions, which allow
muscle action potentials to spread from one cardiac muscle fiber to another
- contains endomysium and perimysium, but lacks an epimysium
- The mitochondria in cardiac muscle fibers are larger and more numerous than in
skeletal muscle fibers

B. MUSCLE MOVEMENTS
- cardiac muscle tissue contracts when stimulated by its own autorhythmic muscle
fibers
- Under normal resting conditions, cardiac muscle tissue contracts and relaxes about
75 times a minute.

III. SMOOTH MUSCLE

- Usually activated involuntarily
- Types:
1. Visceral (single-unit)
- found in tubular arrangements that form
part of the walls of small arteries and veins
and of hollow organs such as the stomach,
intestines, uterus, and urinary bladder
- autorhythmic
- Stimulation of one visceral muscle fiber
causes contraction of many adjacent fibers
- contract in unison or as a single unit
2. Multiunit
- consists of individual fibers, each with its own motor neuron terminals
- stimulation of one multiunit fiber causes contraction of that fiber only
- found in the walls of large arteries, in airways to the lungs, in the arrector pili muscles
that attach to hair follicles, in the muscles of the iris that adjust pupil diameter, and in
the ciliary body that adjusts focus of the lens in the eye
 A. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE
- Spindle shaped cell with single, oval,
centrally located nucleus
- Sarcoplasm – contains both thick filaments
and thin filaments but they are not arranged
in orderly sarcomeres as in striated muscle.
- Intermediate filaments
- Because the various filaments have no
regular pattern of overlap, smooth muscle
fibers do not exhibit striations causing a
smooth appearance
- lack transverse tubules and have only a small
amount of sarcoplasmic reticulum for
storage of calcium ions
- caveolae – small pouch like invaginations of
the plasma membrane that contain
extracellular calcium ions
- dense bodies – attachments of muscle fibers
which are functionally similar to Z discs in
striated muscle fibers.

B. MUSCLE MOVEMENT

Smooth muscle is a type of muscle found in the walls of organs, blood vessels, and other
structures in the body. Unlike skeletal muscle, which is under conscious control, smooth muscle is
involuntary and functions autonomously. Here's an overview of muscle movement in smooth muscle:

1. Calcium and Contraction: The contraction of smooth muscle is initiated by an increase in

intracellular calcium ions. Calcium binds to a protein called calmodulin, forming a complex that
activates an enzyme called myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK).
2. Phosphorylation of Myosin: Once activated, MLCK phosphorylates the myosin light chains
of the myosin heads. This phosphorylation allows myosin to interact with actin, initiating muscle
contraction.
3. Sliding Filament Mechanism: In smooth muscle, the actin and myosin filaments are not as
highly organized as in skeletal muscle. When myosin binds to actin, it undergoes a conformational
change that pulls the actin filaments closer together. This results in the shortening and contraction
of the smooth muscle cell.
4. Regulation of Contraction: Smooth muscle contraction can be regulated by various
factors, including neurotransmitters, hormones, and changes in membrane potential.
Neurotransmitters like acetylcholine and norepinephrine can stimulate or inhibit smooth muscle
contraction through their interactions with specific receptors on the smooth muscle cells.
5. Peristalsis and Rhythmic Contractions: Smooth muscle is capable of exhibiting rhythmic
contractions, which are important for functions such as peristalsis. Peristalsis is the coordinated
contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle in the digestive tract, allowing for the movement of
food and waste through the system.
6. Slow and Sustained Contraction: Smooth muscle contractions are generally slower and
more sustained compared to skeletal muscle contractions. This characteristic is beneficial for
functions such as maintaining tone in blood vessels or regulating the movement of substances
through organs like the bladder or uterus.
 Smooth muscle plays a vital role in various physiological processes, including digestion, blood
flow regulation, respiratory function, and reproductive processes. Its ability to generate force and
maintain contraction over extended periods is essential for the proper functioning of the body.

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

The muscular system and muscular tissue of your body contribute to homeostasis by stabilizing
body position, producing movements, regulating organ volume, moving substances within the body,
and producing heat.

Together, the voluntarily controlled muscles of your body comprise the muscular system. Almost
all of the 700 individual muscles that make up the muscular system, such as the biceps brachii muscle,
include both skeletal muscle tissue and connective tissue. The function of most muscles is to produce
movements of body parts. A few muscles function mainly to stabilize bones so that other skeletal
muscles can execute a movement more effectively.

A. MUSCLE ATTACHMENT SITES

1. Origin – the attachment of a muscle’s tendon to the stationary bone
2. Insertion – the attachment of the muscle’s other tendon to the movable bone
** belly (body) – fleshy portion of the muscle between the tendons

B. EFFECTS OF FASCICLES ARRANGEMENTS

Fascicle arrangements refer to the organization and orientation of muscle fibers within a
muscle. The fascicle arrangement affects the muscle's strength, range of motion, and force
production. Here are some common fascicle arrangements:
1. Parallel (Longitudinal) Arrangement: In this arrangement, the muscle fibers run parallel to the
long axis of the muscle. This configuration allows for a greater range of motion but typically
results in less force production. Examples of muscles with parallel arrangement include the
biceps brachii in the upper arm and the rectus abdominis in the abdomen.

2. Fusiform (Spindle-shaped) Arrangement: This arrangement is characterized by muscle fibers

that are slightly wider in the middle and taper towards the ends, resembling a spindle shape.
The fibers run parallel to each other and to the long axis of the muscle. Fusiform muscles
provide a good balance between range of motion and force production. The biceps brachii
is an example of a fusiform muscle.

3. Pennate Arrangement: Pennate muscles have fibers that run at an angle to the tendon,
forming a feather-like pattern. There are three subtypes of pennate arrangement:

a. Unipennate: The muscle fibers are on one side of the tendon. Examples include the
extensor digitorum longus in the lower leg and the palmar interosseous muscles in the
hand.

b. Bipennate: The muscle fibers are on both sides of a central tendon. The rectus femoris
in the thigh is an example of a bipennate muscle.

c. Multipennate: The muscle fibers are arranged in multiple directions around multiple
tendons. The deltoid muscle in the shoulder is an example of a multipennate muscle.

Pennate arrangements allow for a greater number of muscle fibers within a given volume,
resulting in increased force production. However, they have a smaller range of motion
compared to parallel or fusiform arrangements.

4. Circular (Sphincter) Arrangement: Circular muscles form rings around body openings and
function as sphincters to control the passage of substances. The orbicularis oris muscle
around the mouth and the external anal sphincter are examples of circular arrangement.

5. Triangular Arrangement: Fascicles spread over broad area converge at thick central tendon;
gives muscle a triangular appearance.

The fascicle arrangement of a muscle determines its mechanical advantage, the

direction of its force generation, and its functional characteristics. Different fascicle
arrangements are adapted for specific functions and requirements of the body, enabling
precise control of movement and force generation.

C. NOMENCLATURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLES

The names of most of the skeletal muscles contain combinations of the word roots of their
distinctive features. This works two ways. You can learn the names of muscles by remembering
the terms that refer to muscle features, such as the pattern of the muscle’s fascicles; the size,
shape, action, number of origins, and location of the muscle; and the sites of origin and insertion
of the muscle. Knowing the name of a muscle will then give you clues about its features.
Characteristics used to name muscles:

1. Direction: Orientation of muscle fascicles relative to the body’s midline

▪ Rectus - parallel to midline
▪ Transverse - perpendicular to midline
▪ Oblique - diagonal to midline

2. Size: Relative size of the muscle

▪ Maximus – largest
▪ Minimus – smallest
▪ Longus – long
▪ Brevis – short
▪ Latissimus – widest
▪ Longissimus – longest
▪ Magnus – large
▪ Major – larger
▪ Minor – smaller
▪ Vastus – huge

3. Shape: Relative shape of the muscle

▪ Deltoid – triangular
▪ Trapezius – trapezoid
▪ Serratus – sawtoothed
▪ Rhomboid - diamond-shaped
▪ Orbicularis – circular
▪ Pectinate – comblike
▪ Piriformis - pear-shaped
▪ Platys – flat
▪ Quadratus - square, four-sided
▪ Gracilis – slender

4. Action: Principal action of the muscle

▪ Flexor - decreases a joint angle
▪ Extensor - increases a joint angle
▪ Abductor - moves a bone away from the midline
▪ Adductor - moves a bone closer to the midline
▪ Levator - raises or elevates a body part
▪ Depressor - lowers or depresses a body part
▪ Supinator - turns palm anteriorly
▪ Pronator - turns palm posteriorly
▪ Sphincter - decreases the size of an opening
▪ Tensor - makes a body part rigid
▪ Rotator -rotates a bone around its longitudinal axis

5. Number of Origins: Number of tendons of origin

▪ Biceps Two origins
▪ Triceps Three origins
▪ Quadriceps Four origins
 6. Location: Structure near which a muscle is found
▪ Example: Temporalis, a muscle near the temporal bone

7. Origin and Insertion: Sites where muscle originates and insert

▪ Example: Sternocleidomastoid, originating on the sternum and clavicle and inserting
on the mastoid process of the temporal bone.

PRINCIPAL TYPE OF SKELETAL MUSCLES

a. Superficial Muscles
b. Muscles of the head that produce facial expressions
i. Scalp Muscles

▪ Occipitofrontalis
▪ Frontal belly – Draws scalp anteriorly, raises eyebrows, and wrinkles skin of forehead
horizontally as in a look of surprise
▪ Occipital belly - Draws scalp posteriorly.

ii. Mouth Muscles

▪ Orbicularis oris - Closes and protrudes lips, as in kissing; compresses lips against teeth;
shapes lips during speech.
▪ Zygomaticus major - Draws angle of mouth superiorly and laterally, as in smiling.
▪ Zygomaticus minor - Raises (elevates) upper lip, exposing maxillary (upper) teeth.
 ▪ Levator labii superioris - Raises upper lip.
▪ Depressor labii inferioris - Depresses (lowers) lower lip.
▪ Depressor anguli oris - Draws angle of mouth laterally and inferiorly, as in opening mouth.
▪ Levator anguli oris - Skin of lower lip and orbicularis oris.
▪ Buccinator - Orbicularis oris.
▪ Risorius - Skin at angle of mouth.
▪ Mentalis - Skin of chin.

iii. Neck Muscles

▪ Platysma - Mandible, muscle around angle of mouth, and skin of lower face.

iv. Orbit and Eyebrow Muscles

▪ Orbicularis oculi - Circular path around orbit.
▪ Corrugator supercilia - Skin of eyebrow.

c. Muscles That Move the Eyeballs (Extrinsic Eye

Muscles) and Upper Eyelids
Muscles that move the eyeballs are called extrinsic
eye muscles because they originate outside the eyeballs
(in the orbit) and insert on the outer surface of the sclera
(“white of the eye”). The extrinsic eye muscles are some of
the fastest contracting and most precisely controlled
skeletal muscles in the
body. Three pairs of
extrinsic eye muscles
control movements of the eyeballs:
▪ superior and inferior recti - move the eyeballs superiorly and inferiorly
▪ lateral and medial recti - move the eyeballs laterally and medially
▪ superior and inferior oblique
o Superior b - moves the eyeballs inferiorly and laterally
o Inferior Oblique - moves the eyeballs superiorly and laterally
**Levator palpebrae superioris - does not move the eyeballs, it
raises the upper eyelids, that is, opens the eyes
 d. Muscles That Move the Mandible (Lower Jaw Bone) and Assist in Mastication (Chewing)
The muscles that move the mandible
(lower jaw bone) at the
temporomandibular joint (TMJ) are known
as the muscles of mastication (chewing).
▪ Masseter - Elevates mandible,
as in closing mouth.
▪ Temporalis - Elevates and
retracts mandible.
▪ Medial pterygoid - Elevates
and protracts (protrudes)
mandible and moves
mandible from side to side.
▪ Lateral pterygoid - Protracts
mandible, depresses mandible
as in opening mouth and
moves mandible from side to
side.

e. Muscles of the Head That Move the Tongue and Assist in Mastication (Chewing) and Speech—
Extrinsic Tongue Muscles
The tongue is a highly mobile structure that is vital to digestive functions such as mastication,
detection of taste, and deglutition (swallowing). It is also important in speech. The tongue’s mobility is
greatly aided by its attachment to the mandible, styloid process of the temporal bone, and hyoid bone
The tongue is divided into lateral halves by a median fibrous septum. The septum extends throughout
the length of the tongue. Inferiorly, the septum attaches to the hyoid bone.
Two principal types:
▪ Extrinsic tongue muscles - originate outside the tongue and insert into it, they move the
entire tongue in various directions, such as anteriorly posteriorly, and laterally.
o genioglossus - pulls the tongue downward and forward
o styloglossus - pulls the tongue upward and backward
o hyoglossus - pulls the tongue downward and flattens it
o palatoglossus - raises the back portion of the tongue
▪ Intrinsic tongue muscles - originate and insert within the tongue, these muscles alter the
shape of the tongue rather than moving the entire tongue.
 f. Muscles of the Anterior Neck That Assist in Deglutition (Swallowing) and Speech
Two groups of muscles are associated with the anterior aspect of the neck:
▪ suprahyoid muscles - located
superior to the hyoid bone
o digastric - elevates the hyoid
bone and larynx (voice box)
during swallowing and speech
and depresses the mandible
o stylohyoid - elevates and draws
the hyoid bone posteriorly, thus
elongating the floor of the oral
cavity during swallowing
o mylohyoid - elevates the hyoid
bone and helps press the tongue
against the roof of the oral cavity
during swallowing to move food
from the oral cavity into the throat
o geniohyoid - elevates and draws the hyoid bone anteriorly to shorten the floor of the oral
cavity and to widen the throat to receive food that is being swallowed, it also depresses
the mandible
▪ infrahyoid muscles - named
for their position inferior to the
hyoid bone
o omohyoid - depress the
hyoid bone
o sternohyoid - depress the
hyoid bone
o sternothyroid - depresses
the thyroid cartilage of the
larynx
o thyrohyoid - elevates
thyroid cartilage and
depresses the hyoid bone

g. Muscles of the Neck That Move the Head

The head is attached to the vertebral
column at the atlanto-occipital joints formed
by the atlas and occipital bone. Balance
and movement of the head on the vertebral
column involve the action of several neck
muscles.
▪ Sternocleidomastoid - Acting
together (bilaterally), flex cervical
portion of vertebral column, flex
head, and elevate sternum
during forced inhalation; acting
singly (unilaterally), laterally
rotate and flex head to side
opposite contracting muscle. The
posterior fibers of the muscle can
assist in extension of the head.
▪ Semispinalis capitis - Acting together, extend head; acting singly, rotate head to side
opposite contracting muscle.
▪ Splenius capitis - Acting together, extend head; acting singly, laterally flex and rotate head
to same side as contracting muscle.
▪ Longissimus capitis - Acting together, extend head; acting singly, laterally flex and rotate
head to same side as contracting muscle.

h. Muscles of the Abdomen That Protect

Abdominal Viscera and Move the Vertebral
Column (Backbone)
▪ Rectus abdominis - Flexes vertebral column,*
especially lumbar portion, and compresses
abdomen to aid in defecation, urination, forced
exhalation, and childbirth.
▪ External oblique - Acting together (bilaterally),
compress abdomen and flex vertebral column;
acting singly (unilaterally), laterally flex vertebral
column, especially lumbar portion, and rotate
vertebral column.
▪ Internal oblique - Acting together, compress
abdomen and flex vertebral column; acting singly,
laterally flex vertebral column, especially lumbar
portion, and rotate vertebral column.
▪ Transversus abdominis -
Compresses abdomen.
▪ Quadratus lumborum - Acting
together, pull twelfth ribs inferiorly
during forced exhalation, fix twelfth
ribs to prevent their elevation during
deep inhalation, and help extend
lumbar portion of vertebral column;
acting singly, laterally flex vertebral
column, especially lumbar portion.
i. Muscles of the Thorax (Chest) That Assist in Breathing
The muscles described here alter the size of the thoracic cavity so that breathing can occur.
Inhalation (breathing in) occurs when the thoracic cavity increases in size, and exhalation
(breathing out) occurs when the thoracic cavity decreases in size.
▪ Diaphragm - Contraction of the diaphragm
causes it to flatten and increases the vertical
dimension of the thoracic cavity, resulting in
inhalation; relaxation of the diaphragm causes it
to move superiorly and decreases the vertical
dimension of the thoracic cavity, resulting in
exhalation.
▪ External intercostals - Contraction elevates the
ribs and increases the anteroposterior and lateral
dimensions of the thoracic cavity, resulting in
inhalation; relaxation depresses the ribs and
decreases the anteroposterior and lateral
dimensions of the thoracic cavity, resulting in
exhalation.
▪ Internal intercostals - Contraction draws
adjacent ribs together to further decrease the
anteroposterior and lateral dimensions of the
thoracic cavity during forced exhalation.

j. Muscles of the Pelvic Floor That Support

the Pelvic Viscera, assist in Resisting
Increased Intra-Abdominal Pressure, and
Function as Sphincters
▪ Levator ani - Supports and maintains
position of pelvic viscera; resists
increase in intra-abdominal
pressure during forced exhalation,
coughing, vomiting, urination, and
defecation; constricts anus, urethra,
and vagina.
o Pubococcygeus
o Iliococcygeus
▪ Ischiococcygeus - Supports and maintains position of pelvic viscera; resists increase in intra-
abdominal pressure during forced exhalation, coughing, vomiting, urination, and
defecation; and pulls coccyx anteriorly following defecation or childbirth.
k. Muscles of the Perineum
i. Superficial Perineal Muscles
▪ Superficial transverse perineal -
Stabilizes perineal body of
perineum.
▪ Bulbospongiosus - Helps expel
urine during urination, helps
propel semen along urethra,
assists in erection of the penis in
male; constricts vaginal orifice
and assists in erection of clitoris
in female.
▪ Ischiocavernosus - Maintains
erection of penis in male and
clitoris in female by decreasing
venous drainage.
ii. Deep Perineal Muscles
▪ Deep transverse perineal - Helps expel last drops of urine and semen in male.
▪ External urethral sphincter - Helps expel last drops of urine and semen in male and urine in
female.
▪ Compressor urethrae - Serves as an accessory sphincter of the urethra.
▪ Sphincter urethrovaginalis - Serves as an accessory sphincter of the urethra and facilitates
closing of the vagina.
▪ External anal sphincter - Keeps anal canal and anus closed.

l. Muscles of the Thorax (Chest) That Move the Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle (Clavicle and Scapula)
The main action of the muscles that move the pectoral girdle is to stabilize the scapula so it can
function as a steady origin for most of the muscles that move the humerus. Because scapular
movements usually accompany humeral movements in the same direction, the muscles also move
the scapula to increase the range of motion of the humerus.

i. Anterior Thoracic Muscles

▪ Subclavius - Depresses and moves clavicle anteriorly and helps stabilize pectoral girdle.
▪ Pectoralis minor - Abducts scapula and rotates it downward; elevates third through fifth ribs
during forced inhalation when scapula is fixed.
▪ Serratus anterior - Abducts scapula and rotates it upward; elevates ribs when scapula is
stabilized; known as “boxer’s muscle” because it is important in horizontal arm movements
such as punching and pushing.
ii. Posterior Thoracic Muscles
▪ Trapezius - Superior fibers upward rotate
scapula; middle fibers adduct scapula; inferior
fibers depress and upward rotate scapula;
superior and inferior fibers together rotate scapula
upward; stabilizes scapula.
▪ Levator scapulae - Elevates scapula and rotates
it downward.
▪ Rhomboid major - Elevates and adducts
scapula and rotates it downward; stabilizes
scapula.
▪ Rhomboid minor - Elevates and adducts
scapula and rotates it downward; stabilizes
scapula.
m. Muscles of the Thorax (Chest) and Shoulder That Move the Humerus (Arm Bone)
i. Axial Muscles that move the Humerus
▪ Pectoralis major
▪ Latissimus dorsi
ii. Scapular Muscles that move the Humerus
▪ Deltoid - Lateral fibers abduct arm at shoulder joint; anterior fibers flex and medially rotate
arm at shoulder joint; posterior fibers extend and laterally rotate arm at shoulder joint.
▪ Subscapularis - Medially rotates arm at shoulder joint.
▪ Supraspinatus - Assists deltoid muscle in abducting arm at shoulder joint.
▪ Infraspinatus - Laterally rotates arm at shoulder joint.
▪ Teres major - Extends arm at shoulder joint and assists in adduction and medial rotation of
arm at shoulder joint.
▪ Teres minor - Laterally rotates and extends arm at shoulder joint.
▪ Coracobrachialis - Flexes and adducts arm at shoulder joint.

n. Muscles of the Arm That Move the Radius and Ulna (Forearm Bones)
i. Forearm Flexors
▪ Biceps brachii - Flexes forearm at elbow joint, supinates forearm at radioulnar joints, and
flexes arm at shoulder joint.
▪ Brachialis - Flexes forearm at elbow joint.
▪ Brachioradialis - Flexes forearm at elbow joint; supinates and pronates forearm at radioulnar
joints to neutral position.
ii. Forearm Extensors
 ▪ Triceps brachii - Extends
forearm at elbow joint and
extends arm at shoulder joint.
▪ Anconeus - Extends forearm at
elbow joint.
iii. Forearm Pronators
▪ Pronator teres - Pronates
forearm at radioulnar joints
and weakly flexes forearm at
elbow joint.
▪ Pronator quadratus - Pronates
forearm at radioulnar joints.
iv. Forearm Supinator
▪ Supinator - Supinates forearm
at radioulnar joints.
o. Muscles of the Forearm That Move the Wrist, Hand, Thumb, and Fingers
Muscles of the forearm that move the wrist, hand, thumb, and fingers are many and varied.
Those in this group that act on the digits are known as extrinsic muscles of the hand because they
originate outside the hand and insert within it.
Two groups:
▪ anterior compartment muscles
▪ posterior compartment muscles

i. Superficial Anterior (Flexor) Compartment of

the Forearm
▪ Flexor carpi radialis - Flexes and abducts
hand (radial deviation) at wrist joint.
▪ Palmaris longus - Weakly flexes hand at
wrist joint.
▪ Flexor carpi ulnaris - Flexes and adducts
hand (ulnar deviation) at wrist joint.
▪ Flexor digitorum superficialis - Flexes
middle phalanx of each finger at
proximal interphalangeal joint, proximal
phalanx of each finger at
metacarpophalangeal joint, and hand
at wrist joint.
ii. Deep Anterior (Flexor) Compartment of the
Forearm
▪ Flexor pollicis longus - Flexes distal
phalanx of thumb at interphalangeal
joint.
▪ Flexor digitorum profundus - Flexes distal and middle phalanges of each finger at
interphalangeal joints, proximal phalanx of each finger at metacarpophalangeal joint, and
hand at wrist joint.
iii. Superficial Posterior (Flexor) Compartment of the Forearm
▪ Extensor carpi radialis longus - Extends and abducts hand at wrist joint.
▪ Extensor carpi radialis brevis - Extends and abducts hand at wrist joint.
▪ Extensor digitorum - Extends distal and middle phalanges of each finger at interphalangeal
joints, proximal phalanx of each finger at metacarpophalangeal joint, and hand at wrist
joint.
▪ Extensor digiti minimi - Extends proximal phalanx of little finger
at metacarpophalangeal joint and hand at wrist joint.
▪ Extensor carpi ulnaris - Extends and adducts hand at wrist
joint.
iv. Deep Posterior (Flexor) Compartment of the Forearm
▪ Abductor pollicis longus - Abducts and extends thumb at
carpometacarpal joint and abducts hand at wrist joint.
▪ Extensor pollicis brevis - Extends proximal phalanx of thumb
at metacarpophalangeal joint, first metacarpal of thumb at
carpometacarpal joint, and hand at wrist joint.
▪ Extensor pollicis longus - Extends distal phalanx of thumb at
interphalangeal joint, first metacarpal of thumb at
carpometacarpal joint, and abducts hand at wrist joint.
▪ Extensor indicis - Extends distal and middle phalanges of
index finger at interphalangeal joints, proximal phalanx of
index finger at metacarpophalangeal joint, and hand at wrist
joint.
 p. Muscles of the Palm That Move the Digits—Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand
The intrinsic muscles of the hand in the palm produce the weak but intricate and precise
movements of the digits that characterize the human hand. The muscles in this group are so named
because their origins and insertions are within the hand.
i. Thenar (Lateral Aspect of Palm)
▪ Abductor pollicis brevis - Abducts thumb at carpometacarpal joint.
▪ Opponens pollicis - Moves thumb across palm to meet any finger (opposition) at the
carpometacarpal joint.
▪ Flexor pollicis brevis - Flexes thumb at carpometacarpal and metacarpophalangeal joints.
▪ Adductor pollicis - Adducts thumb at carpometacarpal and metacarpophalangeal joints.
ii. Hypothenar (Medial Aspect of Palm)
▪ Abductor digiti minimi - Abducts and flexes little finger at metacarpophalangeal joint.
▪ Flexor digiti minimi brevis - Flexes little finger at carpometacarpal and
metacarpophalangeal joints.
▪ Opponens digiti minimi - Moves little finger across palm to meet thumb (opposition) at the
carpometacarpal joint.
iii. Intermediate (Mid Palmar)
▪ Lumbricals - Flex each finger at metacarpophalangeal joints and extend each finger at
interphalangeal joints.
▪ Palmar interossei - Adduct each finger at metacarpophalangeal joints; flex each finger at
metacarpophalangeal joints and extend each finger at interphalangeal joints.
▪ Dorsal interossei - Abduct fingers 2–4 at metacarpophalangeal joints; flex fingers 2–4 at
metacarpophalangeal joints; and extend each finger at interphalangeal joints.
q. Muscles of the Neck and Back That Move the Vertebral Column (Backbone)
i. Splenius
▪ Splenius capitis - Acting together (bilaterally),
extend head; acting singly (unilaterally),
laterally flex and/or rotate head to same side
as contracting muscle.
▪ Splenius cervicis - Acting together, extend
head; acting singly, laterally flex and/or rotate
head to same side as contracting muscle.
ii. Erector Spinae/ Iliocostalis Group
▪ Iliocostalis cervicis, Iliocostalis thoracis, &
Iliocostalis lumborum - Acting together,
muscles of each region (cervical, thoracic,
and lumbar) extend and maintain erect
posture of vertebral column of their respective
regions; acting singly, laterally flex vertebral
column of their respective regions to the same
side as the contracting muscle.
iii. Longissimus Group (Intermediate)
▪ Longissimus capitis, Longissimus cervicis, &
Longissimus thoracis - Acting together, both
longissimus capitis muscles extend head;
acting singly, rotate head to same side as
contracting muscle. Acting together,
longissimus cervicis and both longissimus
thoracis muscles extend vertebral column of
their respective regions; acting singly, laterally
flex vertebral column of their respective
regions.
iv. Spinalis Group (Medial)
▪ Spinalis capitis, Spinalis cervicis & Spinalis
thoracis - Acting together, muscles of each
region (cervical, thoracic, and lumbar) extend
vertebral column of their respective regions.
v. Transversospinales
▪ Semispinalis capitis - Acting together, extend
head; acting singly, rotate head to side
opposite contracting muscle.
▪ Semispinalis cervicis & Semispinalis thoracis -
Acting together, both semispinalis cervicis and
both semispinalis thoracis muscles extend
vertebral column of their respective regions;
acting singly, rotate head to side opposite
contracting muscle.
▪ Multifidus - Acting together, extend vertebral column; acting singly, weakly laterally flex
vertebral column and weakly rotate vertebral column to side opposite contracting muscle.
▪ Rotatores - Acting together, weakly extend vertebral column; acting singly, weakly rotate
vertebral column to side opposite contracting muscle.
vi. Segmental
▪ Interspinales - Acting together, weakly extend vertebral column; acting singly, stabilize
vertebral column during movement.
▪ Intertransversarii - Acting together, extend vertebral column; acting singly, weakly laterally
flex vertebral column and stabilize it during movements.
 vii. Scalenes
▪ Anterlor scalene & Middle scalene - Acting together, right and left anterior scalene and
middle scalene muscles flex cervical vertebrae and elevate first ribs during deep inhalation;
acting singly, laterally flex and rotate cervical vertebrae.
▪ Posterior scalene - Acting together, right and left posterior scalenes flex cervical vertebrae
and elevate second ribs during deep inhalation; acting singly, laterally flex and rotate
cervical vertebrae.

r. Muscles of the Gluteal Region That Move the Femur (Thigh Bone)
▪ Iliopsoas - Psoas major and iliacus muscles
acting together flex thigh at hip joint, rotate
thigh laterally, and flex trunk on the hip as in
sitting up from the supine position.
o Psoas major
o Iliacus
▪ Gluteus maximus - Extends thigh at hip joint
and laterally rotates thigh.
▪ Gluteus medius - Abducts thigh at hip joint
and medially rotates thigh.
▪ Gluteus minimus - Abducts thigh at hip joint
and medially rotates thigh.
▪ Tensor fasciae latae - Flexes and abducts
thigh at hip joint.
▪ Piriformis - Laterally rotates and abducts thigh
at hip joint.
▪ Obturator internus - Laterally rotates and
abducts thigh at hip joint.
▪ Obturator externus - Laterally rotates and
abducts thigh at hip joint.
▪ Superior gemellus - Laterally rotates and
abducts thigh at hip joint.
▪ Inferior gemellus - Laterally rotates and
abducts thigh at hip joint.
▪ Quadratus femoris - Laterally rotates and
stabilizes hip joint.
▪ Adductor longus - Adducts and flexes thigh
at hip joint and rotates thigh.
▪ Adductor brevis - Adducts and flexes thigh
at hip joint and rotates thigh.
▪ Adductor magnus - Adducts thigh at hip
joint and rotates thigh; anterior part flexes
thigh at hip joint, and posterior part extends
thigh at hip joint.
▪ Pectineus - Flexes and adducts thigh at hip
joint.
s. Muscles of the Thigh That Move the Femur (Thigh Bone) and Tibia and Fibula (Leg Bones)
i. Medial (Adductor) Compartment
▪ Adductor magnus - Adducts thigh
at hip joint and rotates thigh;
anterior part flexes thigh at hip joint,
and posterior part extends thigh at
hip joint.
▪ Adductor longus - Adducts and
flexes thigh at hip joint and rotates
thigh.
▪ Adductor brevis - Adducts and
flexes thigh at hip joint and rotates
thigh.
▪ Pectineus - Flexes and adducts
thigh at hip joint.
▪ Gracilis - Adducts thigh at hip joint,
medially rotates thigh, and flexes
leg at knee joint.
ii. Anterior (Extensor) Compartment
▪ Quadriceps femoris - All four heads extend leg at knee joint; rectus femoris muscle acting
alone also flexes thigh at hip joint.
o Rectus femoris
o Vastus lateralis
o Vastus medialis
o Vastus intermedius
▪ Sartorius - Weakly flexes leg at knee joint; weakly flexes, abducts, and laterally rotates thigh
at hip joint.
iii. Posterior (Flexor) Compartment
▪ Hamstrings - A collective designation for three separate muscles.
o Biceps femoris - Flexes leg at knee joint and extends thigh at hip joint.
o Semitendinosus - Flexes leg at knee joint and extends thigh at hip joint.
o Semimembranosus - Flexes leg at knee joint and extends thigh at hip joint.

t. Muscles of the Leg That Move the Foot and Toes

Muscles that move the foot and toes are located in the leg. The muscles of the leg, like those of
the thigh, are divided by deep fascia into three compartments:
i. Anterior Compartment
▪ Tibialis anterior - Dorsiflexes foot at ankle joint and inverts foot at intertarsal joints.
▪ Extensor hallucis longus - Dorsiflexes foot at ankle joint and extends proximal phalanx of
great toe at metatarsophalangeal joint.
▪ Extensor digitorum longus - Dorsiflexes foot at ankle joint and extends distal and middle
phalanges of each toe at interphalangeal joints and proximal phalanx of each toe at
metatarsophalangeal joint.
▪ Fibularis (Peroneus) tertius - Dorsiflexes foot at ankle joint and everts foot at intertarsal joints.

ii. Lateral (Fibular) Compartment

▪ Fibularis (Peroneus) longus - Plantar flexes foot at ankle joint and everts foot at intertarsal
joints.
▪ Fibularis (Peroneus) brevis - Plantar flexes foot at ankle joint and everts foot at intertarsal
joints.

iii. Superficial Posterior Compartment

▪ Gastrocnemius - Plantar flexes foot at ankle joint and flexes leg at knee joint.
 ▪ Soleus - Plantar flexes foot at ankle joint.
▪ Plantaris - Plantar flexes foot at ankle joint and flexes leg at knee joint.

iv. Deep Posterior

▪ Popliteus - Flexes leg at knee joint
and medially rotates tibia to
unlock the extended knee.
▪ Tibialis posterior - Plantar flexes
foot at ankle joint and inverts foot
at intertarsal joints.
▪ Flexor digitorum longus - Plantar
flexes foot at ankle joint; flexes
distal and middle phalanges of
each toe at interphalangeal
joints and proximal phalanx of
each toe at
metatarsophalangeal joint.
▪ Flexor hallucis longus - Plantar
flexes foot at ankle joint; flexes
distal phalanx of great toe at
interphalangeal joint and
proximal phalanx of great toe at
metatarsophalangeal joint.
u. Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot That Move the Toes
The muscles in this exhibit are termed intrinsic muscles of the foot because they originate and
insert within the foot. The muscles of the hand are specialized for precise and intricate movements,
but those of the foot are limited to support and locomotion.

i. Dorsal
▪ Extensor digitorum brevis
ii. Plantar
▪ First Layer (most superficial)
o Abductor hallucis - Abducts and flexes great toe at metatarsophalangeal joint.
o Flexor digitorum brevis - Flexes toes 2–5 at proximal interphalangeal and
metatarsophalangeal joints.
o Abductor digiti minimi - Abducts and flexes little toe at metatarsophalangeal joint.
▪ Second Layer
o Quadratus plantae - Assists flexor digitorum longus to flex toes 2–5 at interphalangeal
and metatarsophalangeal joints.
o Lumbricals - Extend toes 2–5 at interphalangeal joints and flex toes 2–5 at
metatarsophalangeal joints.
▪ Third Layer
o Flexor hallucis brevis - Flexes great toe at metatarsophalangeal joint.
o Adductor hallucis - Adducts and flexes great toe at metatarsophalangeal joint.
o Flexor digiti minimi brevis - Flexes little toe at metatarsophalangeal joint.
▪ Fourth Layer (deepest)
o Dorsal interossei - Abduct and flex toes 2–4 at metatarsophalangeal joints and extend
toes at interphalangeal joints.
o Plantar interossei - Adduct and flex proximal metatarsophalangeal joints and extend
toes at interphalangeal joints.